Appendix I - Springer978-1-137-33… · · 2017-08-25black Muslims in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries: ... clashes with his father Elijah Muhammad. ... Mumtaz Ahmad,

Appendix I

Organized activities involving mainstream, that is, non-NOI and non-MST black Muslims in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries:

Dates Organization/Activity Principal Actor(s) Location(s)

1852–1862 Dismal Swamp leader General Osman Virginia

1864–1935 Black nationalist UNIA member. Founded first black Nautical school in Philadelphia. He died in Chicago in 1935. 1

Harry Dean London, S. Africa, Chicago, Philadelphia, Member, London mosque

1891 American Propaganda in every major US city by 1891

Budruddin Abdulla Kur 2

Bombay

1893– Freemasons, Prince Hall Shrine 3 Secret membership Chicago Lodge Lodge #7

1910, 1920 First Cleveland Mosque, later a Sunni mosque

Sheik Wali Akram 4 Cleveland, OH

1919 Ethiopian Temples of Islam Sheik Ahmad Din 5 St. Louis, MO

1919 Islamic Benevolent Society Sheikh Satti Majid 6 Detroit, MI

1922 Muslim recruitment drives at UNIA meetings

Muhammad Sadiq, 7 Nationwide and highly lucrative

1923 Ahmadiyya Muslim mosques

Mufti Muhammad Sadiq

Detroit, MI, Chicago

1924 Ahmadiyya Muslim mosques, later a Sunni mosque

Mufti Muhammad Sadiq

Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

1924 Islamic Mission Society Shaykh Daoud al-Faisal 8

Brooklyn, NY

1926 Universal Islamic Society

Duse Mohamed Ali 9 Detroit, MI

1927 America Asia Society Duse Mohamed Ali Detroit, MI

1930s Addeynu Allah Universal Muhammad Ezaldeen 10

Philadelphia, Pittsburgh

continued

168 Appendix I

1930s Agricultural communes M. Ezaldeen, former MST official

New York, New Jersey, Ohio, Florida, Michigan

1930 The Nation of Islam movement embraced Sunnism in 1975. Some NOI members Like Wallace Deen Muhammad privately followed mainstream Sunni Islam after intermittent clashes with his father Elijah Muhammad. Wallace Deen Muhammad was an Associate of Malcolm X. Others known as “praying Moors” in the MST may have also practiced Sunni Islam, privately.

Elijah Muhammad Detroit, MI

Dates Organization/Activity Principal Actor(s) Location(s)

Appendix II

Mainstream Black Muslim Leaders/Activists of the Eighteenth, Nineteenth, and Twentieth Centuries

Job Ben Solomon (1700–1773) was a probable mason, who was eman-cipated in 1733 with some assistance from white Freemason supporters. Monuments to his legacy exist in Annapolis, Maryland.

Omar ibn Said (1770–1864) was the most famous Muslim of the antebellum period. Accounts as early as 1825 suggest he was a Freemason in Africa, who practiced Islam in 1819, and also joined a church.

Abdul Rahman Ibrahima, “the Prince” of Natchez, Mississippi, raised funds from white Freemasons to free his family members and set sail for Africa on February 7, 1829. Some believe he was a Freemason.

Sambo Swift (1811–1884), of Darien, Georgia was buried in a grave whose tombstone faces northeast.

Edward Wilmot Blyden (1832–1912), born in St. Thomas, the Virgin Islands in 1832, was a diplomat, missionary, and author, who taught Arabic and Islamic studies in West Africa and advocated Islam as the most suitable religion for blacks. He was a three-term secretary of state for the West African state of Liberia. From 1889 to 1890 he traveled and lectured widely on Africa and Islam in the eastern and southern United States.

General Osman was leader of the Maroon community of the Dismall Swamp, from 1852 to 1862, at Virginia.

Muhammad Ali ibn Said (1833–1882), also known as Nicholas Said, was a Civil War hero who died in Brownville, Tennessee.

Harry Dean, (1864–1935) was a successful seaman, Pan-Africanist, Islamist, Black Nationalist, and Activist.

Duse Mohamed Ali (1866–1945) was mentor to Marcus Garvey, who founded the UNIA.

Sheikh Ahmad Din was sheikh of the Ethiopian Mosque of St. Louis in 1925, and mentor to Sheik Wali Akram.

170 Appendix II

Noble Drew Ali (1886–1929) was founder of the Moorish Science Temple in 1913. He was a Freemason.

Sheik Wali Akram (1904–1994) was founder of the First Cleveland (OH) Mosque, one of the oldest in the United States.

Sheikh Daoud Ahmed Faisal (d. 1980) was founder of Islamic Propagation Center, founded in 1928 at Brooklyn, New York.

Muhammad Ezeldeen (d. 1957) was a former Moorish Science Temple offi-cial, who studied Islam and Arabic in Egypt during the early 1930s, and was also founder of numerous Islamic organizations in the United States.

Malcolm X (1925–1965) was the former national spokesperson for the Nation of Islam (NOI). He was a Sunni Muslim.

Warith Dean Muhammad was the son of Elijah Muhammad, Imam and Architect of “the change” from the quasi-Islam of the NOI to Sunni Islam, leader of the largest group of black Muslims in the United States, and for-mer associate of Malcolm X (d. 2008).

Notes

Introduction

1 . See Kambiz GhaneaBassiri, A History of Islam in America (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 343.

2 . Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad and John L Esposito, eds. Muslims on the Americanization Path? (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 10.

3 . Ibid., 11. Also see Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, “The Dynamics of Islamic Identity in North America,” in Muslims on the American Path? , ed. Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad and John L. Esposito (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 21.

4 . Ibid., 21. 5 . GhaneaBassiri, A History of Islam in America , 59. 6 . Ibid., 3. 7 . Ibid., 4.

1 The Hidden Transcripts

1 . See “Study Finds Number of Mosques Up 25% in 6 Years,” New York Times , April 27, 2001, and remarks by the president on a new beginning, at Cairo University, The White House, Office of the Press Secretary, http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/remarks-president-cairo-university-6–04–09 . For a discussion of statis-tics on the growth of Muslims in the United States based on estimates provided by the American Muslim Council and the disproportionate number of black Muslim converts to Islam in the United States see, Mboye Lo, Muslims in America: Race, Politics, and Community Building (Beltsville, MD: Amana Publications, 2004), 17, 40.

2 . L. Carl Brown, Religion and State: The Muslim Approach to Politics (New York: Columbia University Press, 2000), 38, Glenn E. Perry, The Middle East: Fourteen Islamic Centuries (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall Publishing, 1997), and L. P. Harvey, Muslims in Spain 1500–1614 (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1992), 178.

3 . Harvey, Muslims in Spain 1500–1614 , 178. 4 . Fareed Zakaria, “And He’s Head of Intelligence?” Newsweek , October 27, 2003, 41. 5 . Ibid. 6 . Ibid. 7 . Ibid. 8 . Ibid. 9 . “Some Muslim Leaders Want Pope to Apologize for Remarks,” New York Times ,

September 16, 2006.

172 Notes

10 . John Esposito, ed., The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World , vol.2, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 370. Also see A. G. Noorani, Islam and Jihad (New York: Zed books, 2002), 45. For a translation of Allah al-Iskandari’s remarks on the greatest jihad see Sherman A. Jackson, Islam and the Blackamerican (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 195.

11 . Brown, Religion and State , 3. 12 . See Esposito, The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World , 118, and

A. G. Noorani, Islam and Jihad , 118, for a discussion of jihad. For discussions of mosque and state and fitnah , see Bernard Lewis, The Political Language of Islam (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1991), 2, 95–96.

13 . Khaled Abou El Fadl, “Muslim Minorities and Self-Restraint in Liberal Democracies,” Loyola of Los Angeles Law Review , vol. 29, no. 4, (June 1996), 1525.

14 . Ibid., 1529. 15 . Ibid., 1532. 16 . Ibid. 17 . Ibid. 18 . Ibid. 19 . Muhammad Khalid Masud, “Shehu Usman Dan Fodio’s Restatement of the

Doctrine of Hijrah,” Islamic Studies , vol. 25, no. 1, (1986): 60. 20 . Ibid. 21 . Esposito, The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World , vol. 2, 111. 22 . Ibid., 23 . Ibid., 24 . Ibid., 111–112. 25 . Ibid., vol. 4, 264. 26 . See Yvonne Haddad, “A Century of Islam in America,” in The Muslim World

Today , Occasional Paper no. 4 (Washington, DC: The Middle East Institute, 1986), 1, 2, 10.

27 . Esposito , The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World , vol. 2, 296–299, 278.

28 . Daniel Pipes, Militant Islam Reaches America (New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 2002), 214–215.

29 . Esposito, The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World , 278. 30 . According to Pipes, “The legacy of the Muslim slaves is somewhat controversial.”

See Pipes, Militant Islam Reaches America , 216. 31 . Sulayman Nyang, Islam in the United States of America (Chicago: Kazi Publications,

1999), 13. 32 . Ibid., 13, 16. 33 . Sylviane Diouf, Servants of Allah: African Muslims Enslaved in the Americas

(New York: New York University Press, 1998), 198. 34 . Philip Jenkins, “America and Islam Go Way Back,” online version, August 25,

2003, 2, http://hnn.us/articles/1612.html 35 . See Richard Brent Turner, Islam in the African American Experience, 1st ed.

(Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997), 6. 36 . See Geneive Abdo, Mecca and Main Street: Muslim Life in America after 9/11 .

(New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 69. Michael A. Koszegi and J. Gordon Melton, eds. Islam in North America: A Sourcebook (New York: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1992), xi.

37 . Gutbi Mahdi Ahmed, “Muslim Organizations in the United States,” in The Muslims of America , ed. Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 22.

