APES-Area2a-Biomes

8/4/2019 APES-Area2a-Biomes

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Area IIA: The Living World

Ecosystem Structure (Biomes)



Climate and the Biosphere

Climate is dictated by temperature

and rainfall climate: prevailing weather conditions in a

particular region

determined by: temperature rainfall which are in turn influenced by:

variations in solar radiation distributiondue to the tilt of the Earth as it revolvesaround the sun

other effects




effect of solar radiation

because Earth is a sphere, sun’s rays aremore direct at equator

because of Earth’s tilt, there are seasons because of Earth’s rotation, winds are

deflected into three large circulation cells ineach hemisphere, affecting the location ofrainfall

because of Earth’s rotation, winds, and

therefore storms, rotate



Latitudinal variation in sunlight intensity



Seasonal variation in sunlight intensity



Global air circulation and precipitation



Global wind patterns




effect of latitude (distance from equator)

as latitude increases: average temperature decreases

more atmosphere for light to passthrough

seasonal variation increases changes in temperature changes in day length

amount of light received decreases




effect of altitude (distance above sea level)

as altitude increases: air pressure decreases

drier less oxygen

temperature decreases



Fig. 6-18 Effects of altitude and latitude

MountainIce and snow

Altitude

Tundra (herbs,

lichens,mosses)

ConiferousForest

TropicalForest

DeciduousForest

TropicalForest

DeciduousForest

ConiferousForest

Tundra (herbs,lichens, mosses)

Polar iceand snow

Latitude




temperature zones

tropical (equatorial): year round growingseason for plants temperate: winters mild to cold, summers mild

to hot sub-arctic: winters too cold and growing

season too short for deciduous trees arctic: growing season too short for trees




other effects

topography affects climate mountains produce rain shadows

oceans affect climate oceans result in milder temperatures of

coastal areas (maritime climates) oceans can produce monsoons

lakes can affect climate ‘lake effect’



Rain shadows



Onshore breezes



Terrestrial Ecosystems

The distribution of biomes is

determined by physical factors suchas climate a biome is a major type of terrestrial

ecosystem it has a particular mix of plants and animals

that are adapted to living under certainenvironmental conditions

they are usually determined by the amount ofprecipitation and temperature



Pattern of biome distribution

16




17



Precipitation (moisture)

Very wetVery dry

Temperature

Tropical

Temperate

Subarctic/subalpine

Arctic/alpine

Low Desert Savanna Rain Forest

High

Desert

Chaparral

Grassland

Forest

Conifer

Deciduous

Mixed

Tundra Taiga

Tundra




Dry woodlands andshrublands (chaparral)

Temperate grassland

Temperate deciduous forest

Boreal forest (taiga), evergreen coniferousforest (e.g., montane coniferous forest)

Arctic tundra (polar grasslands)

Tropical savanna,thorn forest

Tropical scrub forest

Tropical deciduous forest

Tropical rain forest,tropical evergreen forest

Desert

Ice

Mountains(complex zonation)

Semidesert,arid grassland

Tropic ofCapricorn

Equator

Tropic ofCancer

Fig. 6-16 Earth’s major biomes



Earth’s major biomes

S



Fig. 4-10 Major biomes along 39° in US

15,000 ft10,000 ft5,000 ft

Coastalmountainranges

SierraNevadaMountains

Great

AmericanDesert

Rocky

Mountains

GreatPlains

MississippiRiver Valley

Coastal chaparraland scrub

DesertConiferousforest

Coniferousforest

Prairiegrassland

Deciduousforest

Average annual precipitation

100-125 cm (40-50 in.)

75-100 cm (30-40 in.)

50-75 cm (20-30 in.)

25-50 cm (10-20 in.)

Below 25 cm (0-10 in.)

