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8/13/2019 AP Psych Prep 7 - Cognition
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AP Psych. Prep 7:
Cognition
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Outline:
Cognition involves a number of different
skills and abilities:
Memory
Language
Thinking
Creativity
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Memory
Memory is anything that suggests that
learning has remained over time.
Psychologists wonder about how and whywe remember and forget things, and how
accurate our memories are.
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Memory Application: Try toRemember These
Word: Spectacular.
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Two Models of Memory
There are two main ways of understanding
how our memory works. The first is:
Three-Box or Information Processing Model
Memories pass through three stages before
they are permanently stored
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Information ProcessingModel:
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Information ProcessingModel:
First, outside events can enter our sensory
memory. Some of this can move into ourshort-term memory. And finally some will
move into long-term memory.
Note: These are representationsof part of a
process, NOT real physical parts of our
brain.
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Sensory Memory
Visual Sensory Memory - (about a second) - Also
called iconic memory. very short term, but accurate
representation of visual images.
Only some information moves from sensory memory
to short-term memory. Selective Attention does this.
(remember cocktail party effect)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UfA3ivLK_tE
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Sensory Memory
We also have echoic memory for sound
information. (3-4 seconds) - this is how
we can sometimes accurately hearsomething a couple seconds AFTER
someone says it, if we werent paying
attention at the exact time they said it;
we can check the echoic memory to catch
something we missed.
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Short-Term Memory
Also called Working Memory - the information we are
using / working with now is held here.
Also temporary; about 10-30 seconds if not being used.
George Millerexperiments - asked people to remember
items to find the limit of our short-term memory storage.
Found it to be about 7 items (+/- 2)
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Short-Term Memory
If we use chunking by grouping items together, we can improve
our ability to remember more information (but stillabout 7
chunks is the limit)
Mnemonic Devices (memory tricks) are often forms of chunking.E.g.
Dumb Kids Playing Catch On Freeway Get Squashed.
(Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus,
Species) [now you only need to remember 1 sentence; much
easier ^^]
Rehearsal (repeating) can also help keep info in short-term
memory.
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Long-Term Memory
Our permanent storage. Seemingly
unlimited storage capacity and time period.
Though things can be forgotten...
3 forms of Long-Term Memories: Episodic,
Semantic, and Procedural.
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Long-Term Memory
Episodic - episode or story memories. e.g.
remembering a conversation with a friend
yesterday.
Semantic - meaning memories, for facts, instead of
episodes. e.g. what does the word textbook mean?
Procedural - memory for how to perform some
skill; hard to explain to others. Can be complicated.
E.g. how to ride a bike.
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Long-Term Memory
There are also Explicit (Declarative) Memories and Implicit
(Non-Declarative) Memories.
Explicit memories - we consciously and intentionally remember
events and facts. Matches best with episodic and semantic
memories.
Implicit memories - we are unconsciously influenced by previous
experience when we remember or perform some task. E.g. being
around Father when he fixes a car a lot --> remember some
things about car repair if you have to do it on your own. Matches
best with semantic and procedural memories.
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Long-Term Memory
Psychologists are interested in the very rare peoplewho have special memory abilities.
Photographic (or Eidetic) Memory - ability to
remember huge amounts of information for a very
long time.
E.g.Alexandra Luriadid a case study of someonewho could repeat a list of 70 letters and numbers
forward, backward, and up to 15 years after seeing
it, purely from memory!
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Long-Term Memory
Eidetic memory has been described as being able to see the
material in persons mind now. They can bring an image of the
list into their mind and just read the symbols.
Sara Bonderoff, Dans friend from High School claimed to have
real photographic memory. She talked about turning the pages of
a book in her mind, and reading the information from it.
Photographic memory is commonly used to just mean really
good memory, but this use is different from how Psychologists
use the word.
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Levels of Processing Model of Memory
One model of memory is Information
Processing Model. The other is the Levels of
Processing Model.
This model is based on
how deeply we process
memories.
Deep vs. Shallow.
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Levels of Processing Model
Deep / Elaborative Processing - things we process more
deeply, using more time, energy, and understanding the
material more fully (reasons, connections to other info.,
etc); These things will be much easier to remember.