Notes 173

38 . Ibid. 39 . See John L. Esposito, “Muslim’s Place in the American Public Square,” in

Muslims’ Place in the American Public Square , eds. Zahid H. Bukari, Sulayman S. Nyang, Mumtaz Ahmad, and John L. Esposito (New York: Altamira, 2004), Forward.

40 . See Esposito, The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World , 280 and Yvvonne Yazbeck Haddad and Jame Idleman Smith, eds., Muslim Communities in North America (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994), xix.

41 . The Center for Comparative Religious Study at UCLA so designates the Los Angeles area. See Paul M. Barrett, American Islam: Struggle for the Soul of a Religion (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2007), 16.

42 . Turner and other major African American writers of the literature on Islam in America have questioned the validity of the immigrant-indigenous typology. See Turner, Islam in the African American Experience , 6.

43 . See Robert Dannin, Black Pilgrimage to Islam (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), 12. Barrett describes Islamic conversions in the United States as “overwhelmingly African American.” See Barrett, American Islam , 9.

44 . See Barrett, American Islam , 9. 45 . See Dannin, Black Pilgrimage to Islam , dust cover / liner notes. Also see Yvonne

Yazbeck Haddad and John L. Esposito, eds., Muslims on the Americanization Path? (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 21. Haddad states that black Muslims help “reshape America from the bottom up” and “they seek the redemp-tion of African American society.”

46 . Ibid. 47 . Ibid. 48 . Dannin, Black Pilgrimage to Islam , 12. 49 . Ibid., 3. The fact that this is the first sentence in Dannin’s study seems to emphasize

its importance. 50 . James C. Scott, Domination and the Art of Resistance: Hidden Transcripts (New

Haven: Yale University Press, 1990). 51 . Ibid., Preface, xii. 52 . Ibid. 53 . Ibid., 4. 54 . Ibid., 5. 55 . Ibid., 5. 56 . Ibid., 8. 57 . Ibid., 15. 58 . Ibid., 25. 59 . Ibid., 33. 60 . Ibid., 127. 61 . Tom Dalzell, Damn the Man : Slang of the Oppressed in America (Mineola, NY:

Dover Publications, 2010), 1, 185. 62 . Scott, Domination and the Art of Resistance , 123. 63 . Ibid., Preface, x. 64 . Ibid., Preface, x, 18, 20, 21, 120. 65 . Ibid., 13–15. 66 . Mbaye Lo, Muslims in America , 89. 67 . Scott , Domination and the Art of Resistance, 90. 68 . Scott, Domination and the Art of Resistance , 42. 69 . Dalzell, Damn the Man! , 6. 70 . Abdelhamid Lotfi, Muslims on the Block: Five Centuries of Islam in America

(Ifrane, Morocco: Al Akhawayn University Press, 2002), 26–27.

174 Notes

71 . See Ali A. Mazrui, “Islam and the Black Diaspora: The Impact of Islamigration,” in The African Diaspora: African Origins of New World Identities , ed. Isidore Okpewho, Carole Boyce Davies, and Ali A. Mazrui (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1999). Also see Sherman A. Jackson, “Preliminary Reflection on Islam and Black Religion,” in Muslims’ Place in the American Public Square , ed. Zahid H. Bukari et al., (New York: Altamira Press, 2004), 201, and Aminah B. McCloud, African American Islam (New York: Routledge, 1995), 1.

72 . Ibid. Also see “An Islamic Scholar with the dual role of Activist,” Chicago Tribune , January 17, 2004.

73 . “At Terror Hearing, Lawmakers in a Harsh Light,” New York Times , March 11, 2011, “Deep Partisan Rift Emerges in Hearings on US Muslims,” New York Times , March 11, 2011,.

74 . See “For Many American Muslims Complaints of Quiet but Persistent Bias,” New York Times , April 25, 2002, and “Hundreds Are Tracked by FBI on Theory of Quiet Qaeda Cells,” New York Times , October 6, 2002. Also see Ali Mazrui, “Between the Jewish Example and the Black Experience: American Policy Implications,” in Muslims’ Place in the American Public Square, ed. Bukhari et al. 118. Also see Mboye Lo, Muslims in America , 90.

75 . See Zafar Ishaq Ansari, “Islam among African Americans: An Overview,” in Muslims’ Place in the American Public Square , ed. Zahid H. Bukhari, et al., 222–267.

76 . Ishmael Reed, Another Day at the Front: Dispatches from the Race War (New York: Basic Books, 2003). Reed states in the dust jacket of his book that “African Americans have been living under a police state, a sort of banana republic within a democracy for three hundred years.”

77 . Scott, Domination and the Art of Resistance , 25. Also see Dannin, Black Pilgrimage to Islam , 32, and Edward Curtis IV, Black Muslim Religion in the Nation of Isam (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006), 185.

78 . Vibert White, Inside the Nation of Islam in America (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2001), 5–6.

79 . Ibid., 80 . Turner, Islam in the African American Experience , 1st ed., 48–59. 81 . Phillip Jenkins, “America and Islam Go Way Back,” online version, August 25,

2003, 2, http://hnn.us’articles/1612.html 82 . See Alex Haley, The Playboy Interviews (New York: Ballantine Books, 1962). Also

see Michael A. Gomez, Black Crescent: The Experience and Legacy of African Muslims in the Americas (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 337.

83 . Michael Scheuer (Anonymous), Imperial Hubris (Washington, DC: Potomac Books, 2004).

84 . Mattias Gardel, In the Name of Elijah Muhammad (Durham: Duke University Press, 1996), 31.

85 . See G. M. Ahmed, “Muslim Organizations in the United States,” in The Muslims of America , ed. Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 11–36.

86 . Mbaye Lo, Muslims in America , 44. 87 . Lotfi, Muslims on the Block , 16.

2 Political Islam in Florida?

1 . My sincere thanks go to the American Political Science Association for funding the field research that would make possible my 2000 visit to Florida, the writing

Notes 175

of the original article on Fort Musa (now posted online), and the subsequent writing of this chapter. Also see Richard Brent Turner, Islam in the African American Experience (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1997), Preface, 10.

2 . According to Turner, “this Pan Africanist impulse, which became more pervasive and influential in black America as the nineteenth century progressed, was the ideological link between the ‘old Islam’ of the original African Muslim slaves and the ‘new American Islam’ that developed in America at the turn of the century.” See Turner, Islam in the African American Experience , 2nd ed, 46. An earlier version of this chapter was published under the title “Islamic Origins of Spanish Florida Ft. Musa” in the Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 21, no. 2 (October 2001): 209–226.

3 . David Colburn, Introduction to the African American Heritage of Florida , ed. David R. Colburn and Jane L. Landers (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1995), 1. For evidence of Fort Musa’s origins and the original pronunciation of its name, see Jane Landers, Fort Mose: A Free Black Town in Spanish Colonial Florida (St. Augustine, FL: Florida Historical Society, 1992), 16–22, Jane Landers, Black Society in Spanish Florida (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1999), 46, 47, 108, 117, and Kathleen Deagan and Darcie MacMahon, Fort Mose: Colonial America’s Black Fortress of Freedom (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1995), 20–22. For information on early Florida’s early military fortresses, see Michelle Whitmer, “The Story of St. Augustine, Florida,” http://www.oldcity.com/history-information.cfm

4 . Larry Eugene Rivers, Slavery in Florida: Territorial Days to Emancipation (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2000), 2, 257. Also see David R. Colburn, “Introduction,” in The African American Heritage of Florida Colburn and Landers, 1, 48. Deagan and MacMahon, Fort Musa: Colonial America’s Black Fortress of Freedom , 16, Jane Landers in The New History of Florida , ed. Michel Gannon (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1996), 179, Robert Hall, “African Religious Retentions in Florida,” in The African American Heritage of Florida , ed. Colburn and Landers, 45–48, and Michael A. Gomez, Exchanging Our Country Marks: The Transformation of African Identities in the Colonial and Antebellum South (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1998), 70.

5 . Gomez, Exchanging Our Country Marks , 66, 75, 81. Also see Landers, Black Society in Spanish Florida , 22, 114, 117, and Landers, Fort Mose: A Free Black Town in Spanish Colonial Florida .

6 . Robert Hall, “African Religious Retentions in Florida,” in Africanisms in American Culture , ed. Joseph E. Holloway (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005), 230.

7 . Jane L. Landers, Garcia Real de Santa Teresa de Mose: A Free Black Town in Spanish Colonial Florida (St. Augustine, FL: St. Augustine Historical Society, 1992), 31. For a discussion of “bloody Moosa,” see http://www.augustine.com/history/black_history/fort_mose/bloody_mose.php

8 . Landers, Black Society in Spanish Florida , 114. 9 . Sylviane Diouf, Servants of Allah : African Muslims Enslaved in the Americas

(New York: New York University Press, 1998), 78. 10 . Landers, Gracia Real del Santa Teresa del Mose , 3. 11 . Ibid. 12 . Matt Schaffer and Christine Cooper, Mandinko: The Ethnography of a West

African Holy Land (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1980), 5–9. 13 . David Robertson, Denmark Vesey (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1999), 37

Also see Philip Morgan, Slave Counterpoint: Black Culture in the Eighteenth-

176 Notes

Century Chesapeake and Lowcountry (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1998), 635.

14 . Gwendolyn Midlo Hall, Social Control in Slave Plantation Societies: A Comparison of St. Dominique and Cuba (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1996), 55

15 . Albert J. Rabotaeu, African American Religion (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 46.

16 . Gwendolyn Midlo Hall, Africans and Colonial Louisiana: The Development of Afro-Creole Culture in the Eighteenth Century (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University, 1992), 38.