AppalachianMountains

T i l E




Deserts have little precipitation and

little vegetation desert: area where evaporation exceeds

precipitation

low annual precipitation (dry) sparse, widely spaced, mostly low vegetation 30% of Earth’s land surface do not retain heat well at night

tropical, temperate, or polar organisms must stay cool and conserve water relatively fragile

Di ib i f i l d d



Distribution of tropical and temp. desert

Fi 6 19 T i l d t



Tropical desert(Saudi Arabia)

Fig. 6-19a Tropical desert

Fi 6 19b T t d t



Temperate desert(Reno, Nevada)

Fig. 6-19b Temperate desert

Fi 6 19 P l d t



Polar desert(northwest China)

Fig. 6-19c Polar desert

T t i l E t




Grasslands have enough

precipitation to support grasses butnot forests grassland: area with enough precipitation to

support grasses usually found in interiors of continents drought, grazing, and fires keep large numbers

of shrubs and trees from growing tropical (hot with on-and-off rain), temperate

(temperature extremes and fertile soil), andpolar

Di t ib ti f



Distribution of savanna

Fi 6 22 T i l l d ( )



Tropical grassland (savanna)(Harare, Zimbabwe)

Fig. 6-22a Tropical grassland (savanna)

Di t ib ti f t t l d



Distribution of temperate grassland

Fig 6 22b Temperate grassland



Temperate grassland

(Lawrence, Kansas)

Fig. 6-22b Temperate grassland

Distribution of tundra



Distribution of tundra

Fig 6 22c Polar grassland (arctic tundra)



Polar grassland (arctic tundra)(Fort Yukon, Alaska)

Fig. 6-22c Polar grassland (arctic tundra)

Fig 6 23a African savanna



Dry Grassland Moist Grassland

Warthog Thompson'sgazelle

Waterbuck Grant's zebra

Beisa oryx

Topi

Cape buffalo Wildebeest

Fig. 6-23a African savanna

Fig 6 23b African savanna



Dry Thorn Scrub Riverine Forest

Dik-dik East Africaneland

Blue duiker Greaterkudu

Bushbuck

Black rhino

Giraffe

African elephant

Gerenuk

Fig. 6-23b African savanna





Forests have enough precipitation to

support stands of trees forest: area with enough precipitation to

support trees

tropical (warm, high humidity, heavy rainfall),temperate (temperature extremes and fertilesoil), and boreal (polar)

major types: tropical rain forest, temperate

deciduous forest, temperate rain forest,evergreen coniferous forest

Distribution of tropical rain forest



Distribution of tropical rain forest

Fig 6 28a Tropical rain forest



Tropical rain forest

(Manaus, Brazil)

Fig. 6-28a Tropical rain forest

Distribution of temperate deciduous for



Distribution of temperate deciduous for.

Fig 6 28b Temperate deciduous forest



Temperate deciduous forest

(Nashville, Tennessee)

Fig. 6-28b Temperate deciduous forest

Distribution of taiga



Distribution of taiga

Fig 6-28c Evergreen coniferous forest



Polar evergreen coniferousforest

(boreal forest, taiga)

(Moscow, Russia)

Fig. 6-28c Evergreen coniferous forest

Fig 6-30 Stratification in rain forest



Harpyeagle

Tocotoucan

Woolyopossum

Braziliantapir

Black-crownedantpitta

Shrublayer

Canopy

Emergentlayer

UnderstoryUnderstory

Ground

layer

Ground

layer0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

H e i g h t ( m e t e r s )

Fig. 6-30 Stratification in rain forest





Mountains are high-elevation islands

of biodiversity mountains feature rapid changes in

altitude, climate, soil, and vegetation over

short distances prone to soil erosion often home to species found nowhere else





Humans disturb different biomes in

different ways deserts

large desert cities soil destruction by off-road vehicles soil salinization from irrigation depletion of underground water supplies land disturbance and pollution from mining

storage of toxic and radioactive wastes large arrays of solar cells and solar collectors





grasslands

conversion to cropland (tropical andtemperate) release of CO2 to atmosphere from burning

and conversion of grassland to cropland

overgrazing by livestock (tropical and temp.) damage to arctic tundra by oil production, air

and water pollution, and off-road vehicles

forests clearing and degradation for agriculture,

livestock grazing, timber harvesting, urbandevelopment

conversion to less biodiverse tree plantations dama e to soils from off-road vehicles





mountains

landless poor migrating uphill to survive timber extraction mining hydroelectric dams and reservoirs

increasing tourism (such as hiking and skiing) air pollution from industrial and urban centers increased ultraviolet radiation from ozone

depletion soil damage from off-road vehicles

Aquatic Ecosystems: Introduction




Aquatic ecosystems can be classified

as freshwater or saltwater; theyinteract and are joined by water cycle cover about 71% of the Earth’s surface

