APA's Guidelines for Test User Qualificationsapsychoserver.psych.arizona.edu/JJBAReprints/PSYC621/Turner et al_APA_gidelines...APA's Guidelines for Test User Qualifications An Executive

APA's Guidelines for Test User QualificationsAn Executive Summary

Samuel M. TurnerStephen T. DeMers

Heather Roberts Fox

Geoffrey M. Reed

University of MarylandUniversity of KentuckyAmerican Psychological Association

and Towson UniversityAmerican Psychological Association

At the direction of the Council of Representa-tives of the American Psychological Associa-tion (APA), the Task Force on Test User Qual-

ifications (TFTUQ) was established in October 1996 todevelop guidelines that inform test users and the generalpublic of the qualifications that the APA considers im-portant for the competent and responsible use of psy-chological tests. The TFTUQ reviewed the relevantliterature related to test user qualifications (see, e.g.,Eyde, Moreland, Robertson, Primoff, & Most, 1988, andTyler, 1986), as well as policy statements developed bythe APA (1950, 1992) and other groups both national(e.g., American Educational Research Association[AERA], APA, & National Council on Measurement inEducation [NCME], 1999; American Association forCounseling and Development, 1988) and international(British Psychological Society, 1995, 1996; Interna-tional Test Commission, 2000). The task force thendeveloped a set of comprehensive guidelines and so-licited comments from numerous individuals and groupsinvolved with test use both within and outside the APA.The final report of the TFTUQ was approved by theAPA Council of Representatives in August 2000. Thisarticle provides a brief summary of the Guidelines onTest User Qualification (APA, 2000) that are now APApolicy.

The TFTUQ was established in part because of evi-dence that some current users of psychological tests maynot possess the knowledge and skill that the APA considersdesirable for optimal test use (see, e.g., Aiken, West,Sechrest, & Reno, 1990). The phrase test user qualifica-tions refers to the combination of knowledge, skills, abili-ties, training, experience, and, where appropriate, practicecredentials that the APA considers desirable for the respon-sible use of psychological tests. The guidelines in theTFTUQ's report are intended to apply to persons who usepsychological tests in a variety of settings and for diversepurposes. The APA's purpose in developing these guide-lines is to inform test users as well as individuals involvedwith training programs, regulatory and credentialing bod-ies, and the public about the qualifications that promotehigh professional standards in the use of tests with thepublic.

Historical BackgroundThe reason that the APA has sought to develop and pro-mulgate guidelines for the use of psychological testsevolves from the historical role the APA has played in thescience and practice of testing and assessment. The disci-pline of psychology is the historical root for psychologicaltesting and provides the research evidence and professionaltraining to advance competent psychological assessment.Since 1950, the APA has addressed the issue of test userqualifications broadly in its ethical principles (APA, 1950,

Editor's Note. This article is an executive summary of a larger reportthat was adopted by the American Psychological Association's Council ofRepresentatives on August 6, 2000. To obtain a copy of the full Report ofthe Task Force on Test User Qualifications, contact the Science Direc-torate, American Psychological Association, 750 First Street, NE, Wash-ington, DC 20002-4242; phone number: (202) 336-6000.

Author's Note. Samuel M. Turner, Maryland Center for AnxietyDisorders, Department of Psychology, University of Maryland; StephenT. DeMers, Department of Educational and Counseling Psychology, Uni-versity of Kentucky; Heather Roberts Fox, Science Directorate, AmericanPsychological Association, Washington, DC, and Department of Reading,Special Education, and Instructional Technology, Towson University;Geoffrey M. Reed, Practice Directorate, American Psychological Associ-ation, Washington, DC.

The full report was developed by the American Psychological As-sociation (APA) Task Force on Test User Qualifications (TFTUQ). TheTFTUQ cochairs were Stephen T. DeMers, EdD, and Samuel M. Turner,PhD. The TFTUQ members included Marcia Andberg, PhD; WilliamFoote, PhD; Leaetta Hough, PhD; Robert Ivnik, PhD; Scott Meier, PhD;Kevin Moreland, PhD (deceased); and Celiane M. Rey-Casserly, PhD.

The TFTUQ wishes to acknowledge Stephen DeMers, EdD; NadineLambert, PhD; and Leona Aiken, PhD, for their role in the creation of thetask force. It was their foresight regarding the need for an official policyon qualifications necessary for the competent use of tests that brought thismotion to the APA Council of Representatives. In addition, the TFTUQextends thanks to Wayne Camara, PhD; Rodney Lowman, PhD; KarenO'Brien, PhD; and many other APA colleagues for the consultation andassistance they gave to this project; to the Board of Professional Affairs,the Board of Scientific Affairs, the Committee on Legal Issues, andespecially the Committee on Psychological Tests and Assessment for theirkind support; to Dianne Maranto and Dianne Schneider, PhD, for staffsupport from the Science Directorate; and to Robert Walsh and GeorgiaSargeant for staff support from the Practice Directorate.

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Sam-uel M. Turner, Maryland Center for Anxiety Disorders, Department ofPsychology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742. Electronicmail may be sent to [email protected].

December 2001 • American PsychologistCopyright 2001 by the American Psychological Association, Inc. OO03-O66X/O1/S5.0OVol. 56, No. 12, 1099-1113 DOI: 10.1037//OOO3-O66X.56.12.1O99

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1981, 1992). The APA also has participated in formulatingstandards on the development and use of psychological andeducational tests (APA, AERA, & NCME, 1954, 1966,1974; AERA, APA, & NCME, 1985, 1999). Other profes-sional groups that use psychological tests also have pro-mulgated ethical guidelines that address qualifications fortest use. For example, the American Counseling Associa-tion (formerly the American Association for Counselingand Development) has a specific set of Responsibilities ofUsers of Standardized Tests (American Association forCounseling and Development, 1988).

The task force found that concern over the misuse oftests has been growing in the international psychologycommunity over the past few years. Several countries andinternational groups, including the British PsychologicalSociety (1995, 1996), the Canadian Psychological Associ-ation (Simner, 1994), and the International Test Commis-sion (2000), have launched initiatives to address concernsabout test user qualifications.

Review of extant literature suggests that most of theproblems associated with test use are related to the com-petence of individual test users, although the uneven qual-ity of test construction and the ease with which test instru-ments can be obtained from some test publishers alsocontribute to these problems (Tyler, 1986). In devising thepresent set of guidelines, the TFTUQ kept in mind thetypes of problems identified by the empirical research andthe conclusion that much of the difficulty lies with testusers. The APA formed the TFTUQ in the belief thatprevious efforts to specify test user qualifications, althoughuseful, did not provide the kind of specific guidance thatmany APA members and others were seeking.

Scope of the GuidelinesThe use of psychological tests should typically be viewedwithin the broader concept of assessment. Psychologicalassessment is a complex activity requiring the interplay ofknowledge of psychometric concepts with expertise in anarea of professional practice or application. Assessment isa conceptual, problem-solving process of gathering de-pendable, relevant information about an individual, group,or institution to make informed decisions.

These guidelines describe two types of test user qual-ifications: (a) generic psychometric knowledge and skillsthat serve as a basis for most of the typical uses of tests and(b) specific qualifications for the responsible use of tests inparticular settings or for specific purposes (e.g., health caresettings or forensic or educational decision making). Theguidelines apply most directly to standardized tests, such astests of ability, aptitude, achievement, attitudes, interests,personality, cognitive functioning, and mental health. Theguidelines define a psychological test as any measurementprocedure for assessing psychological characteristics inwhich a sample of an examinee's behavior is obtained andsubsequently evaluated and scored using a standardizedprocess. The guidelines do not apply to unstandardizedquestionnaires and unstructured behavior samples or toteacher- or trainer-made tests used to evaluate performancein education or training.