17 . Ibid. 18 . Joao Jose Reis, Slave Rebellion in Brazil: The Muslim Uprising of 1835 in

Bahia , trans. by Arthur Brakel (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993), 97.

19 . Jeffrey Bolster, Black Jacks (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998). Nishida describes passages of Brazilian and Portuguese ships that sailed regularly between Salvador and the Bight of Benin and how Ant ô nio da Costa and Jo ã o Monteiro would become wealthy slave traders as a result of these passages. The authorities in Bahia, Brazil welcomed and encouraged Africa-born ex slaves’ repa-triation to Africa as much as possible. Such a system presupposes the existence of a well-established system of transcontinental communication that Bolster excel-lently elaborates in Black Jacks . See Mieko Nishida, Slavery & Identity: Ethnicity, Gender, and Race in Salvador, Brazil, 1808–1888 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2003), 103. Also see Daniel Pipes, Militant Islam Reaches America (New York: W. W. Norton, 2002), 217.

20 . J. Leitch Wright Jr., Creeks and Seminoles (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1986), 256.

21 . Edwin C. McReynolds, The Seminoles (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1957), 150.

22 . Ibid., 48. 23 . Kenneth W. Porter, The Black Seminoles: History of a Freedom Seeking People,

revised and edited by Alcoine M. Amos and Thomas P. Senter (Gainesville: The University Press of Florida, 1996), 6.

24 . Ibid., 7. 25 . Daniel F. Littlefield Jr., Africans and Seminoles: From Removal to Emancipation

(Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1977), 8. 26 . Porter, The Black Seminoles , 27. 27 . Kevin Mulroy, Freedom at the Border: The Seminole Maroons in Florida, the

Indian Territory, Cohuila and Texas (Lubock: Texas Tech University, 1993), 21. 28 . McReynolds, The Seminoles , 123. 29 . Porter, The Black Seminoles , 71. 30 . Ibid. 31 . Ibid., 67. Also see Landers’s discussion in The New History of Florida of Florida ,

ed. Michael Gannon (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1996), 180. 32 . Larry Eugene Rivers, Slavery in Florida (Gainesville: University Press of Florida,

2000), Preface, xii. Also see J. B. Bird: South West Alternate Media Project, 2005, http://www.johnhorse.com/index.html

33 . Porter, The Black Seminoles , 6. 34 . See Landers’s discussion in The New History of Florida , ed. Gannon (Gainesville:

The University Press of Florida, 1996), 180. 35 . Rivers, Slavery in Florida , 2000, Preface, xii. 36 . Gomez, Exchanging Our Country Marks , 81. 37 . Larry Eugene Rivers’s study of slavery in Florida notes that “blacks and whites,

blacks and other blacks, and blacks and Indians interacted in complex and ever-

Notes 177

evolving ways.” Additionally, Rivers notes that “the light of freedom that shone out of Black Seminole towns and villages never fully died out, and slaves from through-out Florida and other parts of the South ran toward it through the 1850s and most of the Civil War.” See Rivers, Slavery in Florida, 257–258. Also Gomez documents the survival of Muslims amongst enslaved fugitives by noting that “interestingly, examples of Muslim runaways come overwhelmingly from South Carolina and Georgia, especially along the coast, and also from colonial Louisiana.” Gomez concludes that “the evidence shows that, despite pressure from Christianity and African indigenous religions, the majority [of enslaved Muslims in South Carolina and Georgia] resisted coercion to abandon their faith.” See Gomez, Exchanging Our Country Marks, 69, 83.

3 Divergent Perspectives

1 . See Charles L. Blockson, The Underground Railroad: First-Person Narratives of Escapes to Freedom in the North (New York: Prentice Hall Press, 1987), Michael Mullin, Africa in America: Slave Acculturation and Resistance in the American South and the British Caribbean 1736–1831 (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1992), and Kenneth M. Stampp, The Peculiar Institution: Slavery in the Ante-Bellum South (New York: Vintage Books, 1956).

2 . Joel W. Martin, Sacred Revolt: The Muskogee’s Struggle for a New World (Boston: Beacon Press, 1991), 160–161.

3 . Ibid., 163. Also see Susan Avery and Linda Skinner, Extraordinary American Indians (Danbury, CT: Children’s Press, 1992), 49.

4 . Ibid., 115–124, 128–130. 5 . Ibid. Also see John Hope Franklin and Loren Schweninger, Runaway Slaves: Rebels

on the Plantation (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 28, Jane Landers, Black Society in Spanish Florida (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1999), 159, and Peter P. Hinks, To Awaken My Afflicted Brethren: David Walker and the Problem of Antebellum Slave Resistance (University Park: The Pennsylvania University Press, 1997), 42.

6 . See Landers, Black Society in Spanish Florida , 3. Also see Brent Richard Weisman, Unconquered People: Florida’s Seminole and Miccosukee Indians (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1999), 137–138.

7 . Franklin and Schweninger, Runaway Slaves , 115. 8 . Landers, Black Society in Spanish Florida , 29–49. 9 . Ibid., 3. Also see Franklin and Schweninger, Runaway Slaves , 87.

10 . See Weisman, Unconquered People , 43, 44, 68, 69, 72. Edwin C. McReynolds, The Seminoles (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1954), and J. Leitch Wright Jr., British St. Augustine (St. Augustine, FL: Historic St. Augustine Preservation Board, 1975).

11 . Charles L. Blockson, The Underground Railroad: First-Person Narratives of Escapes to Freedom (New York: Prentice Hall Press, 1987), Preface, x.

12 . Ibid. For a discussion of Lizzy Gray see Amir Muhammad, “Collection and Stories of American Muslims, 1800s,” http://www.muslimsinamerica.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=16&Itemid=28

13 . Ibid., Preface x, xi. 14 . See Peter Hinks, To Awaken My Afflicted Brethren: David Walker and the Problem

of Antebellum Slave Resistance (University Park: Pennsylvania State University, 1997).

15 . Ibid., 152. 16 . Ibid., 153, 160, 163.

178 Notes

17 . Franklin and Schweninger, Runaway Slaves , 67. 18 . Ibid., 292. 19 . Ibid., 291. 20 . The evolution of modern political Islam and policy responses to it will be explored

fully in chapter 8 . 21 . Michael A. Gomez, Black Crescent: The Experience and Legacy of African

Muslims in the Americas (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 163. 22 . Ibid., 162. 23 . Ibid., 165, 30, 31. 24 . Joseph E. Holloway, “The Origins of African American Culture,” in Africanisms

in American Culture , ed. Joseph E. Holloway, 2nd ed. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005), 40–42.

25 . Ibid. 26 . Ibid. 27 . Sylviane Diouf, Servants of Allah: African Muslims Enslaved in the Americas

(New York: New York University Press, 1998), 1. 28 . Gomez, Black Crescent , 168. 29 . Diouf, Servants of Allah , 3. Also see Ira Berlin, Generations of Captivity

(Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2003), 56. 30 . Hinks, To Awaken My Afflicted Brethren , 70–75. 31 . Jacqueline L. Tobin and Raymond G. Dobbard, Hidden in Plain View: A Secret

Story of Quilts and the Underground Railroad (New York: Doubleday, 1999). 32 . Hinks, To Awaken My Afflicted Brethren , 45. Also see Cassandra Pybus, Epic

Journeys of Freedom (Boston: Beacon Press, 2006), 6. 33 . See Jeffrey Bolster, Black Jacks: African American Seamen in the Age of Sail

(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997). 34 . Ibid., 38, 98. Also see Allan Austin, African Muslims in Antebellum America: A

Sourcebook (New York: Garland Publishing, 1984), 121–263. 35 . Pybus, Epic Journeys of Freedom , 169. 36 . Kenneth M. Stampp, The Peculiar Institution: Slavery in the Ante-Bellum South

(New York: Vintage Books, 1956), 104. 37 . Gomez, Black Crescent . 38 . Richard Brent Turner, Islam in the African American Experience, 1st ed.

(Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997), 28–29. Also see Kambiz GhaneaBassiri, A History of Islam in America (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 19–28.

39 . Franklin and Schweninger, Runaway Slaves , 6. 40 . Kenneth W. Porter, The Black Seminoles : History of a Freedom-Seeking People ,

revised and edited by Alcoine M. Amos and Thomas P. Senter (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1996), 23, and 78.

41 . Robert Hall, “African Religious Retentions in Florida,” in The African American Heritage of Florida , ed. David Colburn and Jane L. Landers (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1976), 230.

42 . See Landers, Black Society in Spanish Florida , 229–231. Also see R. B. Edgerton, Hidden Heroism: Black Soldiers in America’s Wars (Boulder: Westview Press, 2002), 16.

43 . Pybus, Epic Journeys of Freedom , 18–19. 44 . Hinks, To Awaken My Afflicted Brethren , 42. 45 . See Robert B. Edgerton, Hidden Heroism , 16 and 26. 46 . See GhaneaBassiri, A History of Islam in America , 62, 83, 84, 95, Gomez, Black

Crescent , 182, Kenneth W. Porter, Black Seminoles , 140, and R. B. Edgerton, Hidden Heroism , 16, 26. Writing on Said (although referring to his full Islamic name) Diouf describes how “Mohammed Ali ben Said of Nigeria—a Union soldier

Notes 179

in the Civil War, teacher, and lecturer—reported that while he was enslaved in Tripoli, Libya, as news reached the pasha that the group of young men captured with Said were from the best families in Bornou, [the pash] purchased the whole lot and held them for ransom.” See Sylviane A. Diouf, ed., Fighting the Slave Trade: West African Strategies (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2003), 95.

47 . See John Tebbel and Kieth Jennison, The American Indian Wars (London: Phoenix Press, 1960).

