AoPS: Introduction to Probability and Counting. Chapter 3 Correcting for Overcounting

AoPS:Introduction to Probability and

Counting

Chapter 3

Correcting

for

Overcounting

Permutations with Repeated Elements

Let’s start with a problem we should (hopefully) already know how to do.

Problem 3.1: How many possible distinct arrangements are there of the letters in the word DOG?

Problem 3.1 How many possible distinct arrangements are

there of the letters in the word DOG?

We could list them or we should know by now that there are 3 ways to pick the 1st, 2 ways to pick the 2nd, and 1 way to pick the last letter, for a total of 3! = 6 ways.

This is just a basic permutation problem like in Chapter 1.

Problem 3.2

How many possible distinct arrangements are there of the letters in the word BALL?

Solution 3.2

Solution 3.2

Problem 3.3

How many distinct arrangements are there of TATTER?

Solution 3.3

TATTER: pretend that all the T’s are different

(T1, T2, and T3). Then are are 6! possibilities.

The 3 T’s can be arranged in 3! different ways, which leads to overcounting.

The solution: 6! / 3! = 120.

This is called strategic overcounting.

Problem 3.4

One more twist:

How many distinct arrangements are there of

PAPA?

Solution 3.4

One more twist:

How many distinct arrangements are there of

PAPA?

Simple: because the P’s repeat twice and the A’s

repeat twice, the answer is

4! / (2! X 2!) = 6 ways

Exercise 3.1

Compute the # of distinct arrangements of the

letters in the word EDGE.

Solution 3.1

Compute the # of distinct arrangements of the

letters in the word EDGE.

4! / 2! = 12 ways

Exercise 3.2

For each of the following words, determine the #

of ways to arrange the letters of the word.

(a)WAR

(b)THAT

(c)CEASE

(d)ALABAMA

(e)MISSISSIPPI

Solution 3.2

For each of the following words, determine the #

of ways to arrange the letters of the word.

(a)WAR = 3! = 6

(b)THAT = 4! / 2! = 12

(c)CEASE = 5! / 2! = 60

(d)ALABAMA = 7! / 4! = 210

(e)MISSISSIPPI = 11! / (4! X 4! X 2!) = 34,650

Problem 3.3

I have 5 books, two of which are identical copies of the same math book (and all of the rest of the books are different.) In how many ways can I arrange them on the shelf?

Solution 3.3

I have 5 books, two of which are identical copies of the same math book (and all of the rest of the books are different.) In how many ways can I arrange them on the shelf?

5! / 2! = 60

Problem 3.4

There are 8 pens along a wall in the pound. The pound has to allocate 4 pens to dogs, 3 to cats, and one to roosters. In how many ways can the pound make the allocation?

Solution 3.4

There are 8 pens along a wall in the pound. The pound has to allocate 4 pens to dogs, 3 to cats, and one to roosters. In how many ways can the pound make the allocation?

8! / (4! X 3!) = 280

Counting Pairs of Items

A round-robin tennis tournament consists of each

player playing every other player exactly once.

How many matches will be held during the an 8-

person round-robin tournament?



A round-robin tennis tournament consists of each


How many matches will be held during the an 8-

person round-robin tournament?

Alice plays Bob and Bob plays Alice, but it’s the

same game, so 8 x 7 = 28.

2


Another way to look at the problem: Alice plays

7 matches. Bob also plays 7 matches, but the one

with Alice has already been counted, leaving

Bob with 6 more to play. The next player, Carol,

has already played A & B, so Carol has 5 more

matches to play, and so on down the line, to the

last player.


Another way to look at the problem: Alice plays

7 matches. Bob also plays 7 matches, but the one

with Alice has already been counted, leaving

Bob with 6 more to play. The next player, Carol,

has already played A & B, so Carol has 5 more

matches to play, and so on down the line, to the

last player. That means we have a total of

7 + 6 + 5 + 4 + 3 + 2 + 1 = 28 games total played


That means we have a total of

7 + 6 + 5 + 4 + 3 + 2 + 1 = 28 games total played.

This is a classic example of counting pairs of

objects.

Problem 3.5

(a) Compute the sum 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 of the 1st 4 positive integers.

(b)Compute the sum of 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 of the 1st 5 positive integers.

(c) Compute the sum of 1 + 2 + 3 + … + 9 + 10 of the 1st 10 positive integers.