Various activities included in the testing process maybe appropriately conducted by different people workingcollaboratively. Each participant should possess the knowl-edge, skills, and abilities relevant to his or her role. Forexample, different individuals may be responsible for de-ciding what constructs, conditions, or characteristics needto be assessed, selecting the appropriate tests, administer-ing and scoring tests, and interpreting and communicatingthe results. Moreover, some testing activities may involvetasks that require limited professional knowledge (e.g.,administering or scoring some paper-and-pencil tests). Insuch circumstances of multiple participants in the testingprocess or participants with limited expertise, test useshould be directed or supervised by a qualified test user. Itis this qualified responsible test user to whom these guide-lines apply.

Persons whose psychological test use is confined toresearch will find that the degree to which these guidelinesapply to their work depends on the focus and setting oftheir research. The sections of the guidelines that addresscompetencies related to psychometrics, statistics, test ad-ministration, and scoring are applicable to research thatuses psychological tests. When research is conducted withclinical populations or in settings where there are likely tobe real or perceived implications for the test taker, addi-tional guidelines may be applicable.

Generic Knowledge and SkillsThe TFTUQ began by conceptually dividing those skillsand knowledge considered important for good test use intotwo main categories: first, core knowledge and skills andsecond, context-related qualifications. The core knowledgeand skills discussed in this section are deemed essential forall test users who make decisions or formulate policies thatdirectly affect the lives of test takers. This core set ofknowledge and skills is considered to be relevant for all testusers; however, the level of skill and depth of knowledge inthese domains may vary depending on the testing purposeand context.

Psychometric and Measurement Knowledge

In general, it is important for test users to understandclassical test theory and, when appropriate or necessary,item response theory (IRT). When test users are makingassessments on the basis of IRT, such as adaptive testing,they should be familiar with the concepts of item parame-ters (e.g., item difficulty, item discrimination, and guess-ing), item and test information functions, and ability pa-rameters (e.g., theta).

Descriptive statistics. Basic to any test use isthe ability to define, apply, and interpret concepts of de-scriptive statistics. For example, means and standard devi-ations are often used when comparing different groups ontest scales, whereas correlations are frequently used forexamining the degree of convergence and divergence be-tween two or more scales. Similarly, understanding howfrequency distributions describe the varying levels of abehavior across a group of persons is essential. Persons

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using tests should have sufficient knowledge and under-standing of descriptive statistics to select and use appro-priate test instruments, as well as to score and interpretresults. The most common descriptive statistics relevant totest use include frequency distributions, descriptive statis-tics characterizing the normal curve (e.g., kurtosis, skew-ness), measures of central tendency (e.g., mean, median,and mode), measures of variation (e.g., variance and stan-dard deviation), indices of relationship (e.g., correlationcoefficient), and scales, scores, and transformations.

Test results frequently represent information aboutindividuals' characteristics, skills, abilities, and attitudes innumeric form. Test users should understand issues relatedto scaling, types of scores, and methods of score transfor-mation. For example, test users should understand andknow when to apply the various methods for representingtest information (e.g., raw scores, standard scores, andpercentiles). Relevant concepts include types of scales,types of scores (e.g., raw, transformed, percentile, standard,normalized), scale score equating, and cut scores.

Reliability and measurement error. Testusers should understand issues of test score reliability andmeasurement error as they apply to the specific test beingused, as well as other factors that may influence test results,and the appropriate interpretation and application of differ-ent measures of reliability (e.g., internal consistency, test-retest reliability, interrater reliability, and parallel formsreliability). Similarly, test users should understand the stan-dard error of measurement, which presents a numericalestimate of the range of scores consistent with the individ-ual's level of performance. Additional constructs related toreliability and measurement that should be understood bytest users are delineated in Figure 1.

Validity and meaning of test scores. Theinterpretation and uses of test scores, not the test itself, areevaluated for validity. Responsibility for validation belongsboth to the test developer, who provides evidence in sup-port of test use for a particular purpose, and to the test user,who ultimately evaluates that evidence, other availabledata, and information gathered during the testing process tosupport interpretation of test scores. Test users have aparticularly important role in evaluating validity evidencewhen the test is used for purposes different from thoseinvestigated by the test developer.

Contemporary discussions of validity have focused onevidence that supports the test as a measure of a construct(sometimes called construct validity). For example, evi-dence for the uses and interpretation of test scores maycome through evaluation of the test content (content rep-resentativeness), through evidence of predictions of rele-vant outcomes (criterion-related validity), or from a num-ber of other sources of evidence. Test users shouldunderstand the implications associated with the differentsources of evidence that contribute to construct validity, aswell as the limits of any one source of validity evidence(i.e., criterion, convergent, and discriminant validity).

Normative interpretation of test scores.Norms describe the distribution of test scores in a samplefrom a particular population. Test users should understand

Figure 1Sources of Variability or Measurement Error• Characteristics of test takers (e.g., motivation)

• Characteristics of tests (e.g., domain sampling, test length,and test heterogeneity)

• Characteristics of construct and intended use of test scores(e.g., stability of characteristic)

• Characteristics and behavior of the test administrator (e.g.,importance of standardized verbal instructions)

• Characteristics of the testing environment

• Test administration procedures

• Scoring accuracy

• Types of reliability and their appropriateness for differenttypes of tests and test use

• Test-retest reliability, parallel or alternative forms reliability,internal consistency, scorer and interrater reliability

• Change scores (or difference scores)

• Standard error of measurement (i.e., standard error of ascore) and validity and meaning of test scores.

how differences between the test taker and the particularnormative group affect the interpretation of test scores.Issues to be considered include the types of norms and theirrelevance for interpreting test taker scores, characteristicsof the normative group, type of score referent (e.g., domainreferenced, self-referenced), and expectancy tables.

Selection of appropriate test(s). Test usersshould select the best test or test version for a specificpurpose and should have knowledge of testing practice inthe context area and of the most appropriate norms whenmore than one normative set is available. Knowledge oftest characteristics such as psychometric properties (pre-sented above), basis in theory and research, and normativedata (where appropriate) should influence test selection.For example, normative data or decision rules may not beaccurate when (a) important characteristics of the examineeare not represented in the norm group, (b) administration orscoring procedures do not follow those used in standardiz-ing the test, (c) characteristics of the test may affect itsutility for the situation (e.g., ceiling and floor effects), (d)the test contains tasks that are not culturally relevant to thetest taker, or (e) the validity evidence does not supportdecisions made on the basis of the test scores.

Those using tests should have an understanding ofhow the construction, administration, scoring, and interpre-tation of tests under consideration match the current needs.Mismatches in these dimensions between the selected test

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and the current testing situation represent important factorsthat should be considered and that may invalidate usual testinterpretation. More specifically, for test users to select anappropriate test for a particular use, it is important that theyunderstand and consider such issues as the intended use ofthe test score, the method and procedures used to developor revise the test being considered, the definition of theconstruct that the test purports to measure, and the defini-tion of the test purpose and its intended context of use.Additional knowledge needed in this area is listed inFigure 2.