salinity determines the major types oforganisms found in an aquatic environment

food webs are complex due to fluidity ofmedium, variety of bottom habitats

more difficult to study and manage/count physical boundaries are less fixed large and less visible





four major types of organisms in aquatic

systems plankton are free-floating, weakly swimming,

generally one-celled organisms phytoplankton (plant plankton)

zooplankton (animal plankton) includesprotists, small crustaceans, jellyfish

ultraplankton (photosynthetic bacteria) nekton (fish, turtles, and whales) benthos (bottom dwellers); barnacles, oysters,

worms, lobsters, and crabs decomposers break down organic matter into

simple nutrients for use by producers





aquatic zones are stratified

light euphotic zone: upper layer w/ enough light

for photosynthesis DO higher here and CO2 lower due to

photosynthesis aphotic zone: lower layer w/ little light

DO lower here and CO2 higher due tocellular respiration

temperature gradients caused by solar heating thermocline: thin layer of rapid temperature

change





stratification, continued

material benthic zone: bottom of all aquatic biomes;

made of sand and organic and inorganicsediments

benthos: communities of organisms detritus: dead organic matter

temperature, sunlight availability, dissolvedoxygen, and nutrient availability determinetypes and numbers of producers found inthese zones

Aquatic Ecosystems: Freshwater Life Zones




Freshwater life zones are linked to

nearby terrestrial biomes andinfluenced by water flow, climate, etc. contain less than 1% by volume of salt

two types standing bodies of water (lakes, ponds,

wetlands) moving bodies of water (streams, rivers)

Freshwater and saltwater life zones



Freshwater and saltwater life zones





lakes are large, natural bodies of standing

water found in depressions fed by rainfall, melting snow, and streams consist of four distinct zones depending on

depth and distance from shore

littoral: shallow, well-lit, close to shore;contains rooted plants

limnetic: well-lit, further from shore;contains phytoplankton

profundal: deep, aphotic region, low DO benthic: decomposers and detritus feeders;

sediment washing and dropping detritusfeed this area

Fig. 7-16 Lake zones



Sunlight

Paintedturtle

Greenfrog

Pond

snail

Blue-wingedteal

Muskrat

Plankton

Northern

pike

BloodwormsYellow

perch

Divingbeetle

Littoral zone

Limnetic zone

Profundal zone

Benthic zone

Fig. 7 16 Lake zones

Zones of a lake



Zones of a lake

Zones of a lake



Zones of a lake

Zones of Lakes



Zones of Lakes

58

Littoral zone:

Rooted plants

Limnetic zone:Phytoplankton

Profundal:

No Producers

Compensation PointRespiration > Photosynthesis




q y

lakes, continued stratification of water occurs in deep temperate

lakes into temperature zones; no mixing occurs turnover of water in fall and spring brings up

nutrients, reoxygenates bottom levels, and

evens out water temperature often classified by nutrient status

oligotrophic lake: nutrient-poor newly formed, deep, crystal-clear blue or

green water, low NPP eutrophic lake: nutrient-rich

typically shallow with murky water, lowvisibility, high NPP

Spring and fall overturns



Sp g a d a o e tu s

Oligotrophic lake



g p

Eutrophic lake



p

Fig. 7-17 Oligotrophic vs. eutrophic lakes



g g p p

Sunlight

Littleshorevegetation Limneticzone

Profundal

zone

Oligotrophic lake

Low concentration ofnutrients and plankton

Sparse fishpopulation

Narrowlittoralzone

Sleepilysloping

shorelines

Sand, gravel,rock bottom

Sunlight

Much

shorevegetation

Limneticzone

Profundalzone

Eutrophic lake

High concentration ofnutrients and plankton

Dense fishpopulation

Wide

littoralzone

Gentlyslopingshorelines

Silt, sand,clay bottom




q y

rivers create different aquatic conditions

and habitats surface water does not sink into the ground runoff is surface water that flows into streams

and rivers, and the area it drains is called a

watershed or drainage basin three aquatic life zones can be identified

source zone: narrow, fast moving; high DO,light is available, but productivity is low

transition zone: wider, deeper streams thatflow down gentler slopes; warmer water;more nutrients; more producers; less DO