48 . Turner, Islam in the African American Experience , 1st ed., 6, 7. 49 . Amir Nashid Ali Muhammad, Muslims in America: Seven Centuries of History

(1312–1998) (Beltsville, MD: Amana Publications, 1998), xiv. Also, for a discus-sion of Western conflict, bias, and prejudice toward the Islamic world in general see Robert J. Allison, The Crescent Obscured: The United States and the Muslim World 1776–1815 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), and Bernard Lewis, Islam and the West (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995). Mr. Obama acknowledged Muslim contribution in 2009.

50 . Donald Green and Shapiro, Pathologies of Rational Choice: A Critique of Applica-tions in Political Science (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994), 37–38.

51 . Ibid., 37, 38, 45, 58. 52 . Ibid. 53 . Edward Said, Orientalism (New York: Vintage Books, 1978). 54 . GhaneaBassiri, A History of Islam in America , 7, 372, 373, 55 . Farha Ternikar, “Tribalism in Muslim America,” in Islam in America: Images and

Challenges , ed. Phylis Lan Lin (Indianapolis, IN: University of Indianapolis Press, 1998), 41–42.

56 . Said, Orientalism , 282. 57 . Ibid., 26–27, 286–287. 58 . Ibid., 39. 59 . For a recent study of bigotry and its consequences on Muslims in the United States, see

The Council on American-Islamic Relations, A Rush To Judgement . Special Report (Sept. 1995), 1–24, on anti-Muslim stereotyping, harassment, and hate crimes follow-ing the bombing of Oklahoma City’s Murrah Federal Building on April 19, 1995.

60 . See “Muslims in America,” January 10, 2002, Christian Science Monitor, http://www.csmonitor.com/2002/0110/p15s1-lire.html; Jerome P. Bjelopera, “American Jihadist Terrorism: Combatting a Complex Threat,” A Congressional Research Service (CRS) Report prepared for Congress, pp. 1-141, January 23, 2013, http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/terror/R41416.pdf; and Hisham Aidi, “Jihadis in the Hood: Race, Urban Islam and the War on Terror” Middle East Report, 224, Fall 2002, http://www.freerepublic.com/focus/news/776834/posts.

61 . Hisham Aidi, “Let Us Be Moors: Islam, Race, and ‘Connected Histories’,” Middle East Report , Online version, (November 2005), 3, http://loveforlife.com.au/content/08/02/13/let-us-be-moors-islam-race-and-connected-histories-hisham-aidi

62 . Kambiz GhaneaBassiri, A History of Islam in America , 273, 354, 290. Also see Turner, Islam in the African American Experience , 1st ed. Preface, x.

63 . Aidi, “Let Us Be Moors,” 3. 64 . Ibid., 2. 65 . Muhammad, “Muslims in America,” 11. For a discussion of literacy among Muslim

slaves in the Americas see Diouf, Servants of Allah , 107–144. 66 . Ibid. 67 . See Turner, Islam in the African American Experience , 109–146. 68 . See Muhammad, Muslims in America . 69 . From Spike Lee, Malcolm X , the screenplay, 1992. 70 . See “Islam Takes Root in Land of Levis,” Christian Science Monitor, January 22,

1996, http://www.csmonitor.com/1996/0122/22092.html

180 Notes

71 . Sulayman Nyang, “Islam in the United States of America: A Review of the Sources,” in Islam in North America: A Sourcebook , ed. Michael A. Koszegi and J. Gordon Melton (New York: Garland Publishing, 1992), 24.

72 . “Muslims Learn to Pull Political Ropes,” Christian Science Monitor , February 5, 1996. Also see Muslims in the American Public Square: Hopes, Fears, and Aspirations , ed. Zahid H. Bukhari, Sulayman S. Nyang, Mumtaz Ahmad, and John L. Esposito (New York: Altamira Press, 2004), Introduction.

73 . For an illustration of this attitude see Michael Scheuer (first published under the name “Anonymous”), Imperial Hubris: Why the West is Losing the War on Terror (Dulles, Virginia: Potomac Books, Inc., 2004).

74 . Yvonne Y. Haddad, ed. The Muslims of America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 5.

75 . Ibid. 76 . See Kenneth O’Reilly, Black Americans: The FBI Files (New York: Carrol and

Graf Publishers, 1994), and Clayborne Carson, Malcolm X: the FBI File (New York: Carroll and Graf Publishers, 1991). Also see GhaneaBassiri, A History of Islam in America , 223, 230–231, 309, 338,

77 . Turner, Islam in the African American Experience , 1st ed., Preface, x, and 101–108.

78 . Cornel West, Race Matters (Boston: Beacon Press, 1993). 79 . Fatimah Mernissi, Islam and Democracy: Fear of the Modern World (New

York: Addision-Wesley Publishing Co., 1992), 111. Also see Sherman Jackson “Preliminary Reflections on Islam and Black Religion,” in Zahid H. Bukhari et al., Muslims in the American Public Square (New York: Altamira Press, 2004).

80 . See Said, Orientalism . 81 . Thomas Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago: University of

Chicago Press, 1962). Also see M. Muktedar Khan, American Muslims (Beltsville, MD: Amana Publications, 2002).

82 . M. Muktedar Khan has used the term “trophy Muslim” in Khan, American Muslims . Evidence of Khan’s sometimes controversial ideas are evidenced in part by hostile let-ters to the editor of Islamic Horizons magazine. See “Letters,” Islamic Horizons , January–February, 2005, 13. For illustrations of what some regard as the practice of promoting “trophy Muslims,” see “No Longer A Novelty,” Islamic Horizons, January–February, 2005, 36–39, and “Leading to Serve,” Islamic Horizons , January–February, 2005, 40–43. While reports on individual African American Muslims are periodically featured in Islamic Horizons published by Islamic Society of North America (ISNA), it is rare to find special feature stories on them as a group in the influential Islamic Horizons . Because the same can not be said of white Muslims, some have described this disparity as an attempt to promote trophy Muslims.

83 . Leonard Karen Isaksen, Muslims in the United States (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2003), 138.

84 . Ibid. 85 . Ibid., 130.

4 Beyond Malcolm X

1 . New York Times , November 15, 1992. 2 . New York Times, November 18, 1992. Also see, “Malcolm X’s Popularity Surging,”

Chicago Tribune, April 16, 1992, http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1992-04-16/news/9202030902_1_corner-of-125th-street-malcolm-black-muslims

3 . Hisham Aidi, “Let Us Be Moors: Islam, Race and ‘Connected Histories’,” Middle East Report , online version, (November 2005): 1, http://loveforlife.com.au/content/08/02/13/let-us-be-moors-islam-race-and-connected-histories-hisham-aidi

Notes 181

4 . Ibid., 3. 5 . Ibid. Also see “Amid Islam’s Growth in the U.S., Muslims Face a Surge in Attacks,”

New York Times , August 28, 1995. 6 . “Media Still Portray Muslims as Terrorists,” The Christian Science Monitor ,

January 22, 1996, 11. 7 . “U.S. Moslems Struggle for Place in American Religious Mainstream,” Bangor

Daily News , March, 11–12, 1989, 12. 8 . “Media Still Portray Muslims as Terrorists,” The Christian Science Monitor . 9 . Ibid.

10 . Ibid. Also for a discussion of the sniper case see the New York Times, October 26, 2002.

11 . “300 Anti-Muslim Acts in the U.S. since the Oklahoma Bombing,” Islamic Horizon , (July–August 1996), 36.

12 . Ibid. 13 . Ibid. 14 . “What Does the Koran Say about Nasreen’s Nose Ring?” New York Times ,

December 7, 1997, 76. 15 . “Media Still Portray Muslims as Terrorists,” The Christian Science Monitor . 16 . Khalid Duran, “Demographic Characteristics of the American Muslim

Community,” Journal of Islamic Studies , vol. 36, no. 01, (1997), 61. 17 . Steven Barboza, American Jihad: Islam After Malcolm X (New York: Doubleday,

1993), 58. 18 . Gutbi Mahdi Ahmed, “Muslim Organizations in the United States,” in The

Muslims of America , ed. Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 14–18.

19 . Ibid., 16–17. 20 . “Amid Islam’s Growth in the U.S. Muslims Face a Surge in Attacks,” New York

Times , August 28, 1995, 1. Also see Sherman A. Jackson, “Preliminary Reflections on Islam and Black Religion,” in Muslims’ Place in the American Public Square , ed. Zahid H. Bukhari, Sulayman, S. Nyang, Mumtaz Ahmad, and John L. Esposito (New York: Altamira Press, 2004), 201.

21 . “Blacks and Immigrants Learning To Live under One Mosque,” The Christian Science Monitor , January 22, 1996, 10.

22 . Ibid. 23 . Ibid. 24 . Ibid. 25 . Duran, “Demographic Characteristics of the American Muslim Community,”

63–64. 26 . Ibid., 64. 27 . See Muhammad Khalid Masud, “The Obligation to Migrate: The Doctrine of Hijra

in Islamic Law,” in Muslim Travellers: Pilgrimage, Migration, and the Religious Imagination , ed. Dale F. Eickelman and James Piscatori (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999).

28 . “The Un-Farrakhan,” Wall Street Journal , July 9, 1999. 29 . “Islam Takes Root in Land of Levis,” The Christian Science Monitor , January 22,

1996, 9. 30 . Shahab Razfar, “Ballot or a Boycott: Should Muslims Get Involved in the American

Political System,” Al-Talib: the Muslim News Magazine at UCLA , October 1997. 31 . Ibid. 32 . John O. Voll, “Islamic Issues for Muslims in the United States,” in The Muslims

of America , ed. Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 209.

33 . Ibid., 210.

