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Appendix 1Regular and irregular verbs
1.1 Regular verbs
If a verb is regular, the past simple and past participle end in -ed. For example:
infinitive clean finish use paint stop carry past simple
cleaned finished used painted stopped carry past participleFor spelling rules, see Appendix 6.
For the past simple I cleaned ! the" finished ! she carried etc.#, see $nit %.
&e use the past participle to ma'e the perfect tenses and all the passive forms.
Perfect tenses have!has!had cleaned#:
I have cleaned the (indo(s. present perfect ) see $nits *)+#
he" (ere still (or'ing. he" hadnt finished. past perfect ) see $nit 1%#
Passive is cleaned ! was cleaned etc.#:e was carried out of the room. (past simple passive)
see $nits /0)//his gate has ust been painted. (present perfect passive)
1.2 Irregular verbs
&hen the past simple and past participle do not end in -ed for example, I saw ! I have
seen#, the verb is irregular .
&ith some irregular verbs, all three forms infinitive, past simple and past participle# are the
same. For example, hit:
2ont hit me. (infinitive)
3omebod" hit me as I came into the room. (past simple)
Ive never hit an"bod" in m" life. (past participle – present perfect)
4eorge (as hit on the head b" a stone. (past participle – passive)
&ith other irregular verbs, the past simple is the same as the past participle but different
from the infinitive#. For example, tell 5 told:
an "ou tell me (hat to do7(infinitive)
3he told me to come bac' the next da". (past simple)
ave "ou told an"bod" about "our ne( ob7 (past participle – present perfect)
I (as told to come bac' the next da". (past participle – passive)
&ith other irregular verbs, all three forms are different. For example, wake 5 woke!woken:
Ill wake "ou up. (infinitive)
I woke up in the middle of the night. (past simple)he bab" has woken up. (past participle – present perfect) I
(as woken up b" a loud noise. (past participle – passive)
1.8 he follo(ing verbs can be regular or irregular:
burn 5 burned or burnt smell 5 smelled or smelt
dream 5 dreamed or dreamt 9dremt; spell 5 spelled or spelt
lean 5 leaned or leant 9lent; spill 5 spilled or spilt
learn 5 learned or learnt spoil 5 spoiled or spoilt ; pronunciation
3o "ou can sa":
I leant out of the (indo(. or I leaned out of the (indo(.
he dinner has been spoiled. or he dinner has been spoilt.
In
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Appendix 1
1.4 >ist of irregular verbs
infinitive past simple past participle
be (as!(ere been
beat beat beaten
become became become
begin began begun
bend bent bent
bet bet bet
bite bit bitten
blow ble( blo(n
break bro'e bro'en
bring brought brought
broadcast broadcast broadcast
build built built
burst burst burst
buy bought bought
catch caught caught
choose chose chosen
come came come
cost cost cost
creep crept crept
cut cut cut
deal dealt dealt
dig dug dug
do did done
draw dre( dra(n
drink dran' drun'
drive drove driven
eat ate eaten
fall fell fallen
feed fed fed
feel felt felt
fight fought fought
find found found
flee fled fled
fly fle( flo(n
forbid forbade forbidden
forget forgot forgotten
forgive forgave forgiven
freee fro?e fro?en
get got got!gotten
give gave given
go (ent gone
grow gre( gro(n
hang hung hung
have had hadhear heard heard
hide hid hidden
hit hit hit
hold held held
hurt hurt hurt
keep 'ept 'ept
kneel 'nelt 'nelt
know 'ne( 'no(n
lay laid laid
lead led led
leave left left
lend lent lent
let let letlie la" lain
infinitive past simple past participle
light lit lit
lose lost lost
make made made
mean meant meant
meet met met
pay paid paid
put put put
read read 9red; read 9red;
ride rode ridden
ring rang rung
rise rose risen
run ran run
say said said
see sa( seen
seek sought sought
sell sold sold
send sent sent
set set set
sew se(ed se(n!se(ed
shake shoo' sha'en
shine shone shone
shoot shot shot
show sho(ed sho(n!sho(ed
shrink shran' shrun'
shut shut shut
sing sang sung
sink san' sun'
sit sat sat
sleep slept slept
slide slid slid
speak spo'e spo'en
spend spent spent
spit spat spat
split split split
spread spread spread
spring sprang sprung
stand stood stood
steal stole stolen
stick stuc' stuc'
sting stung stung
stink stan' stun'
strike struc' struc'
swear s(ore s(orn
sweep s(ept s(eptswim s(am s(um
swing s(ung s(ung
take too' ta'en
teach taught taught
tear tore torn
tell told told
think thought thought
throw thre( thro(n
understand understood understood
wake (o'e (o'en
wear (ore (orn
weep (ept (ept
win (on (onwrite (rote (ritten
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; pronunciation 29!