Test administration procedures. Knowl-edge about procedural requirements, confidentiality oftest information, communication of results, and testsecurity is important for many testing applications, as isfamiliarity with standardized administration and scoringprocedures and understanding a test user's ethical andlegal responsibilities and the legal rights of test takers.Similarly, it is important that test users understandthe legal and ethical issues related to the release oftest materials, including issues of confidentiality, de-pending on the context of the testing and the character-istics of the test taker. Test users should be able to

explain test results and test limitations to diverseaudiences. Written communication should include thepurpose of the test and the setting in which the testingoccurred. In preparing written reports on test results,test users should be aware that test scores might be-come separated from the interpretive report overtime and should be familiar with the areas in Figure 3.

Ethnic, Racial, Cultural, Gender, Age, andLinguistic VariablesConsideration of these variables may be important to theproper selection and use of psychological tests. For certainpurposes, legal requirements influence or restrict the test-ing, scoring, interpretation, analysis, and use of test data ofindividuals in different subgroups. In some cases (e.g.,employment testing), the use of gender, race, and ethnicityin test interpretation is illegal. Test users should considerand, where appropriate, obtain legal advice on legal andregulatory requirements to use test information in a mannerconsistent with legal and regulatory standards. Issues asso-ciated with testing individuals from particular subgroups,such as race or ethnicity, culture, language, gender, age, orother classifications, are addressed in greater detail in the

Figure 2Knowledge Needed for the Appropriate Selection of Tests

• Type of keying or scaling used—rational or theoretical, •empirical, internal consistency or construct homogeneity(e.g., factor analysis) •

• Scoring procedures (e.g., clinical, mechanical, and •correction for guessing)

•• Type of score interpretation (criterion or domain referenced,

norm referenced, ipsative)

• Item and scale score characteristics

• Item format

• Difficulty level

• Reliability (e.g., internal consistency and test-retest) •

• Validity evidence of test scores

• Construct validity evidence

• Content representativeness •

• Criterion-related •

• Validity generalization (e.g., effects of sample size, test andcriterion reliability and range restriction, and dichotomizationof variables)

• Convergent

• Discriminant •

Cross-validation

Criterion characteristics (e.g., sufficiency, relevance)

Test bias

Description of validation, normative, and/or standardizationgroup(s) (characteristics of groups such as age, gender,race, culture, language, disabilities, geographic region,socioeconomic status [SES], educational or grade level,motivational set, mental status, and item format familiarity),sample size(s), and recency of data

Test administration procedures (standardization procedures,time limits—power vs. speed)

Knowledge of test taker variables that may moderate validityand interpretation of scores (such as age, gender, race,culture, language, disabilities, geographic region, era or timeperiod tests, SES, educational or grade level, motivationalset, mental status, and item format familiarity)

Other or special requirements and limitations of test

Adequacy of the match between test characteristics andpresent need in terms of construct measured, difficulty level,validity, reliability, test bias, normative data, similarity ofnormative group with present group, test administrationprocedures (accommodations for disabilities whenappropriate, characteristics of test administrator, adaptationfor those with different primary language when appropriate)

Special requirements and limitations of test


Figure 3Additional Knowledge Required for TestAdministration• Legal rights of test takers

• Standardized administration procedures

• Scoring procedures

• Confidentiality of test materials and test information

• Safeguards for protecting test material (protection againstcopyright infringement, protection against unauthorizeddissemination of test items, keys, and scoring procedures)

• Safeguards for protecting protocols and test results (legalissues, ethical issues)

• Reporting results to the test taker, caregiver, or others asappropriate (characteristics of meaningful reports, amount ofinformation to report, legal and ethical issues)

1999 version of the Standards for Educational and Psy-chological Testing (AERA, APA, & NCME, 1999).

The APA's promulgated Guidelines and Principlesfor Accreditation of Programs in Professional Psychology(APA, 1996) discussed the need for psychology trainingprograms to address issues of cultural diversity. The APAdemonstrated its interest in and sensitivity to these issuesby establishing the Commission on Ethnic Minority Re-cruitment, Retention, and Training in Psychology. In addi-tion, the Task Force on Delivery of Services to EthnicMinority Groups, under the auspices of the Board of EthnicMinority Affairs, published Guidelines for Providers ofPsychological Services to Ethnic, Linguistic, and Cultur-ally Diverse Populations (APA, 1990). These guidelineswere approved by the APA's Council of Representatives.In addition, the International Test Commission has issued"Guidelines for Adapting Educational and PsychologicalTests: A Progress Report" (Hambleton, 1994), which pro-vides recommendations about adapting tests for cross-cul-tural testing. For test users using tests with different ethnic,racial, cultural, gender, and language groups, knowledge ofthe constructs listed in Figure 4 is essential.

Testing Individuals With DisabilitiesTests are administered to increasing numbers of personswith disabilities in a variety of settings and for a multitudeof purposes. The requirement to accommodate an individ-ual with a disability in the testing situation raises manycomplex issues for test users. Test users must frequentlymake decisions regarding the use of tests that were notdeveloped and normed for individuals with disabilities. Insuch circumstances, confidence in the inferences drawnfrom test results may be diminished. There may be legalrequirements concerning the accommodation of individualswith disabilities in test administration and the use of mod-

ified tests. Test users should consider and, where appropri-ate, obtain legal advice on legal and regulatory require-ments regarding appropriate administration of tests and useof test data when assessing individuals with disabilities.

Test users should be familiar with several effortsinitiated during the 1990s to provide guidance to test usersfor assessing individuals with disabilities. The APA TaskForce on Test Interpretation and Diversity published a bookidentifying the scientific and policy issues related to theinterpretation of tests used with individuals for whom thetests were not developed, standardized, and validated (San-doval, Frisby, Geisinger, Scheuneman, & Grenier, 1998).Additionally, the Joint Committee on Testing Practices ispublishing a sourcebook for practitioners that describessome of the pertinent legal and regulatory information, aswell as types of accommodations, required documentation,and the use of tests with disabled individuals in variouscontexts (Ekstrom & Smith, in press). Finally, the 1999Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing(AERA, APA, & NCME, 1999) includes a chapter ontechnical considerations for testing individuals with dis-abilities. Those who administer tests to individuals withdisabilities should be familiar with the legal, technical, andprofessional issues governing the use of tests with individ-uals with disabilities, including those listed in Figure 5.

Supervised ExperienceIn addition to test users having knowledge and skillsneeded for appropriate test use, it is important that theyhave the opportunity to develop and practice their skillsunder the supervision of appropriately experienced profes-sionals. This supervision typically begins in graduateschool and continues throughout training until any creden-

Figure 4Factors Associated With Test Use in Diverse Groups• Construct equivalence (information concerning the influence

of psychological characteristics such as motivation, attitudes,and stereotype threat on test performance

• Orientations and values that may alter the definition of theconstructs(s) being assessed and how those factors mayaffect the interpretation of test results

• Requirements of the testing environment and how that mayaffect the performance of different groups

• Test bias

• Laws and public policies concerning use of tests that mayhave implications for test selection, as well as administrationand interpretation

• Procedures for examining between-groups differences in testperformance

• Empirical literature concerning differential validity for racial orcultural groups


Figure 5Parameters Associated With Testing of the Disabled

• Legal issues

• Test selection

• Test accommodation

• Effects of the testing environment and the tests being usedon the performance of individuals with disabilities

• Inferences based on the test scores accurately reflect theconstruct, rather than construct-irrelevant, characteristicsassociated with the disability

• Knowledge of whether regular norms or special norms areappropriate for the characteristic in question

tials that are necessary to practice independently have beenattained. The structure and focus of supervision vary de-pending on the domain(s) in which supervision is beingadministered. Because testing is conducted by psycholo-gists with different specialties, as well as by nonpsycholo-gists, a specific prescribed format or mechanism for super-vision cannot be described for each test user. However,focused and setting-specific supervision of sufficient inten-sity and duration is important for those who use tests.