182 Notes

34 . John O. Voll, “Religion and Politics in Islamic Africa,” in The Religious Challenge to the State , ed. Matthew C. Moen and Lowell C. Gustafson (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992), 213.

35 . Ibid., 229. 36 . Ibid., 230. 37 . Ibid., 231. 38 . Ibid. 39 . “Black Muslims Enter Islamic Mainstream,” New York Times , May 3, 1993. 40 . Ibid. 41 . Ibid. 42 . Ibid., 231. 43 . “One Imam Traces the Path of Islam in Black America,” The Wall Street Journal,

October 24, 2003, http://online.wsj.com/article/0,,SB106694267937278700,00.html

44 . “Black Muslims Enter Islamic Mainstream,” New York Times . 45 . “Black Muslims Enter Islamic Mainstream,” New York Times, May 3, 1993. Also

see “Muslim liquor store owners get help with moral dilemma,” Chicago Tribune, June 20, 2010, http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2010-06-20/news/ct-met- muslim-liquor-store-20100619_1_store-owners-rami-nashashibi-city-muslim-action- network; “Black Muslim Leader Quits, Dissolves Group,” Chicago Tribune, May 3, 1985, http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1985-05-03/news/8501270264_1_elijah-muhammad-american-muslim-mission-black-muslims; “W. Deen Mohammed, 74 Top U.S. Imam, Dies,” New York Times, September 9, 2008, http://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/10/us/10mohammed.html?ref=nationofislam

46 . Voll, “Religion and Politics in Islamic Africa”, 211. 47 . Ibid. 48 . John L. Esposito, Foreword to Muslims’ Place in the American Public Square:

Hope, Fears, and Aspirations , ed. Zahid H. Bukhari, Sulayman S. Nyang, Mumtaz Ahmad, and John L. Esposito. (New York: Altamira Press, 2004), xv.

49 . M. Muktedar Khan, American Muslim s (Chicago, Amana Publications, 2002). Also see Karen Isaksen Leonard, Muslims in the United States: The State of Research , (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2003), 78, 104, 137.

50 . Leonard, Muslims in the United States , 137. 51 . Ibid., 137. 52 . Ibid., 132. 53 . See Gutbi Mahdi Ahmed, “Muslim Organizations in the United States,” in The

Muslims of America , ed. Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 22. Also see Michael A. Koszegi and J. Gordon Melton, eds., Islam in North America: A Sourcebook (New York: Garland Publishing, 1992), Introduction xi-xii.

54 . Ibid., 167. 55 . Leonard, Muslims in the United States , 58. 56 . Ibid. 57 . See M. Mohammed A. Muqtedar Khan, “Why Muslims Must participate in

American Politics,” Preview Themestream , July 8, 2000, www.ijthad.org .

5 Cases

1 . See Daniel Pipes, Militant Islam Reaches America (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 2002), 308, and “For Muslims, a Mixture of White House Signals,” New York Times , April 28, 2003.

2 . See Steven Barboza, American Jihad: Islam After Malcolm X (New York: Doubleday, 1993).

Notes 183

3 . See Pipes, Militant Islam Reaches America , 112, 113, 126, 127, 136, 225, 237. 4 . Ibid. 5 . Ibid. Also see “The White House celebrates Eid al Fitr,” Islamic Horizons (May–

June 1996), 21. 6 . Ibid., 159. 7 . For a useful general discussion of this issue see “The Changing Face of Patriotism,”

New York Times , July 6, 2003. 8 . Pipes, Militant Islam Reaches America . 9 . See Pipes, Militant Islam Reaches America , xvi, 128. For an alternative view,

see “Home from Iraq, and Sorting out Life as Muslims and Marines,” New York Times , August 7, 2006.

10 . This case is based on “An Ambassador Battles Terror and Indifference,” New York Times , June 5, 2000.

11 . Ibid. 12 . Ibid. 13 . Ibid. 14 . Judith Stein, The World of Marcus Garvey: Race and Class in Modern Society

(Baton Rouge and London: Louisiana State University Press, 1986), 1, 207. 15 . Kambiz GhaneaBassiri, A History of Islam in America (New York: Cambridge

University Press, 2010), 204. 16 . GhaneaBassiri, A History of Islam in America , 202–207. 17 . Abdelhamid Lotfi, Muslims on the Block: Five Centuries of Islam in America

(Ifrane, Morocco: Al-Akhawayn University Press, 2002), 52–54. 18 . Ibid., 51. 19 . Ibid., 58. According to Lynch, Blyden’s reference to the West African Muslim leader

Samadu is actually Samori Toure, whom Rogers describes as the “Napoleon of the Sudan.” See Selected Letters of Edward Wilmot Blyden , ed. Hollis R. Lynch (New York: KTO Press, 1978), 12.

20 . Ibid., 56–59. Also see Richard Brent Turner, Islam in the African American Experience , 1st ed., (Bloomington: Indiana University, 2003), and Amir Nashid Ali Muhammad, Stories of Muslims in America (Beltsville, Maryland: Amana publica-tions, 2001). For a discussion of Blyden and the NAACP, see Mbaye Lo, Muslims in America: Race, Politics, and Community Building (Beltsville, Maryland: Amana publications, 2004), 35.

21 . See Lotfi, Muslims on the Block , 53–54. Also see Turner Islam in the African American Experience , 2nd ed., (2003), 57.

22 . Turner, Islam in the African American Experience , 1st ed., 45–59. 23 . Ajile Aisha Amatullah-Rahman “A History of Islam among African Americans,”

in Islam in America : Images and Challenges , ed. Phylis Lan Lin (Indianapolis: University of Indianapolis Press, 1998), 30–32. Also see Adib Rashid, The History of Islam and Black Nationalism in the Americas (Beltsville: Writers’ Inc., 1991).

24 . This case is based on http://www.famsy.com/conference21.thm 25 . Ibid. This case is based on “Seeking their Due,” Islamic Horizons (March–April

2000). 26 . Ibid. 27 . Ibid. 28 . This case is based on a report in the Islamic Horizon (November–December 2000)

and the New York Times , March 17, 1996. 29 . Ibid. 30 . Ibid. 31 . Ibid., 126–127 32 . Ibid.

184 Notes

33 . Ibid., xvi. 34 . Ibid. Also for a non-sympathetic account of the Abdul Rauf case, see Pipes, Militant

Islam Reaches America , 126–127. 35 . This case is based on Islamic Horizon (November–December 2000) and the New

York Times , March 17, 1996. 36 . Ibid. 37 . Ibid. 38 . Ibid. Also see New York Times , April 4, 2010. 39 . Ibid. Also see www.accessatlanta.com/ajc/metro/alamin/031402.html 40 . See George Breitman, ed. Malcolm X Speaks (New York: Grove Publishing,

1965), 8. 41 . This case is based on The Atlanta Constitution , August 22, 1993. 42 . This case is based on “The Road to Justice: Imam Jamil al Amin, a Social Reformer

Wrongfully Charged,” Islamic Horizons (May–June 2001). 43 . This case is based on the Atlanta Constitution, August 22, 1993, and New York

Times , March 17, 18 and 22, 2000. 44 . Ibid. 45 . Ibid. For a non-sympathetic account of this case see Pipes, Militant Islam Reaches

America , 236–242. Also see “Ex-Black militant Gets Life for Murdering Deputy,” New York Times , March 14, 2002.

46 . “Radical Muslim Dies in Shootout With F.B.I.,” New York Times , October 29, 2009.

47 . Ibid. 48 . Barboza, American Jihad , 50–51. 49 . This case is based on Albert Raboteau, African American Religion (New York:

Oxford University Press, 1999), 123–124, and “The Un-Farrakhan: Black Muslims Flock to a Moderate Cleric of Radical Pedigree,” Wall Street Journal , July 9, 1999.

50 . Ibid. 51 . See the PBS television documentary “This Far by Faith,” June 25, 2003. www.pbs.

org/thisfarbyfaith/witness/cornelia_bailey.html 52 . Ibid. 53 . This case is primarily based on reports in the New York Times, October 19, 1999,

and May 13, 1993, and The Wall Street Journal , July 9, 1999. For a discussion of Malcolm X’s endorsement of Republican senator Barry Goldwater, see Manning Marable, Malcolm X (New York: Viking Press, 2011), 352, 367. For a discussion of Alex Haley’s Republicanism, see Marable, Malcolm X , 9.

54 . See “The Family Grows,” Islamic Horizon (March 2000). 55 . Ibid. Also see “Farrakhan Ends Longtime Rivalry with Orthodox Muslims,” New

York Times , February 28, 2000. 56 . “Muslim Leader among Blacks Resigns Post,” New York Times , September 1, 2003.

Also see Kauthar B. Umar, “Leading a Nation,” Islamic Horizons (September–October, 2008), 26–52.

57 . This case is based on New York Times , February 25, 1988, Jet Magazine , July 15, 1991, and “One Imam Traces the Path of Islam in Black America,” Wall Street Journal , October 24, 2003.

58 . Ibid. 59 . Ibid. 60 . Ibid. 61 . Ibid. 62 . Ibid. 63 . Ibid. 64 . Ibid

Notes 185

65 . This case is based on the article “Justices Will Decide Whether Ashcroft May be Sued in 2003 Detention Case,” New York Times , October 19, 2010.