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Appendix 0@resent and past tenses
simple continuous
present I do I am doing
present simple 5 $nits 0)/# present continuous 5 $nits 1, 8)/#
Ann often plays tennis. &heres Ann7 3he"s playing tennis.
I work in a ban', but I don"t en#oy it @lease dont disturb me no(. I"m
much. working.
$o "ou like parties7 ello. Are "ou en#oying the part"7
It doesn"t rain so much in summer. It isn"t raining at the moment.
present I have done I have been doing
perfect present perfect simple present perfect continuous
5 $nits *)+, 1B)1/# 5 $nits C)11#
Ann has played tennis man" times. Ann is tired. 3he has been playing
tennis.
I"ve lost m" 'e". %ave "ou seen it Doure out of breath. %ave "ou beenan"(here7 running7
o( long have "ou and 3am known o( long have "ou been learning
each other7 =nglish7
: Is it still raining7 Its still raining. It has been raining
: Eo, it has stopped. all da".
,he house is dirt". I haven"t cleaned it I haven"t been feeling (ell recentl".
for (ee's. @erhaps I should go to the doctor.
past I did
past simple 5 $nits %)6, 18)1/#
Ann played tennis "esterda"
afternoon.
I lost m" 'e" a fe( da"s ago.
here (as a film on last night, but
(e didn"t watch it.
&hat did "ou do (hen "ou finished
(or' "esterda"7
I was doing
past continuous 5 $nit 6#
I sa( Ann at the sports centre
"esterda". 3he was playing tennis.
I dropped m" 'e" (hen I was
trying to open the door.
he television (as on, but (e
weren"t watching it.
&hat were "ou doing at this
time "esterda"7
past I had done I had been doing perfect past perfect 5 $nit 1%# past perfect continuous 5 $nit 16#
It (asnt her first game of tennis. 3he Ann (as tired "esterda" evening
had played man" times before. because she had been playing tennis
he" couldnt get into the house in the afternoon.
because the" had lost the 'e".
,he house (as dirt" because I hadn"t Games decided to go to the doctor
cleaned it for (ee's. because he hadn"t been feeling (ell.
For the passive, see $nits /0)//.
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Appendix 8he future
!.1 List of future forms:
I"m leaving tomorro(. present continuous 5 $nit 1C A#
H" train leaves at C.8B. present simple 5 $nit 1Condon again, come and see us. not &hen "ou (ill be#
If (e don"t hurry, (ell be late.
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Appendix /Hodal verbs can!could!will!would etc.#
his appendix is a summar" of modal verbs. For more information, see $nits 01)/1.
4.1 ompare can!could etc. for actions:
can I can go out tonight. K there is nothing to stop me#
I can"t go out tonight.could I could go out tonight, but Im not ver" 'een.
I couldn"t go out last night. K I (asnt able#
can or )an
may *ay I go out tonight7 K do "ou allo( me7#
will!won"t I thin' I"ll go out tonight.
I promise I won"t go out.
would I would go out tonight, but I have too much to do.