Summary of Core Knowledge and Skills forTest UsersThe intent of this section has been to delineate the genericdomains and competencies important for users of psycho-logical tests. Although the extent of knowledge of thesegeneric domains may vary by practice area, some knowl-edge of these core assessment domains in combination withcontext specific expertise and a high level of professionaljudgment is important for appropriate test use. The testuser's key function is to make valid interpretations of testscores and data, often collected from multiple sources,using proper test selection, administration, and scoringprocedures. For test users to provide valid interpretation, itis important that they be able to integrate knowledge ofapplicable psychometric and methodological principles, thetheory behind the measured construct and related empiricalliterature, the characteristics of the particular tests used,and the relationship between the selected test and theparticular testing purpose, the testing process, and, in somecontexts, the individual test taker.

Test User Qualifications in SpecificContextsThe context in which psychological tests are used includesboth the setting and the purpose of testing. Test userqualifications vary across settings, as well as within set-tings, depending on the purpose of testing. This sectionaddresses the context-relevant qualifications that build on

the generic qualifications described above. Regardless ofthe setting, psychological tests are typically used for thefollowing purposes:

Classification—to analyze or describe test results orconclusions in relation to a specific taxonomic system andother relevant variables to arrive at a classification ordiagnosis.

Description—to analyze or interpret test results tounderstand the strengths and weaknesses of an individualor group. This information is integrated with theoreticalmodels and empirical data to improve inferences.

Prediction—to relate or interpret test results with re-gard to outcome data to predict future behavior of theindividual or group of individuals.

Intervention planning—to use test results to determinethe appropriateness of different interventions and their rel-ative efficacy within the target population.

Tracking—to use test results to monitor psychologicalcharacteristics over time.

The sections that follow describe five major contextsin which tests are commonly used: employment, education(both individual and large-scale testing), vocational andcareer counseling, health care, and forensic assessment.Although there may be other contexts that require specificcompetencies, the test user qualifications (including appro-priate training and supervision) important in the majorcontexts where tests are used are discussed below.

Employment ContextMany employers use tests as part of the assessment processto develop work-related information and recommendationsor decisions about people who work for them or are seekingemployment with them. Test users in this context shouldhave not only the qualifications identified as core knowl-edge and skills but also an understanding of the worksetting, the work itself, and the worker characteristics re-quired of the work situation. They should strive to knowwhat skills, abilities, or other individual difference charac-teristics enable people to perform effectively (as defined ina variety of ways) in a particular work setting. Test usersshould consider the strengths and weaknesses of differentmethods for determining the human requirements of thework situation and how to conduct such job, work, orpractice analyses. They also should consider and, whereappropriate, obtain legal advice about employment law andrelevant court decisions (see Dunnette & Hough, 1990,1991, 1992, 1994; Guion, 1998).

Classification. Organizations seek to classify orplace people in jobs to maximize overall utility to both theindividuals and the institution. To perform these activitieswell, test users should strive to be knowledgeable about jobclustering (e.g., creation of job families), validity, cost-benefit analysis, utility analysis, and measurement of workoutcomes.

Psychological tests are sometimes used to certify peo-ple as qualified to perform certain job or work activities.Test users should have knowledge of the task or work andknowledge of the level of performance required for com-petent practice. This means that test users should define the


task or criterion, measure the required knowledge andskills, and identify the required performance level. Theyshould strive to have a thorough knowledge of job, work, orpractice analysis and of content validation principles andstrategies.

Description. Description of an individual's cur-rent abilities, skills, interests, personality, knowledge, orother personal characteristics can be a significant part of theassessment process. This information is the starting pointfor determining the fit between an individual and work in agiven setting; identifying areas of needed individual, team,or organizational development; providing feedback aboutlikely success in different work activities and settings;planning career choices and paths; and auditing organiza-tional or unit readiness. Those who use psychological teststo describe individual, team, or organizational characteris-tics in the employment setting should have knowledgeabout job, work, or career analysis (see, e.g., Campion,1994; Goldstein, Zedeck, & Schneider, 1993).

Prediction. Psychological tests may be used aspart of a larger assessment process to help make predictionsabout an individual's future training performance, job per-formance, trustworthiness, attrition, or a variety of otherwork-related criteria. These predictions are often made tofacilitate recommendations or decisions about selection,promotion, or succession planning.

Test users involved in testing to predict future em-ployment criteria should make every effort to be knowl-edgeable about the work setting, the work itself, and,hence, job or work analysis methods. They also shouldunderstand performance measurement, criterion constructsand their measurement, relationships between various pre-dictor constructs and criterion constructs, research methodsand design, validity concepts and evidence, test bias, ad-verse impact analysis, utility analysis, validity generaliza-tion, and group differences, and they should, where appro-priate, obtain legal advice.

Intervention planning. Employment testingmay be part of an analysis of the test taker's training anddevelopment needs. Test results may provide informationfor developing plans to improve skill and performance ofcurrent work responsibilities and anticipated work respon-sibilities. Test results also may be used as part of careerplanning activities. When tests are used for these purposes,test users should make every effort to be knowledgeableabout such matters as the work itself, the work setting,performance appraisal and performance measurement, cri-terion constructs and their measurement, training and de-velopment, career development, coaching and mentoring,and training needs analysis.

Employment testing may be part of an outplacementprocess. If testing is done as part of an involuntary processthat determines who is to be retained and who is to be laidoff, test users should be knowledgeable about the workitself, the work setting (hence, job, work, or practice anal-ysis methods), performance measurement, criterion con-structs and their measurement, validity concepts and evi-dence, test bias, adverse impact analysis, and groupdifferences, and they should obtain appropriate legal ad-

vice. If testing is done as part of a voluntary job searchprocess, test users should be knowledgeable about voca-tional and career guidance, job loss, and labor markets.

Employment testing also may be a part of a monitor-ing system designed to identify individuals who are at riskfor performing below an acceptable level. The individualsmay be employed in sensitive-duty (high cost for mistakes)jobs. Those who use tests to identify at-risk individualsshould have the qualifications listed under the Classifica-tion and Prediction subsections above.

Tracking. Psychological tests may be used in pre-dictive, criterion-related validation studies in which indi-viduals and their performance are tracked over time. Inaddition to the knowledge recommended for the use ofpsychological tests for prediction purposes, test users whotrack individuals or their performance also need to under-stand how task or work performance and criterion perfor-mance requirements may change over time. In addition, testusers who conduct reassessments should be familiar withthe effects of repeated use of assessment procedures onboth the individual and the findings obtained.

Training and supervision. Training for testuse in the employment context is best obtained by success-ful completion of an integrated program of study thatincludes industrial psychology; psychology of individualdifferences; measurement theory; job, work, and practiceanalysis; performance measurement; and employment lawrelevant to the testing situation. Experience and supervisionusing tests in settings similar to those in which employmenttests are used are important. For test users who provideassessment of health outcomes or understanding of healthproblems of individuals and groups (e.g., those working inemployee assistance programs [EAPs]), the qualificationsdescribed in the Health Care Context section below alsoapply.