floodplain zone: wider, deeper rivers;warmer water less DO slower flow

Fig. 7-18 Stream aquatic zones



Rain and snow

Water

Sediment

Lake Glacier RapidsWaterfall

TributaryFlood plain

Oxbow lake

Salt marsh

Delta Ocean

Depositedsediment

Source Zone

Transition Zone

Floodplain Zone

g q




q y

rivers, continued streams are fairly open ecosystems and

receive many nutrients from surrounding lands farms, power plants, cities, and recreation

areas are often found in floodplains

this also increases excessive nutrient inputand pollutant input into the river system

inland wetlands cover the land for a part orall of each year provide a number of free ecological services

filtering toxic wastes/pollutants absorbing/storing excess water from storms providing habitats for a variety of species




q y

wetlands, continued marshes: frequently or continually inundated

with water; characterized by presence ofrushes, reeds, and other grasses; veryproductive

swamps: dominated by either woody plants orshrubs bogs: characterized by acidic waters, peat

deposits, and sphagnum moss; receive water

from precipitation; nutrient poor also prairie potholes, floodplains, and arctic

tundra in summer




human activities have four major impacts

on freshwater systems dams, diversions, and canals fragment ~60%

of the world’s large rivers and destroy habitats flood control dikes and levees alter rivers and

destroy aquatic habitats cities and farmlands add pollutants. wetlands have been drained or covered with

buildings; the U.S. has lost more than 50% of

its wetlands since the 1780s these systems are able to recover when

destructive practices are stopped or reduced

Aquatic Ecosystems: Saltwater Life Zones



Oceans have two major life zones:

the coastal zone and the open sea the coastal zone interacts with the land

much affected by human activities ~40% of world population lives along coasts;

>50% of U.S. lives w/in 62 miles of coast extends from high-tide mark on land to edge of

continental shelf high net primary productivity per unit area 10% of the oceans but 90% of marine species ample sunlight and nutrient flow from land

distributed by wind/currents

two major ecosystems: estuaries, seashores




the coastal zone, continued rocky, sandy, or muddy estuary: partially enclosed body of water

where fresh water and seawater meet and mix subject to tidal rhythms and runoff from land

coastal bays, tidal marshes, fjords, somedeltas, and lagoons are all estuaries mudflats, mangrove swamps (tropical and

subtropical zones), and salt marshes

(temperate zones) are often associated w/ estuaries occur at mouths of rivers collect nutrients carried by rivers

Estuary structure and function



y

Nith River estuary



Exe estuary



Klamath river estuary



Fig. 7-7 Betsiboka River estuary



DO NOT POST TO INTERNE

Mudflats



Mangrove plant



Mangrove swamp



Mangrove community



Fig. 7-2 Oceans, reefs, mangroves, lakes



Mangroves

Coral reefs

Rivers

Lakes




the coastal zone, continued estuaries, continued

wetlands/estuaries make nutrients availabledue to constant stirring of bottom sediment

ecological services:

filter toxic pollutants and excess plantnutrients reduce storm damage provide nursery sites for aquatic species

humans are destroying/degrading theseecosystems; one-third have already beenlost




the coastal zone, continued seashores are constantly bombarded by the

sea as tides roll in an out organisms in the intertidal zone survive daily

changes in wet/dry conditions and salinity

barrier beaches/sandy shores are gentlysloping; organisms tunnel or burrow in sand barrier islands: low, sandy, narrow islands

that form offshore from a coastline

generally run parallel to the shore help protect the mainland, estuaries, and

coastal wetlands from storm damage damaged by human habitation; almost

1/4 of barrier islands are developed

Fig. 7-9a Intertidal zone



Rocky Shore BeachSea star Hermit crab Shore crab

Nudibranch

Monterey flatworm

Kelp Sea lettuce

Barnacles

Sea urchin Anemone

Low tide

Mussel

Periwinkle

High tide

Sculpin

Fig. 7-9b Barrier beach



Barrier beach

Silversides

Blue crab

Low tide

Dwarfolive

Clam

Beach flea

Tiger beetle

High tide

GhostshrimpMole

shrimp

Sandpiper

Peanut worm

White sandmacoma Sand dollar Moon snail

Barrier islands






the coastal zone, continued seashore, continued

barrier islands, continued sand is constantly shifting due to winds

and parallel currents along the islands

one or more rows of sand dunes held inplace by grass roots are first line ofdefense against storms; safer to buildbehind the 2nd set of dunes if at all