I promised I wouldn"t go out.
shall +hall I go out tonight7 do "ou thin' it is a good idea7#
should or should
ought to I ought to go out tonight. K it (ould be a good thing to do#must I must go out tonight. K it is necessar"#
I mustn"t go out tonight. K it is necessar" that I do not go out#
needn"t I needn"t go out tonight. K it is not necessar"#
ompare could have L ! would have L etc. :
could
would
should or
ought to
needn"t
I could have gone out last night, but I decided to sta" at home. I
would have gone out last night, but I had too much to do.
I
should
have gone out last night. Im sorr" I didnt.ought toI needn"t have gone out last night. K I (ent out, but it (as notnecessar"#
4.2 &e use will!would!may etc. to sa" (hether something is possible, impossible,
probable, certain etc. ompare:
will &hat time will she be here7 3he"ll be here soon.
would 3he would be here no(, but shes been dela"ed.
should or should
ought to 3he ought to be here soon. K I expect she (ill be here soon#may or may
might or 3he might be here no(. Im not sure. K its possible that she is here#
could could
must 3he must be here. I sa( her come in.can"t 3he can"t possibl" be here. I 'no( for certain that shes a(a" on holida".
6ompare would have L ! should have L etc. :
will 3he will have arrived b" no(. K before no(#
would 3he would have arrived earlier, but she (as dela"ed.
should or should
ought to I (onder (here she is. 3he ought to have arrived b" no(.may or may
might or 3he might have arrived. Im not sure. K its possible that she has arrived#
could could
must 3he must have arrived b" no(. K Im sure ) there is no other possibilit"#can"t 3he can"t possibl" have arrived "et. Its much too earl". K its impossible#
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Appendix %3hort forms I"m ! you"ve ! didn"t etc.#
(.1 In spo'en =nglish (e usuall" sa" I"m ! you"ve ! didn"t etc. short forms or
contractions# rather than I am ! you have ! did not etc. &e also use these short forms
in informal (riting for example, a letter or message to a friend#.
&hen (e (rite short forms, (e use an apostrophe # for the missing letters#:
Im K I am "ouve K "ou have didnt K did not
(.2 >ist of short forms:
"m K am I"m
"s K is or has he"s she"s it"s
"re K are "ou"re (e"re the""re
"ve K have I"ve "ou"ve (e"ve the""ve
"ll K (ill I"ll he"ll she"ll "ou"ll (e"ll the""ll
"d K (ould or had I"d he"d she"d "ou"d (e"d the""d
"s can be is or has:
3he"s ill. K 3he is ill.#
3he"s gone a(a". K 3he has gone# but let"s K let us:
>et"s go no(. K >et us go#
"d can be would or had:
I"d see a doctor if I (ere "ou. K I would see#
I"d never seen her before. K I had never seen#
&e use some of these short forms especiall" "s# after Muestion (ords who!what etc.#
and after that!there!here:
(ho"s (hat"s (here"s ho("s that"s there"s here"s (ho"ll there"ll (ho"d 'ho"sthat (oman over there7 K (ho is#
'hat"s happened7 K (hat has#
2o "ou thin' there"ll be man" people at the part"7 K there will#
&e also use short forms especiall" "s# after a noun:
-atherine"s going out tonight. K Jatherine is#
*y best friend"s ust got married. K H" best friend has#
Dou cannot use "m ! "s ! "re ! "ve ! "ll ! "d at the end of a sentence because the verb is
stressed in this position#:
Are "ou tired7 Des, I am. not Des, Im.#
2o "ou 'no( (here she is7 not 2o "ou 'no( (here shes7#
(.! Eegative short forms
isn"t K is not# don"t K do not# haven"t K have not#
aren"t K are not# doesn"t K does not# hasn"t K has not#
wasn"t K (as not# didn"t K did not# hadn"t K had not#
weren"t K (ere not#
can"t K cannot# couldn"t " could not# mustn"t K must not#
won"t K (ill not# wouldn"t K (ould not# needn"t K need not#
shan"t K shall not# shouldn"t K should not# daren"t K dare not#
Eegative short forms for is and are can be:
he isn"t ! she isn"t ! it isn"t or
"ou aren"t ! (e aren"t ! the" aren"tor
he"s not ! she"s not ! it"s not
"ou"re not ! (e"re not ! the""re not
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Appendix 63pelling
,.1 Eouns, verbs and adectives can have the follo(ing endings:
noun N -s!-es (plural) boo's ideas matches
verb N -s!-es after he!she!it# (or's eno"s (ashes
verb N -ing (or'ing eno"ing (ashingverb N -ed (or'ed eno"ed (ashed
adective N -er (comparative) cheaper Muic'er brighter
adective N -est (superlative) cheapest Muic'est brightest
adective N -ly (averb) cheaply Muic'ly brightly
&hen (e use these endings, there are sometimes changes in spelling. hese changes
are listed belo(.