(d)Find a formula for the sum of the 1st n positive integers.

(e) Compute the sum of 1 + 2 + 3 + … + 100 of the 1st 100 positive integers.

Solution 3.5

(a) Compute the sum 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 of the 1st 4 positive integers. 10

(b)Compute the sum of 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 of the 1st 5 positive integers. 15

(c) Compute the sum of 1 + 2 + 3 + … + 9 + 10 of the 1st 10 positive integers. 55

(d)Find a formula for the sum of the 1st n positive integers. [n (n + 1)] / 2

(e) Compute the sum of 1 + 2 + 3 + … + 100 of the 1st 100 positive integers. 5050

Problem 3.6

A round-robin tennis tournament consists of each player playing every other player exactly once.

How many matches will be held during a n-person round-robin tennis tournament, where n > 2 is a positive integer?

Solution 3.6A round-robin tennis tournament consists of each


How many matches will be held during a n-person round-robin tennis tournament, where n > 2 is a positive integer?

Each of the n players must play every other player, so each player must play n – 1 matches which

gives the preliminary count n (n – 1) matches.

Solution 3.6Each of the n players must play every other

player, so each player must play n – 1 matches which

gives the preliminary count n (n – 1) matches. But

this counts each match twice, so divide by 2 to get

n (n – 1)

2

Problem 3.7

A convex polygon is a polygon in which every

interior angles is less than 180°. A diagonal of a

convex polygon is a line segment which connects

2 non-adjacent vertices. Find a formula for the #

of diagonals of a convex polygon with n sides,

where n is any positive integer greater than 2.

Solution 3.7

A polygon with n sides has n vertices. A diagonal

corresponds to a pair of vertices. By similar

reasoning to Prob. 3.6, there are n (n – 1) pairs

2

of vertices.

Solution 3.7

A polygon with n sides has n vertices. A diagonal

corresponds to a pair of vertices. By similar

reasoning to Prob. 3.6, there are n (n – 1) pairs

2

of vertices. However n of these pairs correspond

to edges of the polygons rather than diagonals, so

subtract these from the count: the # of diagonals

n (n – 1) - n

2

Solution 3.7

Simplifying this expression n (n – 1) - n

2

leads to the following:

n (n – 3)

2

If you’re interested in the math behind this transformation, I can show it to you; all you have to do

is ask!

Exercise 3.3.1

A club has 15 members and needs to choose 2

members to be co-presidents. In how many ways

can the club choose its co-presidents?

Solution 3.3.1A club has 15 members and needs to choose 2

members to be co-presidents. In how many ways

can the club choose its co-presidents?

If the co-president positions are unique, there are

15 choices for the 1st and 14 choices for the 2nd.

However, since the positions are identical, we

must divide by 2! (the # of arrangements of co-

presidents) = (15 x 14) / 2! = 105 ways.

Exercise 3.3.2I have twenty balls numbered 1 through 20 in a

bin. In how many ways can I select 2 balls is the

order in which I draw them doesn’t matter?

Solution 3.3.2I have twenty balls numbered 1 through 20 in a

bin. In how many ways can I select 2 balls is the

order in which I draw them doesn’t matter?

This is like the previous problem, so we get

(20 x 19) / 2! = 190

Exercise 3.3.3A sports conference has 14 teams in two divisions

of 7. How many games are in a complete season

for the conference if each team must play every

other team in its own division twice and every

team in the other division once?

Solution 3.3.3A sports conference has 14 teams in two divisions

of 7. How many games are in a complete season

for the conference if each team must play every

other team in its own division twice and every

team in the other division once?

Each team plays 6 other teams in its division twice

and the other 7 teams once, for a total of 6 x 2 + 7 =

19 games for each team.

Solution 3.3.3Each team plays 6 other teams in its division twice

and the other 7 teams once, for a total of 6 x 2 + 7 =

19 games for each team.

There are 14 teams total, which gives a preliminary

count of 19 x 14 = 266 games, but we must divide

by 2 because we counted each game twice. The

answer is (19 x 14) / 2 = 133 games.

Exercise 3.3.4(a) Find a formula for the sum of the 1st n even

integers: 2 + 4 + 6 + … + 2n.

(b)Find a formula for the sum of the 1st n odd integers: 1 + 3 + 5 + … + (2n – 1).