66 . Ibid. 67 . Ibid. 68 . Ibid. 69 . Ibid. 70 . Ibid. 71 . Ibid. 72 . Ibid. 73 . Ibid. 74 . “Citizen Held after 9/11 Wins Right to Be Tried” New York Times , September 20,

2012. 75 . This case is based on the article “Accused Helper of al Qaeda Pleads Guilty,” New

York Times , April 7, 2003. 76 . This case is based on Jet Magazine , September 22, 1977. 77 . Ibid. 78 . Ibid. 79 . See Vibert White Jr., Inside the Nation of Islam (Gainesville: University Press of

Florida, 2001) 80 . Ibid. 81 . This case is based on New York Times , January 3, 2002. 82 . This case is based on New York Times , March 26, 2003, and also the Bloomington

(Indiana) Herald Times , March 24, 2003. 83 . Ibid. 84 . This case is based on Thomas Hauser with Muhammad Ali, Muhammad Ali: His

Life and Times (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1991), 14. 85 . Ibid., 167. 86 . Ibid., 169. 87 . Ibid., 171. 88 . Ibid., 239. 89 . Ibid., 395–396. 90 . This case is based on Barboza, American Jihad , 226. 91 . Ibid. 92 . This case is based on the newspaper article “An Islamic Scholar with the Dual

Role of Activist,” New York Times, January 17, 2004. 93 . Ibid. 94 . Ibid. 95 . Ibid. 96 . Ibid. 97 . Ibid. 98 . Charles V. Hamilton and Stokley Carmichael, Black Power (New York: Vintage

Books, 1966), 44. 99 . Ibid.

100 . Ibid. 101 . “US Muslims Rarely Seen in Terror Acts, Study Finds,” New York Times , February

8, 2012.

6 A Comparison of US Policy toward Minorities in the United States with Muslims Overseas

1 . Fareed Zakaria, The Post American World (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2008), 226.

186 Notes

2 . From televised transcripts of the 9–11 Commission hearings held in July 2004. A partial set of transcripts of the hearings were published in the New York Times . See “Sharp-Tongued Ex-Senator back in Spotlight,” New York Times , April 7, 2004. And finally see Haki Madhabuti, founder and director of the Institute of Positive Education of Chicago who, during the 2004 annual Harlem Book fair in New York City, raised the broader question of why no authority at the national level has ever asked African Americans how they feel about 9–11.

3 . Ibid. 4 . British authorities in the Butler Report on Pre-War Intelligence on Iraq and Tony

Blair himself admit the inaccuracy of British intelligence reports in the “runup” to the war in Iraq. These admissions were made public on C-Span (See c-span.org) on July 14, 2004. For documentation of the inaccuracy of the Niger claim see “How Niger Uranium Story Defied Wide Skepticism,” New York Times , July 14, 2004.

5 . “We were Wrong, Special Report: The Iraq Intelligence Mess,” Newsweek , February 9. 2004.

6 . “U.S. Wrongly Reported Drop in World Terrorism in 2003,” New York Times , June 11, 2004.

7 . See “Panel Finds No Qaeda-Iraqi Tie,” New York Times , June 17, 2004. 8 . “Court Blocks Guantanamo Trials,” Bloomington Herald Times , June 30, 2006,

and New York Times , June 30, 2006 9 . “Former G.I. Held in Four Slayings and Rape in Iraq,” New York Times , July

4, 2006. Also see “Iraq Tribes Are Upset by Sentence Given to G.I.,” New York Times , May 23, 2009.

10 . From Michael Moore, “Fahrenheit 9–11,” documentary film, July 2004. 11 . This comment was made during a televised presentation by Arundhati Roy on

C-Span television. The presentation was made during the promotion of her newly released book. See Arundhati Roy, War Talk (Cambridge, MA: South End Press, 2003).

12 . See Kathleen Moore, “Muslims in Prison,” in The Muslims of America , ed. Yvonne Yabeck Haddad (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 136–156. For a report on private prisons in Texas and the problem of prison over construction see John Burnett, “Private Prison Promises Leave Texas Towns in Trouble,” NPR News Investigations , March 30, 2011, http://www.gpb.org/news/2011/03/28/private-prison-promises-leave-texas-towns-in-trouble

13 . “One of Every 75 U.S. Men in Prison, Report Finds,” The [Bloomington, IN] Herald Times , May 28, 2004. The report referred to here is the US Justice Department’s Uniform Crime Report, released in May 2004. Also See Senator Jim Webb, “Why We Must Fix Our Prisons,” March 29, 2009 Parade , 4–5, and Parade.Com and Roger N. Lancaster Opinion “Sex Offenders: The Last Pariahs,” New York Times , August 21, 2011.

14 . Ibid. 15 . See “Links between Prison and AIDS affecting Blacks inside and out,” New York

Times , August 6, 2004. Also see “Whites Smoke Pot, but Blacks Are Arrested,” New York Times , December 23, 2009.

16 . See “U.S. will Tighten Rules on Holding Terror Suspects,” New York Times , June 13, 2003, “Bush Issues Racial Profiling Ban but Exempts Security Inquiries,” New York Times , June 18, 2003.

17 . “Swollen Prisons Challenge Cash-Strapped States,” in The [Bloomington, IN] Herald Times July 28, 2003.

18 . Ibid. 19 . Ibid.

Notes 187

20 . For an alternative explanation of minority incarceration, see The Network of Black Organizers (NOBO) Black Prison Movement USA (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, Inc., 1995). Also see “Minor Marijuana Arrest for Parents lead to Risk of Losing Their Children,” New York Times , August 18, 2011.

21 . Daniel Pipes, Militant Islam Reaches America (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 2002), 145–146. Pipes also documents similar statements by FBI director Mueller that underscore Mueller’s fears of a future terrorist attack in the United States. Although Pipes’s (2002) book predates Director Mueller’s public testimony before the US senate in February 2003, Pipes’s references nonetheless document Director Mueller’s belief that domestic terrorism from al-Qaeda sympathizers (or “sleeper cells”) represents in his view the greatest threat to post-9–11 security in the United States.

22 . For a good discussion of this problem, see “For Muslims, a Mixture of White House Signals,” New York Times, April 28, 2003, http://www.nytimes.com/2003/04/28/politics/28MEMO.html For example, John Esposito is quoted in the article as say-ing: “President Bush has clearly tried to make a distinction between Islam and the religion and the actions of Muslim extremists . . . But there’s a dissonance between what the President says and what his domestic and international policies have been.”

23 . See John L. Esposito, ed. The Iranian Revolution: Its Global Impact (Miami: Florida International University Press, 1990).

24 . “Betting on Terror: What Markets Can Reveal,” New York Times , August 3, 2003.

25 . “Struggle for the Soul of Islam” The Chicago Tribune , February 8, 2004. 26 . “U.S. Senators Accuse Saudis of Not Helping to Fight Terror,” New York Times ,

November 25, 2002. Also see “Classified Section of Sept. 11 Report Faults Saudi Rulers,” New York Times , July 26, 2003.

27 . “Saudi Tries to Calm U.S. Opinion,” New York Times , December 3, 2002. 28 . See Katherine Bullock’s editorial comments in the American Journal of Islamic

Social Sciences vol. 21, no. 2, (Spring 2004), i. Also see “Smiles and Barbs for Clinton in China,” New York Times , September 5, 2012.

29 . “U.S. Transfers Power to Iraq 2 Days Early,” New York Times , June 29, 2004. 30 . The stop loss order refers to a US military directive issued during June 2004. 31 . See “5,600 Ex-soldiers Will be Called up,” New York Times , June 30, 2004. Also

see “CIA Security Officer Is Freed in Pakistan as Redress Is Paid,” New York Times , March 17, 2011.

32 . “Militants Attack in Saudi Oil Area, at Least 12 Dead, Westerners Are Targets,” New York Times , May 30, 2004.

33 . Bahrain remains home to the US Navy’s 5th fleet. For a discussion of dramatic new developments in US-Turkish relations, see “Turkey Joins NATO Missile Defense Shield,” New York Times , September 16, 2011.

34 . “Poll Finds Hostility toward U.S. Policies,” New York Times , March 17, 2004, “World View of U.S. Sours after War, Poll Finds,” New York Times , June 4, 2003, and “World Survey Says Negative Views of U.S. Are Rising,” New York Times , December 5, 2002.

35 . “Courting Allies Bush Ends Rift with the Turks,” New York Times , June 28, 2004. This article quotes Assistant Defense Secretary Paul D. Wolfowitz who “openly criticized the Turkish military for not making good on its promise of support and called on Turkey to apologize for the decision of its Parliament.” Also see, “Turkey, Well along Road to Secularism, Fears Detour to Islamism,” New York Times , January 8, 2002.

36 . “Bush Calls for Changes in Africa to End Wars and Promote Trade,” New York Times , June 27, 2003.

188 Notes

37 . See The Congressional Quarterly Researcher, Global Issues (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly, 2003), 110, 1111, 114.

38 . See “A Dark View of U.S. Strategy,” New York Times , July 9, 2004 for a discussion of Imperial Hubris: Why the West is Losing the War on Terror by Anonymous—current CIA officer (New York: Brassey’s Inc., 2004). According to the article, “The agent known as Anonymous [Michael Sheurer] sees little hope in the ideas of either left or right.”

39 . “Iraq’s U.S. Overseer Is Praised by Rumsfeld,” New York Times , May 3, 2003. 40 . For a discussion of book promotion efforts by these well known authors, see “In

Politics, Book Tours Take Place in TV Studios,” New York Times , May 17, 2004. 41 . For further details on the CBS/Times poll see “Bush Ratings Fall to its Lowest

Point . . . ” New York Times , June 29, 2004. 42 . “Rice Urges Egyptians and Saudis to Democratize,” New York Times , June 21,

2005. 43 . “Mistakes, I’ve Made a Few, Bush Tells Reporters,” New York Times , January 13,

2009. Also see Zakaria, The Post American World , 228. 44 . See Daniel Pipes, Militant Islam Reaches America (New York: W. W. Norton &

Co., 2002), 236–238. 45 . “In the 1940s, the FBI classified all black Muslim groups under the heading of

‘extremist Muslim groups and violence.’ The basic fear was that these groups were part of a worldwide organization and were developing plans with various Japanese organizations in America to unite ‘darker races’ in order to ‘takeover’ the country while white soldiers were away fighting in World War II.” For further details see Richard Brent Turner, Islam in the African American Experience, 1st ed. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997), 101.