Its much easier to deeply process information that we aremore interested in. Its easier to devote the time and
energy required to deeply process things in these cases.
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Levels of Processing Model
Shallow / Maintenance Processing - Not deep processing,
just repeating a few times; using much less time and energy
on thinking about something.
Will remember for a shorter time, much harder to
remember later.
Both Information Processing Model and Levels of
Processing Model can be useful to help us explain how
people remember information.
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Retrieval - Memory Test:
What was the word on the
screen near the start?
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Retrieval - Memory Test:
What was the word on the screen
near the start?
Stupendous Spectacular
Amazing Super
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Retrieval - Memory Test:
Which image did we see earlier?
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Retrieval
Both models of memory require the retrieval of
information from storage in our minds. We need to get
info. from our memories in order to use it.
There are two kinds of retrieval: Recognition and Recall.
Recognition - Matching something you can see with
something in memory. E.g. many multiple choice
questions.
Recall - not matching, just producing information you
need
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Retrieval
Psychologists want to understand what can change how well we
retrieve information from memory.
Hermann Ebbinghaus- found that order could affect how easily
we can remember listed items:
Serial Position Effect / Curve - the fact that the first and last
items in a list are easier to remember.
First items - Primacy Effect (prime is first)
Last items - Recency Effect (more recent)
l
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Retrieval
Semantic Network Theory: memories are formed
by connecting them to related things in our
brains.
Sometimes we might search for memory by
moving through things that are closely connected
to it if we are having trouble retrieving it.
(e.g. tip-of-tongue phenomenon, where you can
almost remember something)
i l
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Retrieval
Flashbulb Memories - memories that seem veryclear and accurate, even much later in time (but
they can actually be inaccurate sometimes).
Can be formed for
especially important orstressful / traumatic
events.
i l
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Retrieval
Mood-Congruent Memory - mood matchingmemories are more easily remembered. E.g. If
youre happy, its easier to remember happy
events.
State Dependent Memory - where the mental
state (e.g. sleepy or not sleepy) or environment
of the person will increase retrieval ability.
i l
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Retrieval
State Dependent Memory
E.g. Deep sea divers remember things learned under the
water better when they are under the water, and things
learned on land better when theyre on land.
Therefore training in
the actual environment
where youll use the
information is better.
(Also Door Effect)
bl i i l
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Problems in Retrieval
Constructive Memory
Memory is not perfect. We can create memories and
feel like they are what really happened.
One way to do this is to ask many questions to a person,
while suggesting some facts about what happened.
These constructed memories are very difficult for the
person to tell apart from real memories.
bl i i l
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Problems in Retrieval
We need to check these constructed memories against
other evidence(we cant trust them)
Can be a very serious problem for:
1. Criminal interrogations - (false confessions or false
criminal witness statements can happen)
2. Psychological therapy - (false memories of past abuse -
Recovered Memories are very dangerous)
F i
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Forgetting
We can forget due to decay, if we dont use information
for a long time. Some think the information isnt gone,
just we cant locate it.
But info. rarely disappears completely. Relearning effect
means learning it again will take less time and effort than
the first time.
As well, Interference can cause forgetting. Interference is
when other information in our brain makes it difficult to
remember something.
i f
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Forgetting: Interference
Two kinds of Interference:
1. Retroactive Interference: New information makes it hard to
remember old information.
Retroactive = past active Acts towards the past; Note also:
Retrograde amnesia
Old Info. New Info.
Interference
i f
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Forgetting: Interference
2. Proactive Interference: Old information makes it hard to
remember new information.
Proactive = future active Acts towards future/new
E.g. Dan learns a new meaning for a Korean word, and old
meaning is easily remembered, but new meaning is very hard to
remember.
Old Info. New Info.
Interference
h i l S
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Physical Memory Storage
How memories are actually stored in the brain is not well
understood yet.
Hippocampus Damage - anterograde amnesia - cant encode new
memories (Remember H.M.)
But CAN recall old memories, and can learn new proceduralmemories, and perform them well.
Therefore, procedural memories dont need the hippocampus to
be formed.