Solution 3.3.4(a) Find a formula for the sum of the 1st n even

integers: 2 + 4 + 6 + … + 2n.

Let S = 2 + 4 + 6 + … + 2n. ( S had n terms.)

Another expression for S is 2n + …+ 6 +4 + 2, so

adding these together we obtain the equation

2S = (2n + 2) + (2n + 2) + … + (2n + 2) .

Solution 3.3.4(a) Find a formula for the sum of the 1st n even integers: 2

+ 4 + 6 + … + 2n.

Let S = 2 + 4 + 6 + … + 2n. ( S had n terms.)



2S = (2n + 2) + (2n + 2) + … + (2n + 2) . This sum

has n terms, so 2S = n (2n + 2) = 2n (n + 1), and

S = n (n + 1)

Solution 3.3.4Let S = 2 + 4 + 6 + … + 2n. ( S had n terms.)



2S = (2n + 2) + (2n + 2) + … + (2n + 2) . This sum

has n terms, so 2S = n (2n + 2) = 2n (n + 1), and

S = n (n + 1)

OR, S = 2(1 + 2 + 3 +…+n) = 2(n(n + 1)) = 2

n (n + 1).

Solution 3.3.4(b) Find a formula for the sum of the 1st n odd

integers: 1 + 3 + 5 + … + (2n – 1).

Let S = 1 + 3 + 5 + … + (2n – 1). (S has n terms.)

Another expression for S = (2n – 1) + … + 3 + 1,

so adding these together we get the equation

2S = 2n + 2n + … + 2n.

Solution 3.3.4(b) Find a formula for the sum of the 1st n odd integers: 1

+ 3 + 5 + … + (2n – 1).

Let S = 1 + 3 + 5 + … + (2n – 1). (S has n terms.)

Another expression for S = (2n – 1) + … + 3 + 1,

so adding these together we get the equation

2S = 2n + 2n + … + 2n.

This sum has n terms, so 2S = n (2n) = 2n2 so

S = n2.

Exercise 3.3.5How many interior diagonals does an icosahedron

have? ( An icosahedron is a 3-dimentional figure

with 20 triangular faces and 12 vertices, with 5

faces meeting at each vertex. An interior diagonal

is a segment connecting two vertices which do not

lie on a common face.)

Solution 3.3.5How many interior diagonals does an icosahedron

have?

There are 12 vertices in the icosahedron, so there

are potentially 11 other vertices to which we could

extend a diagonal. However 5 of these 11 points

are connected to the original point by an edge, so

they are not connected by internal diagonals.

Solution 3.3.5There are 12 vertices in the icosahedron, so there

are potentially 11 other vertices to which we could

extend a diagonal. However 5 of these 11 points

are connected to the original point by an edge, so

they are not connected by internal diagonals.

So each vertex is connected to 6 other points by

interior diagonals. This gives the preliminary

count of 12 x 6 = 72 interior diagonals. However,

they were counted twice, so divide by 2 = 36 diag.

Counting with SymmetriesProblem 3.8 In how many ways can 6 people

be seated at a round table? Two seating arrange-

ments are considered the same if, for each person,

the person to his left or right is the same in both

arrangements. In other words, the 2 arrangements

shown are the same.A

A

B B

C

C

D

DE E

F

F

Counting with SymmetriesSolution 3.8 If 6 people were sitting in a row,

there would be 6! arrangements. But this is a case

of overcounting. The reason for this is the problem

has rotational symmetry: therefore, we must divide

the overcount by 6, so the answer is

6! / 6 = 5! = 120

A

A

B B

C

C

D

DE E

F

F

Counting with SymmetriesSolution 3.8 There is another way to solve the

problem, using a constructive counting approach.

First place person A. Since all rotations of the

same seating are considered identical, person A is

essentially “fixed” the rotation. Place the rest of

the people in the usual way.

A

A

B B

C

C

D

DE E

F

F

Counting with SymmetriesSolution 3.8 There are 5 choices for where to

place person B, 4 remaining choices for where to

place person C, etc., for a total of

5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1= 5! = 120 possible seatings.

A

A

B B

C

C

D

DE E

F

F

Exercise 3.4.1

In how many ways can 8 people be seated

around a round table?

Solution 3.4.1

In how many ways can 8 people be seated

around a round table?