Educational Context

The results of psychological tests often serve as relevantinformation to guide educational decisions about both stu-dents and programs. Psychological tests are used in avariety of educational settings, including preschools, ele-mentary and secondary schools, higher education, technicalschools, business training programs, counseling centers,health and mental health settings that offer educationalservices, and educational consulting practices. Psycholog-ical tests are typically used to acquire information aboutstudents to make informed decisions about such issuesas student admissions and placement, educational pro-gramming, student performance, and teacher or schooleffectiveness.

On an individual level, psychological tests are oftenused to describe a student's learning or behavioral strengthsand weaknesses. The results may then be used to developeducational interventions, to determine appropriate educa-tional placements (e.g., special education, gifted education,magnet school program, or alternative educational setting),or as part of clinical diagnostic assessment to guide thera-peutic services.


Assessment of groups of individuals, often calledlarge-scale testing, typically addresses questions about ed-ucational programs or policies. Decision makers may ag-gregate results from psychological tests and use this infor-mation to evaluate program effectiveness and to developrecommendations for changes to educational programs orsystems. Test users in these cases may use standardizedtests or nonstandardized procedures (e.g., performanceevents or portfolios of student work) to obtain informationabout cognitive ability or academic achievement levels of agroup of students (Fuchs & Fuchs, 1990).

Test user qualifications that have particular relevancein educational settings include the representativeness of thetest sample, attention to language and cultural diversity,and the use of cut scores in selection for special programs.Test users also should understand the cognitive and emo-tional factors that affect student learning, as well as thesocial and political factors that affect schools as learningenvironments. Those who use psychological tests in socialinstitutions like schools should be particularly skilled atcommunicating the results of testing to many differentaudiences, including educational decision makers, teachers,students, parents, and the public.

Classification. Tests are often used to identify orclassify individual students or groups of students for ad-mission to special programs. In public elementary andsecondary schools, the most frequently used formal classi-fication system is probably the one used to determineeligibility for special education services as required byfederal and state law (e.g., the Individuals With DisabilitiesEducation Act, 1990/1997). Therefore, test users in educa-tional contexts should consider and, where appropriate,obtain legal advice regarding state and federal laws relatedto the provision of educational and related services todisabled students. Many schools also use curriculum-track-ing schemes (e.g., general vs. college-preparatory classes)that categorize students and then place them in separateinstructional tracks or ability groupings, often on the basisof test data. Individuals using psychological tests for clas-sification purposes, in both individual and large-scale as-sessments, should be familiar with the taxonomic systemsused by schools and other educational settings as well asthe psychometric limitations of the tests used.

Test users also should possess the knowledge to selectinstruments that are appropriate for the characteristics ofthe student being evaluated. For example, tests that haveadequate reliability and validity for assessing school-agestudents may be inappropriate for use with preschool chil-dren. Similarly, tests normed and validated for use withindividuals from one culture or ethnic group may not beappropriate for assessing individuals from other cultural orethnic populations. Also, when making high-stakes deci-sions about individuals, test users should integrate infor-mation when appropriate from multiple sources, such aspsychological and educational test data, behavioral obser-vations and ratings, school records, and interviews withparents and teachers (Salvia & Ysseldyke, 1995).

Large-scale tests are used for a variety of purposes,including program accountability and decisions related to

admissions and educational placement. When schools, dis-tricts, or states develop or select a test to determine studentachievement relative to state standards, test users shouldhave the skills and knowledge to determine the degree ofcorrespondence among the standards, curricula, and testcontent. When critical decisions, such as graduation orretention, are based on test results, test users should striveto consider students' opportunity to learn the stated contentand to identify other sources of relevant data that reflectstudent proficiency. When tests are used for college place-ment, test users should determine the degree of alignmentbetween the test's content and the college curriculum andshould understand the relationship between predicted andactual performance in college before determining a cutscore or other classification criteria. Legal requirementsmay influence or restrict the use of rank ordering or cutscores, particularly if these practices have a disproportion-ate effect on one or more subgroups.

Description. Psychological tests also are used ineducational settings to describe aspects of learners' skillsand abilities, such as learning styles, motivation, readingreadiness, and emotional maturity. Group measures of in-terests, attitudes, cognitive abilities, or emotional adjust-ment also may provide a basis for interventions designed toremediate current problems or to prevent future difficulties.

Large-scale assessments are often used by schools,districts, and states to measure the general level of studentperformance or to evaluate the effects of curricular deci-sions. In some instances, schools or teachers may be heldaccountable for their students' test results, with penaltiesimposed for scores below expectations. Therefore, it isimportant that test users attend to the multiple factors thatcontribute to test score differences between schools, class-rooms, or districts (e.g., student motivation, quality of prioreducational experiences, and parental support of educa-tional goals).

Prediction. In the educational context, tests areoften used to predict the future behavior or academic suc-cess of a student or group of students. In individual assess-ment, tests are often used to screen students for placementin special programs or to place them in an instructionalgroup or track on the basis of a prediction of expectedfuture performance.

In large-scale testing, admissions tests are required forentry into most undergraduate, graduate, and professionalprograms. Admissions tests also are useful in college coun-seling, providing students with useful information on theirpotential for academic success at different colleges anduniversities. In addition, most colleges use specially devel-oped placement tests to determine a student's eligibility forparticular courses.

Test users in educational settings should have theskills and knowledge to evaluate the relative contributionof teacher competence and motivation, school and class-room climate, peer group influence, class size, and otherfactors .that play a critical role in determining a student'sfuture performance. Test users should understand howgroup differences (e.g., ethnicity, gender, race, and socio-economic status [SES]) may affect performance on stan-


dardized tests, grades, school completion, and other out-comes that may be used in predicting academic success.

Intervention planning. Psychological tests arefrequently used to plan interventions for one student or agroup of students. Psychological tests are commonly usedas part of the individual diagnostic assessment of studentswith learning or behavioral problems. The results fromthese tests help to describe or diagnose the educationalstrengths and weaknesses of students or their behavioraldifficulties and contribute to the development of educa-tional, behavioral, or mental health interventions. Thosewho use tests to prescribe interventions based on assessedstudent characteristics should be familiar with the empiricalevidence for using test data to make such decisions.

Test results sometimes provide a rationale for educa-tional interventions that affect a large number of students,such as a modification in instructional approach (see, e.g.,Gettinger & Stoiber, 1999). Test users should strive toclearly communicate to decision makers the appropriate-ness of inferences based on test data and the likely effectsof program changes on various groups of students. Testresults may also be used as a basis for individual interven-tions, such as removing a student from school. Test usersshould consider and, where appropriate, obtain legal adviceabout relevant state and federal laws dealing with changesin school placement as well as the legal protections af-forded to parents and students, including a student orparent's due process rights and requirements of informedconsent (Jacob-Timm & Hartshorne, 1994).

Tracking. Test users in school settings often ad-minister tests multiple times to track the effects of educa-tional programming or interventions. In individual assess-ment, special education law requires that students classifiedas disabled be reassessed at least every three years so thatstudents are given a periodic review of their status. Groupsof students may be assessed yearly to document academicprogress or to evaluate program effectiveness. Aggregatedstudent data are often used as the basis for implementing,modifying, or eliminating instructional programs.

When tests are used for tracking purposes in educa-tional settings, test users should understand the effects ofrepeated test administrations on the students and on thefindings obtained. For example, frequent retesting of read-ing achievement to guide instruction might appear advis-able but could produce serious practice effects and spuri-ously inflated results, unless alternative forms of thereading tests are available. Those who use tests to trackstudent performance should also strive to be aware of thesocial and instructional context variables that may influ-ence student performance, so that changes in test scores arenot automatically attributed to changes in student abilities.