Ph i l M S
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Physical Memory Storage
Procedural memories are likely stored in the cerebellum -
area that controls coordination of muscles, etc.
Many psych. think that memories are formed when
neurons create stronger physical connections with each
other.
E.g. axons and dendrites growing, increase in
neurotransmitter receptors, etc.
L
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Language
Language is strongly connected to our cognitive processing. We very
often think using language.
Parts of Languages:
Phonemes - the smallest units sound in a language. e.g. /b/, /f/,
,, etc. (phono = sound)
Morphemes - smallest unit of meaningful sound. sometimes words
or parts of words that have meaning. e.g. hat, pre-, -ing, etc.
Syntax - like grammar. The rules for how to put morphemes
together to form a message that makes sense to others.
L A i iti
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Language Acquisition
There are common stages of first language
acquisition that cross cultures
Stage 1: Babbling ~4 months
Just making sounds; trying them out / practicing
At this stage, can make sounds from all languages
Later our languages sounds stay strongly, but it
gets really hard to make foreign sounds properly
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Language Acquisition
Stage 2: Holophrastic Stage
The one word stage. Babies use single words only to
convey meaning
Stage 3: Telegraphic Speech Stage
Combing a few words to communicate meaning. Usuallygrammar rules are missing, but we can understand their
meaning
e.g. want cookie give water
L A i iti
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Language Acquisition
As children move forward in language learning,
they learn grammar and syntax rules.
Also often overgeneralize / over-regularize theserules; they use the rules in all cases, because they
dont know exceptions.
Common example of this is using -ed for ALL past
tense. e.g. eated runed
L A i iti
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Language Acquisition
Overgeneralization is evidence that we dont just copy
parents and others we hear in order to learn language.
Parents dont ever say eated so a child wont say that if
all they do is copy what their parents say.
A long time ago, behaviourists thought we learnedlanguage just by copying parents language and being
rewarded or punished.
L A i iti
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Language Acquisition
But now thought to more complicated process.
Children dont just copy, but seem to quickly and
easily pull in and start to use a lot of language andlanguage rules.
Noam Chomsky suggested we have a language
acquisition device in our minds that actively
works to learn language when we are young.
L A i iti
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Language Acquisition
This language acquisition device idea also
includes the critical period for our first language
learning. Later the acquisition device will turn off,
so if we dont learn a language during this critical
period, it will be extremely difficult or impossible
to learn a language at that later age.
Supported by case studies with people who have
grown up without people around. feral children.
L A i iti
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Language Acquisition
This way of thinking called Nativist Theory
of Language Acquisition.
Many researchers think that both Nativist
and Behaviourist ways of thinking can help
us explain how language is learned.
L d Thi ki
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Language and Thinking
Language is strongly connected to our thinking. We often think
usinglanguage.
So some think that which language we speak can affect howwe
think to some degree, or even limit our thinking in some ways.
Common example is Northern Canadian Natives many words
for snow. Scientists using these to expand their ability to discuss
and think.
Evidence for strong influences on thinking or limits to thinking
have not been found yet.
Thi ki d C ti it B i
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Thinking and Creativity: Basics
Concepts / Schemata- the category structures in our
minds; we use these to make sense of the world
E.g. Schema for dog might include:
has hair
four legs
tail
is cute
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Thinking and Creativity: Basics
Concepts / Schemata sometimes bring us to the
right answer:
We often easily assimilate new information into ourschemas - This is also a dog, it fits with my
schema and so our schemas get more complicated
and useful.
Thi ki d C ti it B i
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Thinking and Creativity: Basics
Sometimes its not easy, and we we need to use
accommodation.
Change: Create New:
Maybe dogs arent Similar, but not dog
always cute... new schemata needed
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Thinking and Creativity: Basics
Prototype: the most typical example of a
concept; We compare things in our world
against the prototype and make judgmentsbased on how similar
or different it is.
I.e. The dog that is the
most dog-like.
Thinking and Creati it Basics
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Thinking and Creativity: Basics
We often think using language, but we can
also think with images
Images are sensory thoughts. This is a bit
misleading, because we can also have
image sensory thoughts that are notvisual. Most are visual, but they can be
others too...