There are 8! ways to place the people around the

table, but this counts each valid arrangement 8

times (once for each rotation of the same arrange-

ment). The answer is 8! / 8 = 7! = 5040.

Solution 3.4.2

In how many ways can 5 keys be placed on a key-

chain?

There are 5! ways to place the keys on the key-

chain, but we must divide by 5 for rotational

symmetry (5 rotations for each arrangement) and

by 2 for reflectional symmetry (flip the keychain

to get the same arrangement).

5! / (5 x 2) = 12.

Exercise 3.4.3

A Senate committee has 5 Democrats and 5

Republicans. In how many ways can they sit

around a circular table:

(a)without restrictions?

(b)if all the members of each party all sit next to each other?

(c)if each member sits next to members of the other party?

Solution 3.4.3




(a)without restrictions?

There are 10 people to place, so place them in 10!

ways, but this counts each valid arrangement 10

times (once for each rotation of the same arrange-

ment). So the # of ways to seat them is

10! / 10 = 9! = 362,880.

Solution 3.4.3




(b) if all the members of each party all sit next to each other?

Choose any 5 seats in which to seat the Democrats

- it doesn’t matter which 5 consecutive seats we

choose. Then there are 5! ways to place the D’s and

5! ways to place the R’s in their seats for the total:

5! x 5! = 14, 400.

Solution 3.4.3

(c) if each member sits next to members of the other party?

The only way the Senators can be seated is if the

seats alternate by party. D

D

D D

D

R R

R

R

R

Solution 3.4.3

Fix the rotation by placing the youngest Democrat

in the top seat, so that we have removed the over-

counting of rotations of the same arrangement.

D

D

D D

D

R R

R

R

R

Solution 3.4.3Now there are 4! ways to place the Democrats left

in the other Democrat seats, and 5! ways to place the

Republicans in the Republican seats, for a total of

5! x 4! = 2,880 arrangements.

D

D

D D

D

R R

R

R

R

Problem 3.4.4

In how many ways can we seat 6 people around

a table if Fred and Gwen insist on sitting opposite

each other?

Solution 3.4.4

In how many ways can we seat 6 people around

a table if Fred and Gwen insist on sitting opposite

each other?

There are 6 choices of seats for Fred to sit in.

Once Fred is seated, then Gwen must sit opposite

him. This leaves 4 people to place in the four

remaining seats, which can be done 4! ways.

Solution 3.4.4

There are 6 choices of seats for Fred to sit in.

Once Fred is seated, then Gwen must sit opposite

him. This leaves 4 people to place in the four

remaining seats, which can be done 4! ways.

However, we must divide by 6 to account for the 6

rotations of the table. So the # of arrangements is

(6 x 1 x 4!) / 6 = 4! = 24.

Problem 3.4.5

In how many ways can we seat 8 people around a

table if Alice and Bob won’t sit next to each other?

Solution 3.4.5

In how many ways can we seat 8 people around a

table if Alice and Bob won’t sit next to each other?

There are 8 choices for seats for Alice. Once Alice

is seated, there are 5 seats left for Bob, since he

won’t sit in either seat immediately next to Alice.

This leaves 6 people to place in the remaining 6

seats, which can be done 6! ways.

Solution 3.4.5

There are 8 choices for seats for Alice. Once Alice

is seated, there are 5 seats left for Bob, since he

won’t sit in either seat immediately next to Alice.

This leaves 6 people to place in the remaining 6

seats, which can be done 6! ways.

However, we must divide by 8 to account for the 8

rotations of the table. So the # of arrangements is

(8 x 5 x 6!) / 8 = 5 x 6! = 3600.

Review 3.11

(a) How many arrangements are there of ‘ste1e2e3’

(consider e1,e2,e3 to be different letters)?

(b) List the arrangements of ‘ste1e2e3’ which have

‘st’ as the 1st two letters. How many are there?

(c) List the arrangements of ‘steee’ (The e’s are all

the same this time.) How many are there?

(d) Let p be the answer to (a), q be the answer to (b) and r be the answer to (c). Is p/q = r? If so, why must it be so? If not, why not?

Solution 3.11

(a) How many arrangements are there of ‘ste1e2e3’

(consider e1,e2,e3 to be different letters)?

This is the # of ways to arrange 5 unique objects,

which is 5! = 120.