Training and supervision. In addition to thequalifications outlined for all test users, the test user in theeducational context should be knowledgeable in the contentareas of educational and psychological diagnostic systemsand intervention methods, as well as the legal requirementsand protections for test takers that are relevant to the typeof test being used. This combination of generic psychomet-ric knowledge and context-relevant expertise is best ac-

quired in an advanced professional preparation program,such as a doctoral program in school or educational psy-chology or educational measurement. As noted earlier, thetype of training and the depth of knowledge in each of thesedomains may vary for different test users depending onwhether they are responsible for individual diagnostic test-ing or large-scale testing. Test users in an educationalenvironment should possess an appropriate practice creden-tial where such credential is legally required to provide thetype of testing being offered. It also is important that theyreceive supervised experience in the use of tests to addresseducational concerns appropriate to their role.

Individuals using psychological tests to place childrenin special education programs should be knowledgeable inareas such as developmental and social psychology, diag-nostic decision making, child psychopathology, and specialeducation practices. Those using psychological tests toaddress large-scale testing questions related to admissions,student grouping, or instructional programming should beparticularly knowledgeable in the domains dealing withpsychometrics, instructional design, educational and devel-opmental psychology, and measurement theory.

Career and Vocational Counseling ContextPsychological testing in the career and vocational counsel-ing context is used to help people make appropriate edu-cational, occupational, retirement, and recreational choicesand to assess difficulties that impede the career decision-making process. Career and vocational counselors integratetheir knowledge of career demands with information aboutbeliefs, attitudes, values, personalities, mental health, andabilities, with the goal of promoting beneficial career de-velopment, life planning, and decision making. The indi-vidual's self-knowledge about values, strengths, weak-nesses, motivation, psychological characteristics, andinterests also is relevant.

Testing can provide persons with knowledge abouttheir work-related and avocational interests, their abilities,and their values and can help them understand how these fitinto the existing opportunities and requirements of theworkplace and into their leisure activities. Test usersshould strive to understand how individuals' particularinterests, values, abilities, and skills relate to their choice ofwork and leisure activities. Test users also should havesubstantive knowledge in related areas of psychology, suchas adolescent and adult development, personality, and psy-chopathology, as well as detailed and current knowledge ofmeasurement questions involved with assessing interests,abilities, personality dimensions, and values.

Test users also should make every effort to be knowl-edgeable about types of work settings, work cultures andvalues, and the characteristics and requirements of types ofjobs. They should strive to integrate the results of multiplemeasures from a number of different domains with theirknowledge of vocational theories (Osipow & Fitzgerald,1996) and career taxonomies (Holland, 1997; Lowman,1991).

Test users identify and work with individual differ-ence and systemic variables that may influence the person-


environment fit. Such factors include the individual's fam-ily system, gender, ethnicity, cultural background, physicalability, SES, and psychological problems. Test usersshould be able to recognize and work not only with theproblems explicitly presented by the test taker but also withother problems, including underlying emotional difficultiesor environmental impediments that could affect the way thetest taker uses test results.

Often, the person seeking career or leisure counselingis experiencing a life transition that brings additional per-sonal, developmental, and emotional stress. In addition,such individuals may struggle with emotional problemsthat make deciding on a career difficult. To deal effectivelywith such complex mixtures of career, developmental, andemotional concerns, vocational test users should have qual-ifications similar to those required in the health care context(discussed below).

Classification. The primary focus of vocationalclassification is on identifying an individual's career-re-lated skills, abilities, and characteristics and then matchingthem with the requirements of specific jobs or job catego-ries. Vocational classification also may be used to match anindividual with a specific school or program or to help aperson identify satisfying leisure activities or outlets forprized abilities. Knowledge of individual differences incognition and personality is central to the assessment ofperson-environment fit. Differential patterns of abilitiesmay be as important as scores on individual ability mea-sures, so testing may need to cover a wide range ofcompetencies.

Description. A holistic description of the individ-ual's personality and mental health is important in thecareer and vocational counseling context (Gysbers, Hep-pner, & Johnston, 1999). Test users may want to assessimportant constructs, such as career indecision and careerchoice anxiety, with those who have a history of difficultyin vocational decision making. Thus, to determine themost effective approach, test users in the career and voca-tional counseling context should be qualified to assess themental health functioning of individuals seeking careercounseling.

Prediction. The results of a variety of vocationaltests are assumed to reflect stable, enduring traits that arerelevant to future work performance and satisfaction. Al-though related constructs such as interests and cognitiveabilities demonstrate stability over a period of years, thedegree of consistency partly depends on the developmentallevel of the test taker. Vocational test users should temperpredictions of future behavior with the knowledge that testtakers' further development and specific situations maystrongly influence their work behaviors.

Intervention planning. To perform effectivecareer and vocational interventions, test users should haveknowledge of career development theories and skills ininterviewing and history taking, as well as knowledge ofrelevant educational and career information resources. Testusers should strive to be aware of discriminatory patternsthat exist in various careers. In some cases, evaluation oftest results shows that further psychological intervention is

needed. Test users should be able to evaluate patterns ofbehavior and test results; recognize test takers who areunable to benefit from vocational information because ofsignificant developmental, cognitive, emotional, or physi-cal problems; and treat or refer them appropriately.

Tracking. Tests used for career and vocationalassessment may provide standards against which to com-pare patterns of subsequent growth or deterioration. Testusers should be knowledgeable about the psychometric andcontext-related implications of assessing career develop-ment over time.

Training and supervision. The use of psycho-logical tests in career and vocational assessment requiresskills in career and mental health assessment. Appropriatetraining includes coursework in measurement theory andadolescent and adult development, as well as the domain ofvocational and career psychology. Finally, it is importantthat training include supervised experience in the use ofpsychological tests in vocational and career settings andrelevant experience in educational, counseling, health care,and occupational settings.

Health Care ContextHealth care is the provision of services aimed at enhancingthe physical or mental well-being of individuals or atdealing with behaviors, emotions, or issues that are asso-ciated with suffering, disease, disablement, illness, risk ofharm, or risk of loss of independence. Health care assess-ment commonly occurs in private practice, rehabilitation,medical or psychiatric inpatient or outpatient settings,schools, EAPs, and other settings that address health careneeds. Psychological tests are used as part of the assess-ment process to develop health-related information andrecommendations or decisions. Those who use tests for thispurpose should have thorough grounding both in the coreknowledge and skills enumerated earlier and in the special-ized knowledge, training, or experience of specific substan-tive areas of health care.

In the health care context, psychological test data aretypically used to augment information gathered from othersources (e.g., patient and collateral interviews, behavioralobservations, and laboratory results). Health care providerswho use psychological tests should strive to effectivelyintegrate results from multiple tests and sources of infor-mation. Psychological test users should strive to understandhow the nature of the setting (e.g., psychiatric hospital) andthe characteristics of test takers (e.g., those who have aphysical illness or disability or who are on medication)might affect the process of test administration, the results,and the interpretation. Test users should strive to commu-nicate the technical aspects of their findings to other pro-fessionals as well as to health care consumers in languagethat is appropriate and understandable to each.

Classification. When psychological tests areused for classification purposes, the goal is frequently theassignment of a mental health, medical, or other diagnosis.In these instances, psychological test findings are generallycombined with interview and historical data, behavioralobservations, and data from other sources to derive a for-


mal diagnosis. When diagnosis is the goal of testing, testusers should combine the skills associated with competenttesting with a separate set of knowledge, skills, and expe-riences related to classification and diagnosis in the popu-lation of interest.