Thinking and Creativity: Problem Solving
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Thinking and Creativity: Problem Solving
Algorithm - a step-by-step procedure that will
eventually bring the right answer (often used in
computer processing)
To follow some rule and work through
possible answers until you find the right one.
E.g. Friends lock combination. You can try all
the possible numbers until you find the right
one. Very slow, but can find answer eventually
Problem Solving: Algorithms vs Heuristics
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Problem Solving: Algorithms vs. Heuristics
Heuristics - a rule of thumb, a fast rule
that will often lead to the right answer.
We often use these as shortcuts to help us
quickly find an answer.
Fast, but can bring wrong answer, so wehave to be careful and not trust these too
strongly.
Examples of Heuristics
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Examples of Heuristics
Availability Heuristic - making judgment based on how
easily you can think of examples of something. If you can
easily think of examples, you assume something is
common or true.
E.g. A friend who was very surprised when they saw an
African-American man speaking Korean. Could probably
think of many examples of white men who learnedKorean, but few examples of African-Americans who
did... [True Story]
Heuristic Trial:
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Heuristic Trial:
Lets replicate a study done by Kahneman
and Tversky in 1973.
We will have two groups in our trial. Read
your paper and follow the instructions.
Then we will share our results.
Heuristic Trial:
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Heuristic Trial:
Kahneman and Tversky found that participants were
most likely to say Tom was an engineering student,
and least likely to say he was a social science student.
As well, these were different from peoples general
ideas about how many students are in each major.
Because he seemed to be similar to our idea of
engineering students, this happens. Called
Representativeness Heuristic.
Examples of Heuristics
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Examples of Heuristics
Representativeness Heuristic - Making judgments
based on how well something matches our prototype
of the thing.
Can be a problem because things can be similar to our
prototypes, but not actually members of that group.
E.g. Tom could have been any of those types ofstudents. There was no evidence he was engineering,
but people still thought that way...
Problem Solving
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Problem Solving
There are also other kinds of heuristics.
Heuristics can lead us to be overconfident,
thinking our judgments are more accurate
than they really are.
People are often more confident than they
should be based on the available evidence.
Problem Solving examples of overconfidence
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Problem Solving - examples of overconfidence
Belief Bias - when we evaluate evidence and
arguments in ways that support the conclusion that
we alreadybelieve in. Our decision is made before
see the evidence
Belief Perseverance - tendency to keep our incorrect
beliefs, even if our reasons for those beliefs have
been shown to be incorrect
Using the follo ing items attach the
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Using the following items, attach thecandle to the wall and light it.
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Other Dangers to Problem Solving
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Other Dangers to Problem Solving
Rigidity (or Mental Set) - The commonly used
strategy of using past solutions or experience
when facing a new problem.
Can stop people from seeing a possible new
solution
Functional Fixedness - a specific form of
rigidity where we only think of the old use for
an object.
Functional Fixedness:
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Functional Fixedness:
Functional Fixedness:
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Functional Fixedness:
Other Dangers to Problem Solving
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Other Dangers to Problem Solving
Confirmation Bias: when we look for
evidence and better remember things that
confirm the beliefs we already have, and
we ignore or discount information that
goes against our belief.
Other Dangers to Problem Solving
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Other Dangers to Problem Solving
Framing: the way we word a problem can affect how
people think about a problem, and how they will solve
it.
[See Framing Example Handout]
We also have to be careful about how we frame our
questions when we do experiments and surveys. If notcareful, how we say our question can influence how
people answer. Especially for embarrassing topics.
Creativity
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Creativity
Very hard to define,
aha experience -Wolfgang Kohlers insight
learning (chimpanzees and banana problem)This kind of new use for something or new
kind of solution might hint at creativity.
Sort of the opposite of rigidity....
Creativity: Divergent vs Convergent Thinking
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Creativity: Divergent vs. Convergent Thinking
Convergent Thinking - thinking that points
towards one usual solution, method, etc. (very
similar to rigidity, functional fixedness)
Divergent Thinking -
new creative ways of
thinking. Thinking
outside the box