Solution 3.11

(b) List the arrangements of ‘ste1e2e3’ which have

‘st’ as the 1st two letters. How many are there?

ste1e2e3, ste1e3e2, ste2e1e3, ste2e3e1, ste3e1e2, and

ste3e2e1, giving 6 arrangements.

Solution 3.11

(c) List the arrangements of ‘steee’ (The e’s are all

the same this time.) How many are there?

steee, setee, seete, seeet, estee, esete, eseet, eeste,

eeset, eeest, tseee, tesee, teese, teees, etsee, etese,

etees, eetse, eetes, eeets, giving 20 arrangements.

Solution 3.11

(d) Let p be the answer to (a), q be the answer to (b) and r be the answer to (c). Is p/q = r? If so, why must it be so? If not, why not?

Yes, we see that 120/6 = 20. The # q counts the

number of ways that each arrangement from part

(c) is overcounted in part (a), so we must divide

p by q to get the number of arrangements r in part

(c).

Review 3.12

Determine the # of arrangements of the following:

(a) FOUR

(b)NINE

(c) RADII

(d)GAMMAS

(e) COMBINATION

Solution 3.12


(a) FOUR

All the letters are unique, so 4! = 24.

Solution 3.12


(b) NINE

1st count the arrangements if the two N’s are

unique, which is 4!. Then since the N’s are not

unique, divide by 2!. The answer is 4! / 2! = 12.

Solution 3.12


(c) RADII

1st account for the I’s as if they are unique, 5!. Then

since the I’s are not unique, divide by 2! so the

answer is 5! / 2! = 60.

Solution 3.12


(d) GAMMAS

There are 2 A’s, 2 M’s, and six total letters, so

6! / (2! x 2!) = 180.

Solution 3.12


(e) COMBINATION

Eleven total letters, two O’s, two I’s, and two N’s.

11! / (2! x 2! x 2!) = 4,989,600.

Review 3.13

I have 3 identical math books, 3 identical English

books, and 2 identical French books. In how many

ways can I arrange them on the shelf is all I care

about is the order of the subjects (in other words,

all 3 math books are considered the same)?

Solution 3.13

I have 3 identical math books, 3 identical English

books, and 2 identical French books. In how many

ways can I arrange them on the shelf is all I care

about is the order of the subjects (in other words,

all 3 math books are considered the same)?

There are 8! ways to arrange the books if they are

unique, but we must divide out the permutations

of identical books, so

8! / (3! x 3! x 2!) = 560.

Review 3.14

In how many ways can the digits 45, 520 be

arranged to form a 5-digit number?

Solution 3.14

In how many ways can the digits 45, 520 be

arranged to form a 5-digit number?

1st place the 0, which has only 4 options (0 cannot

be the 1st digit). Then there are 4 remaining places

to put the last 4 digits, two of which are not

unique (5’s), so there are 4! / 2! options for

arranging the other 4 digits. The answer is

(4 x 4!) / 2! = 48.

Review 3.18

There are 6 married couples at a party. At the start

of the party, every person shakes hands once with

every other person except with his or her spouse.

How many handshakes are there?

Solution 3.18

There are 6 married couples at a party. At the start

of the party, every person shakes hands once with

every other person except with his or her spouse.

How many handshakes are there?

All 12 people shake hands with 10 other people

(everyone except themselves and their spouses). In

muliplying 12 x 10, each handshake is counted

twice, so we divide by two. (12 x 10) / 2 = 60.

Review 3.19

Seven points are marked on the circumference of

a circle. How many different chords can be drawn

by connecting two of these seven points? (Source:

MATHCOUNTS).

Solution 3.19

Seven points are marked on the circumference of

a circle. How many different chords can be drawn

by connecting two of these seven points? (Source:

MATHCOUNTS).

Choose two out of seven points (without regard to

order) in (7 x 6) / 2 = 21 ways, so there are 21

chords.

Review 3.20

How many pairs of vertical angles are formed by

five distinct lines that have a common point of

intersection? (Source: MATHCOUNTS)

Solution 3.20

How many pairs of vertical angles are formed by

five distinct lines that have a common point of

intersection? (Source: MATHCOUNTS)

Each pair of lines will give two pairs of vertical

angles. There are (5 x 4) / 2 = 10 ways to choose a

pair of lines, therefore there are 2 x 10 = 20 pairs

of vertical angles.

Documents

AoPS: Introduction to Probability and Counting. Chapter 3 Correcting for Overcounting