,.2 Eouns and verbs N -s!-es
he ending is -es (hen the (ord ends in -s!-ss!-sh!-ch!-x:bus!buses miss!misses (ash!(ashes
match!matches sear ch!searches box!boxes
Eote also:
potato!potatoes tomato!tomatoes
do!does go!goes
,.! &ords ending in -y baby, carr y, easy etc.#
If a (ord ends in a consonant# N y -by!-ry!-sy!-vy etc.#
y changes to ie before the ending -s:
baby!babies stor y!stor ies countr y!countr ies secretar y!secretar ies
hurr y!hurr ies study!studies apply!applies tr y!tr iesy changes to i before the ending -ed:
hurr y!hurr ied study!studied apply!applied tr y!tr ied
y changes to i before the endings -er and -est:
easy!easier !easiest heavy!heavier !heaviest luc'y!luc'ier !luc'iest
y changes to i before the ending -ly:
easy!easily heavy!heavily temporar y!temporar ily
y does not change before -ing:
hurr"ing stud"ing appl"ing tr"ing
y does not change if the (ord ends in a vo!el# N y -ay!-ey!-oy!-uy#:
play!plays!played mon'ey!mon'eys enoy!enoys!enoyed buy!buys An exception is: day!daily
Eote also: pay!paid lay!laid say!said
,.4 erbs ending in -ie die, lie, tie#
If a verb ends in -ie, ie changes to y before the ending
-ing: die!dying lie!lying tie!tying
; a e i o u are vo!el letters.
he other letters b c d f g etc.# are consonant letters.
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Appendix ,
,.( &ords ending in -e hope, dance, (ide etc.#
$erbs
If a verb ends in -e, (e leave out e before the ending -ing:
hope!hoping smile!smiling dance!dancing confuse!confusing
=xceptions are be!being
an verbs ending in -ee: see!seeing agr ee!agreeing
If a verb ends in -e0 (e add -d for the past of regular verbs#:hope!hoped smile!smiled dance!danced confuse!confused
%&ectives an averbs
If an adective ends in -e, (e add -r and -st for the comparative and superlative:
(ide!(ider !(idest late!later !latest large!larger !largest
If an adective ends in -e, (e 'eep e before -ly in the adverb:
polite!politely extreme!extremely absolute!absolutely
If an adective ends in
-le simple!simply
simple, terrible etc.#, the adverb ending is -ply, -bly
etc. : terrible!terribly reasonable!reasonably
,., 2oubling consonants stop!stopping!stopped, wet!wetter !wettest etc.#
3ometimes a (ord ends in vo!el N consonant. For example:
stop plan r ub big (et thin pref er regr et
op ! developing ! developed
A@pen ! happening ! happened reH=Hber ! remember ing ! remember ed
In
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Appendix * American =nglish
here are a fe( grammatical differences bet(een
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Appendix .
$nit ets sit at the front of the cinema#. >ets sit in the front of the movie
theater#.
181 different from or different to: different from or different than:
It (as different from!to (hat Id It (as different from!than (hat Id
expected. expected.
18*A