Test users should be able to identify and evaluatefactors that may influence diagnostic determinations andthat are frequently not accounted for in the development,standardization, and norming of psychological tests. Forexample, when working with persons whose physicalsymptoms may affect test performance, test users should beknowledgeable about and experienced at distinguishingillness-related test results from other determinants of aperson's test performance.

Test users should seek to understand determinants ofdiagnostic accuracy in relation to both the specific testsbeing used and the decisions that need to be made. Forexample, when psychological tests are used to screen forspecific health problems such as alcoholism or dementia,test users should consider how fluctuations in base rates indifferent populations may affect the sensitivity and speci-ficity of test results (Ivnik et al., 2000).

Description. Psychological tests also are used inhealth care to provide a more comprehensive description ofindividuals by delineating their unique personality, emo-tional, cognitive, or other characteristics. For example, acombination of personality, academic, aptitude, interest,and cognitive tests may be used to help describe the areasof both preserved and compromised functioning for ayoung person who is in a rehabilitation facility in hope ofreturning to work after suffering a head injury in a motorvehicle accident (MVA). When performing primarily de-scriptive assessments in health care, test users should con-sider the construct validity of the tests that they select andhow these constructs are manifested in day-to-day behav-ior. To avoid misinterpreting normal inter- and intratestvariance as pathology, test users who work in health careshould consider the limits of normal variance when differ-ent psychological characteristics are simultaneously mea-sured. When individuals are followed over time and psy-chological tests are repeated one or more times, test usersshould be attentive to issues that relate to how meaningfulchange is distinguished from normal test-retest variability(Ivnik et al., 1999; Jacobson & Truax, 1991; Sawrie, Che-lune, Naugle, & Luders, 1996).

Prediction. Health care professionals are fre-quently asked to make predictions (i.e., prognoses) aboutthe persons they serve, and psychological test users mayspecifically be asked to make testing-based predictions. Forexample, a health care professional testing the MVA victimmentioned above may be asked to predict when this personmight return to work or to school or what the person's finallevel of recovery may be. In these instances, test usersshould strive to be knowledgeable about the predictivelimits of testing. Test users also should strive to understandhow the patient's unique characteristics (e.g., personalityfeatures, special strengths, disabilities or disorders, andsociocultural issues), the natural course of medical condi-tions, the likely efficacy of planned interventions, and

relevant base-rate information may affect such predictions.Test users should strive to understand the empirical evi-dence of a test's ability to make accurate predictions aswell.

Intervention planning. In health care settings,data from psychological tests may be used in planninginterventions. Intervention planning refers to the selectionof specific remediation activities on the basis of a thoroughknowledge of both the problem being addressed and avail-able treatment options. Test users involved in interventionplanning may use tests to provide information on an indi-vidual's particular problem (classification), strengths andweaknesses (description), and the efficacy of treatmentoptions (prediction). The same set of knowledge and skillsrequired for competent classification, description, and pre-diction also is important in the development of an optimaltreatment plan. For example, personality tests may be usedto modify treatment approaches in a therapeutic setting(Maruish, 1999). Because intervention planning involves aspecific type of prediction (i.e., the likelihood that a patientwill benefit from a particular form of treatment), test usersshould strive to be aware of the limitations discussed aboverelated to prediction and the scientific evidence supportingavailable treatments.

Tracking. In some circumstances, multiple se-quential administrations of the same test(s) are frequentlyneeded to document how psychological characteristicschange over time or as a consequence of treatment (e.g., totrack the course of a patient's illness or recovery). Tointerpret these results, test users should strive to be knowl-edgeable about how repeated exposures to test proceduresand test content influence subsequent test performances(e.g., practice effects), including how conditions (e.g.,memory deficits) present during one examination may af-fect the results of later testing. Test users also should striveto understand how to distinguish measurement error fromreliable test-score change (see, e.g., Ivnik et al., 1999;Jacobson & Truax, 1991; Sawrie et al., 1996). Psycholog-ical tests are sometimes used to measure treatment out-come. For example, test results may help to determineeligibility for health care services or to monitor treatmentefficacy. If this application is different from the test'soriginal purpose, test users should be aware of potentialfactors that may limit the usefulness or validity of the testdata as an indicator of treatment outcome.

Training, supervision, and //censure. Inthe health care context, the qualifications described aboveare best obtained through doctoral training in psychology,which includes psychological testing supervision in one ormore health care settings that are similar to the setting(s) inwhich a specific test user intends to practice. In addition tocoursework in psychological testing, personality theory andassessment, and measurement theory, independent healthservices providers who use tests for health care needsshould be particularly knowledgeable in psychopathology,health psychology, life span-developmental psychology,and the biological bases of behavior. Test users in thehealth care context also should be skillful in clinical diag-nostic interviewing and familiar with mental health diag-


nostic and classification systems. As noted earlier, thebreadth and depth of knowledge in each of these domains,as well as additional technical qualifications, may varydepending on the specific area of specialized functioning.

The administration of psychological tests in the healthcare context is generally considered to be a form of healthcare service provision and as such is governed by state andprovincial licensing laws related to health services provid-ers. In most cases, health care professionals who use psy-chological tests are licensed by the state or province inwhich they work. Renewal of licensure in many statesrequires documentation of continuing professional educa-tion. Those who use psychological tests in a health carecontext should strive to obtain knowledge, supervisedtraining, and professional experiences that go beyond theprofession-specific knowledge, training, and experiencesthey obtained during graduate education, practica, intern-ship, residency, or fellowship.

Forensic Context

In forensic settings, psychological tests are used to gatherinformation and develop recommendations about peoplewho are involved in legal proceedings. Test users in foren-sic settings should possess a working knowledge of thefunctioning of the administrative, correctional, or courtsystem in which they practice. They should strive to befamiliar with the statutory, administrative, or case law inthe specific legal context where the testing occurs or, whereappropriate, obtain legal advice on the pertinent laws. Theyshould strive to communicate test results in a way that isuseful for the finder of fact (i.e., the judge, the administra-tive body, or the jury). This includes communicating ver-bally with lawyers, writing formal reports, and givingsworn testimony in deposition or court.

This section addresses those who use clinical, reha-bilitation, and neuropsychological tests in legal contexts, aswell as those who believe that their test data will serve asa foundation for legal consultation or testimony. Thus, inaddition to the core qualifications identified earlier, thequalifications described above for test users in health carecontexts typically apply to test users in forensic settings.This section does not address test use by those who usepsychological tests to conduct research in applied areas offorensics, such as memory, social psychology, or humanfactors. Nor does it apply to those who use tests in appliedareas, such as clinical, rehabilitation, or neuropsychologi-cal practice or industrial and organizational or educationalpsychology, and who may be asked to provide consultationor testimony about work with their clients based on theirtraining, education, or experience.

Those who use tests for forensic purposes shouldpossess substantive knowledge in areas of psychology re-lated to the forensic issues. For example, in correctional orcriminal settings, knowledge about violence, criminality,and the relationship of psychopathology to those behaviorsand activities is germane. Similarly, when assessing fami-lies in child custody or parental rights cases, it is importantfor test users to understand family dynamics, parenting, and

different forms of child custody (APA Committee on Pro-fessional Practice and Standards, 1994).

Assessments for forensic purposes often occur in out-patient, inpatient, and correctional settings. Test usersshould strive to be knowledgeable about the effects of eachof these settings on test administration and interpretation.