46 . See Mike Wallace, Foreword to Vibert L. White Jr., Inside the Nation of Islam (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2001).

47 . Turner, Islam in the African American Experience , 176. 48 . See Paul A. Gilje, Rioting in America (Bloomington: Indiana University Press,

1996), 160. Gilje reveals quite interestingly how “despite the death toll in several large disturbances, these ghetto riots were marked by a relative absence of violence committed by rioters against people.”

49 . “Poll Finds Hostility Hardening toward U.S. Policies,” New York Times , March 17, 2004.

50 . For Iraqi’s in Harm’s Way $5,000 and I’m Sorry,” New York Times , March 12, 2004.

51 . From the visiting lecture series by Bernard Lewis at Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, Winter 2002.

52 . From televised video tapes of group claiming responsibility for the March 2004 train bombing in Madrid, Spain.

53 . From televised video tapes of groups claiming responsibility for the 2004 decapita-tion of Nicholas Berg. Also see “An American Nicholas Berg, from West Chester, Pa Was Shown Just before Beheading on a Videotape Posted by an Islamist Website,” New York Times, May 12, 2004.

54 . “Classified Section of September 11 Report Faults Saudi Rulers,” New York Times , July 26, 2003.

55 . From Michael Moore, “Fahrenheit 9–11,” documentary film, July 2004. 56 . From a televised interview on the Jim Lehrer News Hour , November 2002. 57 . “Brooklyn’s Version of Abu Ghraib?” Newsweek , May 24, 2004. Also see “U.S. to

Pay $1.2 Million to 5 Detained Muslims, New York Times , November 3, 2009. 58 . “3 Brooklyn Police Officers are indicted in Beating of Cabby,” New York Times ,

July 10, 2004. 59 . Ibid.

Notes 189

60 . “California Report Criticizes ‘Dysfunctional’ Prisons,” New York Times , July 4, 2004.

61 . “Prison Leaders Had Past Woes,” Chicago Tribune , May 14, 2004. Also see “Justices Order California to Cut Prison Crowding: 30,000 Fewer Inmates,” New York Times , May 24, 2011.

62 . Ibid. 63 . “Accused Soldier Paints Scene of Eager Mayhem,” New York Times , May 14, 2004,

and “Breakdown at Abu Ghraib,” Washington Post National Weekly Edition , May 17–23, 2004.

64 . See “Interrogation Methods in Iraq Aren’t Found in Manual,” New York Times , May 7, 2004.

65 . From television interview. 66 . “Contractor indicted in Afghan Detained Beating,” New York Times , June 18,

2004. 67 . “CIA Contractor Guilty in Beating of Afghan Who Later Died,” New York Times ,

August 18, 2006. 68 . Ibid. 69 . Ibid. 70 . Ibid. Also see “Dog Handler Convicted in Abu Ghraib Abuse,” New York Times ,

June 2, 2006. 71 . “Limbaugh, Saying He’s an Addict, Plans to Enter Clinic,” New York Times ,

October 11, 2003. 72 . “Bush Voices Disgust at Abuse of Iraqi Prisoners by U.S. Forces as Shown in

Photos,” New York Times , May 1, 2004. 73 . Although referred to by names other than black terror, a huge literature exists on

this subject. For an introduction to this literature see Lani Guinier, The Tyranny of the Majority (New York: The Free Press, 1994), W. Fitzhugh Brundage, Lynching in the New South: Georgia and Virginia 1880–1930 (Chicago: University of Illinois Press 1993), Alden T. Vaughan, Roots of American Racism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), C. Vann Woodward, The Strange Career of Jim Crow (New York: Oxford University Press, 1955. Also see “The Rodney King Case: A Chronology,” New York Times , August 6, 1992, “Judge in Louima Case Refuses to Move from New York,” New York Times , February 20, 1999, “4 Officers in Diallo shooting are acquitted of all charges,” New York Times , February 2000, and “Diallo Legacy: Myriad Questions about Tactics for Policing Streets,” New York Times , February 27, 2000.

74 . “U.S. Revives Emmit till Case Based on New Details . . . ” New York Times , May 11, 2004.

75 . Ibid. 76 . “Iraqis Tell of U.S. Abuse, from Ridicule to Rape Threat,” New York Times , May

14, 2004, Seymour Hersh, “Torture at Abu Ghraib,” New Yorker Magazine , May 10, 2004, 42–47, and Seymour M. Hersh, “Chain of Command: How the Department of Defense Mishandled the Disaster at Abu Ghraib,” The New Yorker Magazine , May 17, 2004, 38–43.

77 . For a further discussion of the Attica prison uprising see “From Ex-Attica Inmate Wins $14 Million in Suit over Reprisals after 1971 Uprising,” New York Times , June 6, 1997.

78 . “Attica Survivors: Recovering from History,” New York Times , January 9, 2004. 79 . See Hersh, “Chain of Command,” New York Times Magazine . 80 . Ibid. and also see Hersh, “Torture at Abu Ghraib,” The New York Times

Magazine . 81 . Ibid. Also televised hearings on the abuses were held in June 2004. See “Early Jail

Seen as Incubator for Abuses in Iraq,” New York Times , May 15, 2004.

190 Notes

82 . “Red Cross Found Abuses at Abu Ghraib Last Year,” New York Times , May 11, 2004.

83 . From public testimony before Congress, June 2004. 84 . From public testimony before Congress, June 2004. 85 . From televised remarks, June 2004. 86 . “Afghan Gives Own Account of U.S. Abuse,” New York Times , March 12, 2004. 87 . Ibid. 88 . See Hersh, “Chain of Command,” The New Yorker Magazine . 89 . Ibid., and Hersh, “Torture at Abu Ghraib,” The New Yorker Magazine , 42–47.

“As many as 50, 000 men and women were jammed into Abu Ghraib,” according to Hersh.

90 . “Afghan Gives Own Account of U.S. Abuse,” New York Times , March 12, 2004.

91 . For a discussion of the Zanj rebellion in early Iraq, see Robert Payne, The History of Islam (New York: Barnes and Nobel Books, 1959) and Glenn E. Perry, The Middle East: Fourteen Islamic Centuries (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1997). Clark Howard, Zebra: The True Account of the 179 Days of the Terror in San Francisco (New York: Richard Marek Publishers, 1979). Also see “Beheading Has Centuries-Long History,” The [Bloomington, IN] Herald Times , June 26, 2004.

92 . “Marines Transfer Falluja Positions to an Iraqi Force,” New York Times , May 1, 2004.

93 . Remarks derived from a recent presidential press conference held by President Bush in April 2004.

94 . For a discussion of Jose Padilla see “U.S. Defends Designation of Bomb Plot Suspect as ‘Enemy Combatant,’ New York Times , November 3, 2002.

95 . For a discussion of James Yee, see “Ex-Chaplain with Detainees is Charged,” New York Times , October 11, 2003, “Army Drops All Charges in Yee Case,” New York Times , March 20, 2004, “Missteps and Confusion Seen in Muslim Chaplain’s Spy Case,” New York Times , January 4, 2004.

96 . For a discussion of the Mayfield case, see “Judge Rejects Bomb Case against Oregon Lawyer: FBI Faults Poor Print Images,” New York Times , May 25, 2004. For a discussion of the government’s settlement in the case, see “Science Found Wanting in Nation’s Crime Labs,” New York Times , February 5, 2009.

97 . “Spain Had Doubts before U.S. Held Lawyer in Blast,” New York Times , May 26, 2004, “Lawyer is Cleared in Madrid Bombing as FBI Admits Fingerprinting Error,” New York Times , May 25, 2004, and “The War on Terror, under New Scrutiny,” New York Times , December 3, 2006.

98 . “Transcript of President Bush’s News Conference at the White House, New York Times , November 5, 2004.

99 . “Spanish Prisons Provide Pool of Recruits for Radical Islam,” New York Times , October 31, 2004.

100 . “Newsweek Says It Is Retracting Koran Report,” New York Times , May 17, 2004.

101 . “Biden Urges U.S. to Take Steps to Close Prison at Guantanamo,” New York Times , June 6, 2005.

102 . “Rumsfeld Rejects Calls to Close Guantanamo,” Chicago Tribune , June 15, 2005.

103 . “Inside the Wire at Gitmo.” New York Times , June 22, 2005. 104 . “Justices 5-4, Back Detainee Appeals for Guantanamo,” New York Times,

June 13, 2008, http://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/13/washington/13scotus.html?pagewanted=all

Notes 191

105 . See “Virginia: Jury Awards $2 Million to Man Wrongfully Convicted,” New York Times , May 6, 2006.

106 . Also see “Corruption Case Draws Interest in Chicago,” New York Times , May 11, 2006, “Chicago Mayor Says He Shares Responsibility in Torture Cases,” New York Times , July 22, 2006, and “Putting Daley under Oath on Police Torture,” New York Times , February 25, 2007, “Decades Later, Ex-Police Commander in Chicago Goes on Trial in Abuse Cases,” May 28, 2010, New York Times , “Officer Accused of Torture is Found Guilty of Perjury,” June 29, 2010, New York Times . Finally, in connection with Illinois Governors convicted of serious crimes in recent years, I served briefly in a staff agency of an Illinois governor, Jim Thompson, who was not convicted of a crime.

107 . “Inquiry Finds Police Abuse, but Says Law Bars Trials,” New York Times , July 20, 2006.