developers do not consider the protectiveservices that the dunes provide

governments often provide funds forrebuilding and insurance at fairly low

rates for building on the dunes

Fig. 7-11 Barrier island



Ocean Beach

Intensive recreation,no building

Primary Dune

No directpassage

or building

Trough

Limitedrecreation

and walkways

Secondary Dune

No directpassage

or building

Bay orLagoon

Intensiverecreation

Back Dune

Most suitablefor development

Grasses or shrubs Taller shrubs

Taller shrubs and trees

Bay shoreNo filling




the open sea low average NPP, but oceans are so large they

make the largest contribution to NPP overall zones

pelagic division (open sea)

neritic province (close to shore): hasinorganic nutrients, lots of life oceanic province (far from shore): lacks

inorganic nutrients; divided into three

zones benthic division (ocean floor)

sublittoral zone (continental shelf) bathyal zone (continental slope) abyssal zone (abyssal plain)

Fig. 7-6 Ocean life zones



High tideLow tide

Coastal Zone

EstuarineZone

Continentalshelf

Open SeaSea level

Sun

Euphotic Zone

Bathyal Zone

Abyssal Zone

Depth inmeters

0

50

100

200 P h o t o s y n t h e s i s

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

10,000

D a r k n e s s

T w i l i g h t

© 2004 Brooks/Cole – Thomson Learning

Ocean zones






the open sea, continued neritic province

coral reefs in shallow coastal zones oftropical and subtropical oceans support avery diverse, complex ecosystem

grow slowly vulnerable to damage thrive in clear, warm (18 –30C), fairly

shallow water with a high salinity

natural disturbances include severestorms, freshwater floods, and invasionsof predatory fish, temperature changes

Coral reef






the open sea, continued neritic province, continued

coral reefs, continued greatest threats today are due to

sediment runoff and other human

activities recovery might be possible when

restrictions are imposed and pollution isreduced




the open sea, continued oceanic province (and benthic division)

euphotic (epipelagic) zone: lighted, hasfloating phytoplankton, low nutrient levelsexcept at upwellings, high DO

has large, fast-swimming predatory fishlike swordfish, shark, and bluefin tuna bathyal zone: dimly lit middle zone; no

producers are in this zone

has zooplankton and smaller fish




the open sea, continued oceanic province (and benthic division), cont.

abyssal zone: dark and very cold with lowDO; intense pressure; food falls from above has deposit feeders, or filter feeders

hydrothermal vents are present in someareas where specialized bacteria feed onchemical nutrients and are food for otherorganisms




Human impacts

coral reefs ocean warming soil erosion; algae growth from fertilizer runoff mangrove destruction

coral reef bleaching rising sea levels increased UV exposure from ozone depletion using cyanide and dynamite to harvest coral

reef fish coral removal for building material, aquariums,

and jewelry damage from anchors, ships, and tourist divers




Human impacts

marine ecosystems half of coastal wetlands lost to agriculture and

urban development >1/3 of mangrove forests lost since 1980 to

agriculture, development, and aquacultureshrimp farms

~10% of world’s beaches eroding because of

coastal development and rising sea level ocean bottom habitats degraded by dredging

and trawler fishing boats over 25% of coral reefs severely damaged and

11% have been destroyed

Aquatic Ecosystems



Natural capital

ecological services climate moderation nutrient cycling waste treatment and dilution

habitats for aquatic and terrestrial species genetic resources and biodiversity scientific information flood control (freshwater) groundwater recharge (freshwater) CO2 absorption (saltwater) reduced storm impact (mangrove, barrier

islands, coastal wetlands)

Aquatic Ecosystems



Natural capital

economic services food (including animal and pet feed) transportation corridors and harbors recreation

employment drinking water (freshwater) irrigation water (freshwater) hydroelectricity (freshwater) pharmaceuticals (saltwater) coastal habitats for humans (saltwater) offshore oil, natural gas, minerals (saltwater) building materials (saltwater)

Aquatic Biomes—Marine



Zones

Water neritic is to marine as littoral is to aquatic oceanic is to marine as limnetic is to aquatic pelagic: all open water, regardless of depth

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