Classification. In most forensic situations, as-sessment includes the use of multiple measures to providea thorough and legally defensible diagnosis (Heilbrun,1992; Heinze & Grisso, 1996). Thus, test users in forensicsettings should strive to integrate results from multiple testswith knowledge of accepted diagnostic taxonomies (e.g.,the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders,4th ed.; American Psychiatric Association, 1994) andknowledge about how test findings relate to these systems(von Talge, 1995).

Test users should strive to identify and evaluate crit-ical factors that may influence diagnostic determinations. Athorough knowledge of response set and its influence ontest results may be needed for accurate interpretation of testresults. Because of the high stakes in legal proceedings(monetary settlements, child custody, jail sentences, andeven the death penalty), test takers may be motivated toexaggerate or minimize their symptoms. Test users in fo-rensic settings should strive to recognize these factors andto account for them in the interpretation. Additionally, testusers in forensic settings should understand that psychopa-thology as measured by tests may be improved or exacer-bated by incarceration and that trial proceedings and liti-gation may affect test data by increasing or decreasing thelitigant's anxiety, depression, or anger (Weissman, 1991).

Test users are often required to evaluate historicalinformation to help the court arrive at a determination ofcausation or to review events that have occurred in the pastto ascertain whether those events relate in some way to alegal standard. For example, in criminal settings, test usersmay be asked to assist the court in determining whether thedefendant was criminally responsible for his or her behav-ior at the time of the offense. Or a test user may be askedto assess the defendant's capacity to waive his or herFourth and Fifth Amendment (Miranda) rights—criticalfor determining whether a confession is admissible incourt. In tort (civil lawsuit) settings, determination of cau-sation (the legal nexus between a specific event and apsychopathological condition) is often a critical element fordetermining whether even the minimum basis for a lawsuitexists. Even in contexts where causation involves strictlytechnical knowledge from other fields (e.g., chemistry orphysiology), test users may be asked to provide legallyadmissible information on the psychological or neuropsy-chological status of an examinee without attributingcausation.

Those using tests in forensic settings to determine thecausation of legally relevant conditions or events shouldstrive to be knowledgeable about how the tests are used todetermine the origins or natural histories of mental disor-ders. Users of neuropsychological tests may use patterns ofscores on those tests to inform opinions about the cause ofspecific behaviors (see, e.g., Martzke, Swan, & Varney,


1991; Varney & Menefee, 1993). Assessment of braintrauma or toxic chemical reactions may fall into this cate-gory. Test users assessing traumatic emotional reactionsshould have knowledge about the relationship of specificscore patterns to specific types of emotional trauma. Testusers also should have knowledge of relevant epidemio-logical studies and etiology of mental conditions.

Description. In forensic settings, clients are de-scribed in relation to a legal standard established by legis-lation or case law in a particular context. The most obviousexample is the application of the standards for legal com-petency (e.g., to stand trial, to execute a legal document,and to be executed). In correctional settings, test results inconjunction with historical or behavioral data may deter-mine whether an inmate is described as a high-, medium-,or low-security risk. In tort or disability settings, the stan-dard may be a legal description of an emotional condition,which will be applied to examinees to determine theireligibility for compensation under administrative regula-tions (e.g., Social Security) or laws. To perform thesedescriptive activities, test users should consider and, whereappropriate, obtain legal advice on the applicable legalstandard to craft the appropriate assessment strategy toproduce a legally useful result and to interpret the testresults in light of that standard.

Prediction. In forensic practice, test users are of-ten asked to make a statement about the future behavior ofa test taker. In civil commitment settings, for example,most states' criteria for involuntary commitment includethe examinee's dangerousness to self or others (Monahan& Steadman, 1996). In criminal settings, statements con-cerning the examinee's potential for recidivism on parolefrom prison may be a critical element of a prereleaseevaluation. In tort settings, predictions about the prognosisof an emotional condition may be necessary for determin-ing damages in a lawsuit (Sales & Perrin, 1993). In domes-tic relations settings, predictions of a child's reaction to aspecific custody arrangement may be a critical part of thecustody evaluation. To use test results for prediction, testusers should be knowledgeable about the base rates oflegally relevant behaviors (e.g., violence, suicide, or post-traumatic states) and the contribution of situational factors(e.g., life stresses, substance abuse, or treatment with psy-chotherapy or medication) to these behaviors.

Intervention planning. Intervention planningbased on test data may be an important part of the testuser's responsibilities in forensic settings. For example, indivorce, adoption, or abuse and neglect cases, recommen-dations for treatment of a child or family may be integral tothe child custody recommendation. In a sentencing evalu-ation, recommendations for treatment may be included indeliberations and influence the duration or location of theconvicted person's incarceration. In tort settings, treatmentrecommendations may, in part, determine the amount ofmonetary compensation provided for the plaintiff. In addi-tion to the prediction skills indicated above, skills impor-tant for intervention planning in forensic settings includeboth knowledge of how test data may be helpful for select-

ing appropriate treatment strategies and knowledge of howtest data may assist in predicting response to treatment.

Tracking. In forensic settings, it is often importantto know how test data may be affected by the passage oftime and by events that occur between repeated test admin-istrations. In working with children, for example, test usersshould consider the effects of developmental sequences inthe assessment of the child's current emotional condition totrace the origins of that condition to specific events such astraumatic experiences or changes in custody. Tests mayassist in the process of ruling out alternative causes ofconditions. Although the determination of causation is gen-erally a classification activity (see the Classification sub-section above), a test user may be called on to review asequence of test data generated through a series of testingperiods.

Training and supervision. The knowledge,skills, and abilities identified in this section are best ob-tained through doctoral training in psychology and relevantsupervised experience, as described above in the HealthCare Context section. Licensure requirements for thosewho use psychological tests in the forensic context aresimilar to those required of practitioners in the health carecontext.

The coursework and training for individuals who usetests in the forensic context are comparable to the course-work and training for those who use tests for other healthcare needs, although a basic introduction to psychology andthe law also is desirable. In addition, training in the specificarea of law (e.g., criminal responsibility) may be important.This may be acquired through formal or continuing educa-tion coursework or through mentoring by, or consultationwith, someone trained and knowledgeable in the relevantstatutes (e.g., a lawyer specializing in the field in question).Supervised experience in the conduct of a particular type offorensic evaluation also may be critical. Experience in oneforensic area (e.g., child custody evaluation) does not nec-essarily prepare the test user for functioning in anotherforensic area.

A Look ForwardThe psychological testing process has undergone signifi-cant technological change over the past few decades. Theuse of computers to administer tests and to score andinterpret test results is already an important part of every-day testing. Emerging technologies of the Internet andother innovations that expand applications across vast dis-tances may significantly alter the relationship of the testuser, the test taker, and the consumer of testing results.

Some of the positive changes resulting from these newtechnologies include wider availability, greater accuracy,and increased accessibility of tests. Continuing improve-ments in the development of interpretive algorithms andexpert systems are leading to diminishing concurrent hu-man oversight of the testing process. This technology willsimplify some aspects of the assessment process. As theapplication of new technology to the testing arena producesimproved but more complex testing services, it may be-come necessary for the knowledge and skills articulated in


this article to be supplemented with increased technologicalsophistication. Ironically, this increased complexity maymandate more extensive education and training in the fun-damentals of test use. The knowledge and skills articulatedhere will become even more important as test users arerequired to distinguish technology-based style from sci-ence-based substance.

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APA's Guidelines for Test User Qualificationsapsychoserver.psych.arizona.edu/JJBAReprints/PSYC621/Turner et al_APA_gidelines...APA's Guidelines for Test User Qualifications An Executive