108 . Ibid. Also see “Ex-Officer Is Arrested in ’03 Case of Torture,” New York Times , October 22, 2008. Also see “Jailed Sisters Are Released for Kidney Transplant,” New York Times , January 8, 2011, and “After 30 years in Prison Texas Man Freed on DNA Evidence,” http://www.afro.com/sections/news/afro_briefs/story.htm?storyid=3726 “Race Issues Rise for Miami Police,” New York Times , March 22, 2011, and U.S. Starts Inquiry in Miami Police Shootings, New York Times , April 1, 2011. For a discussion of former Miami Police chief Esposito, see “Accused of Defying Orders, Miami Police Chief Is Fired,” New York Times , September 13, 2011.

109 . See Martha Mendoza, “35,000 Worldwide Have Been Convicted as Terrorists since 9/11 Attacks Hit US,” The [Indiana] Hoosier Times , September 4, 2011, and Edward E. Curtis IV, ed. The Columbia Sourcebook of Muslims in the United States (New York: Columbia University Press, 2008), 276, 277, 269.

110 . Curtis, The Columbia Sourcebook of Muslims , 279, 282, 284. 111 . Ibid., 298. 112 . Ibid., 300.

Appendix 1

1 . AjileAisha Ahmauttah-Rahman, “A History of Islam among African Americans,” in Islam in America: Images and Challenges , ed. Phylis Lan Lin (Indianapolis: University of Indianapolis Press, 1998), 30–32 and Kambiz GhaneaBassiri, A History of Islam in America (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010). Also see Adib Rashid, A History of Islam and Black Nationalism in America (Beltsville: Writers’ Inc., 1991). For an online discussion of Harry Dean and other black Muslims see Amir Muhammad, A History of Muslims in America , http://www.bookofsigns.org/2009/04/a-history-of-muslims-in-america/

2 . Vibert L. White Jr., Inside the Nation of Islam: A Historical and Personal Testimony by a Black Muslim (Gainesville: The University Press of Florida, 2001), 5–6. Budruddin Abdulla Kur is described by White as a wealthy Indian Muslim who funded Muhammad Alexander Russell Webb and Muslims of lower socioeco-nomic backgrounds in cities throughout the United States. For a further discussion of Budruddin Abdulla Kur, see GhaneaBassiri, A History of Islam in America (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 122–123.

3 . GhaneaBassiri, A History of Islam in America, 197–202. GhaneaBassiri discusses the simultaneous Muslim, Christian, and Freemason status of blacks enslaved in the United States including Job Ben Solomon and Omar Ibn Said. See Robert Dannin, Black Piligramage to Islam (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002),

192 Notes

29, 251 and GhaneaBassiri, 197–198, for documented accounts of freemasonry and Islam among blacks.

4 . Dannin, Black Pilgrimage to Islam , 37, 92–96, 267. Also see GhaneaBassiri A History of Islam in America, 218, 247. For a reference to his ties to Prince Hall Freemasons, see page 89.

5 . GhaneaBassiri, A History of Islam in America , 215. 6 . Ibid., 172–178. 7 . Ibid., 210–211. 8 . Richard Brent Turner, Islam in the African American Experience (Bloomington:

Indiana University, 1997), 120. Also see GhaneaBassiri, A History of Islam in America , 249.

9 . GhaneaBassiri, A History of Islam in America , 204–207. 10 . GhaneaBassiri, A History of Islam in America , 222–223.

Index

Abdel-Rahman, Omar, 118, 123Abdo, Geneive, 27Abdul Nasr, Jamal, 22Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem, 123Abdullah, Abdul Rashid, 123Abdullah, Luqman Ameen, 118Abdul-Rauf, Mahmoud, 111, 132

case assessment of, 116–117Abdur-Rahim, Tarajee, 111

case assessment of, 129Abdur-Rahim, William, 117Abou el Fadl, Khaled, 20–21Abraham, 77, 158

Seminole Indians and, 61–62Abu Ghraib prison, abuse in,

148–150, 152Abu Talib, 98Abu-Lughod, Ibrahim, 80Adams, John, 75al-Afghani, Jamal al-Din, 18Afghanistan, US support of mujahedeen

in, 141African Americans; see black Americans;

black indigenous MuslimsAfrican cultural practices

firsthand knowledge of, 45perpetuation of, 51

African culture, survival of, 73, 84African Muslims; see also enslaved

Africansenslavement of, 160faked Christian conversion of, 76literacy among, 84Seminole Indians and, 59 (see also

black fugitives; Seminole Indians)Ahmadiyya movement, 101–102, 112Akbar, Hasan, 36, 111

case assessment of, 125Akram, Wali, 102, 115, 169, 170

Alexander, Michelle, 148Ali, Duse Mohamed, 110, 159, 169

case assessment of, 113Ali, Muhammad, 40, 111, 116, 132

case assessment of, 125–126Ali, Noble Drew, 170al-Qaeda

9–11 and, 141–142fears of, 140, 187n21in Nigeria, 144terrorism threat by, 140in Yemen, 144

Amelia Island, 49American Civil War, African Muslim

participation in, 78American Colonization Society,

111–112, 114American Propaganda Islamic Movement

(APIM), 39American Revolution, African Muslim

participation in, 78Americas; see also United States

terminology for, 9al-Amin, Jamil, 111, 131, 159

case assessment of, 117–118Arab Christians, mislabeling as

Muslims, 25Arab immigrants; see also immigrant

Muslimspost-9–11 arrest and deportation

of, 86Arab Spring, 1, 155al-Arabi, 158Aristide, Jean Bertrand, 70Armstrong, Louis, 40Ashcroft, John, 121, 150assimilationist literature, examples of,

85–86Atta, Muhammad, 141–142

194 Index

Attaturk, Mustafa Kemal, 63Attica prison massacre, 151Attucks, Crispis, 78Aury, Luis, 49Austen, Allan, 3al-Awlaki, Anwar, 8

Bagas, rice cultivation by, 50, 52–53Bagram prison, 139Bailey, Cornelia, 119Ball, Charles, 51Baraka, Amiri, 93Barbour, Haley, 154Barboza, Stephen, 119Barrett, Paul M., 31Barry, Marion, 122Bates, David, 154Belfield, David, 124Bell, Charles, 78Benedict XVI (Pope), 5, 18–19Berg, Nicholas, 147, 151, 152Biden, Joseph, 153bigotry; see also stereotyping

anti-Muslim, 82Prophet’s rejection of, 67–68

Bilali, Salih, 51, 160, 163bin Laden, Osama, 5, 82, 141

9–11 and, 147death of, 143

bin Sultan, Bandar, 148Bird, James, 150black Americans

socioeconomic conditions of, 134triple cultural heritage of, 2in US prisons, 137–139wrongful arrest and imprisonment of,

153–155black cultural nationalism, 23–24black culture

Africanisms/American elements of, 73non-Christian influences on, 73

black freedom movementIslam in, 69traditional and existing explanations

of, 69–72white liberals and, 70, 72, 75

black fugitivesFlorida as haven for, 47–48,

56–57, 71Fort Musa and, 47–49, 50–55religion of, 70

black indigenous Muslims, 2, 5accounts of, 3

American Indians and, 54 (see also Seminole Indians)

before and during American Revolution, 68–69

case examples of, 107–132 (see also prominent black Muslims)

commonalities with immigrant Muslims, 15

contributions to Islam, 32“convert” label and, 68 (see also

“conversion”)de-marginalization of, 35–38“disappearance” of, 26, 43–44disparities with immigrant Muslims,

97–98dual identities of, 29Edward Said and, 80–81emerging identity of, 161evidence of long-term US presence of,

159–160exclusion of, 14FBI surveillance of, 86, 188n45hijra and, 162; see also hijraincreasing numbers of, 13–14influence of, 14leaders/activists among, 169–170marginalization of, 2, 3, 6–7,

27–28, 38multiple identities of, 158–159newfound visibility of, 102–103number of, 3–4, 82–83organized activities involving, 167–168percentage of US Muslims, 8, 34perspectives on, 93–105 (see also

divergent perspectives)sources for study of, 6Sunni Islam and, 159tensions with immigrant

Muslims, 160black lynching, 23black resistance, hidden transcripts and,

72–80black separatism, 98black Sunni Muslims in US, studies of, 8black towns, 62

Islam continuation and, 159Spanish control and, 59

Black Warrior, 45, 65black warriors

British and, 62–63in early Americas, 46Muslim heritage of, 65Seminole Indians and, 60–61

Index 195

Blackwater, 142Blair, Tony, 143Bledsoe, Melvin, 37Blogoievich, Rod, 154Bloomberg, Michael R., 138Blyden, Edward Wilmot, 29, 39, 111,

159, 169case assessment of, 113–114

Boko Haram movement, 144Bolster, Jeffrey, 55Bordewich, 70Boykins, William, 18Bray, Mahdi, 36, 109, 111

case assessment of, 115–116Brazil, slave repatriation from,

176n19Breivik, Anders, 37Bremer, Paul, 142, 144–145Bressem, Ayad, 146British colonialism; see Great BritainBrown, John, 70Buffalo Soldiers, 65Bullock, Katherine, 142Burge, Jon, 154Bush, George W., 5, 37, 82, 86–87, 99,

104, 109, 116, 128, 141, 161African visits of, 143–144Ali and, 126Iraq War and, 135, 136, 140–141, 142,

145, 151–152prisoner abuse and, 150

Cabeza de Vaca, Alvar NuñezCalifornia, immigrants in, 31Cardona, Santos, 150Carmichael, Stokely, 128Carolinas, black fugitives from, 49,

50–55, 51, 58–59, 76–77Carson, André, 163–164Carter, Jimmy, 126, 141, 143case assessments; see also prominent

black Muslimslimitations of, 108ramifications of, 131–132

Cassim, Ahmed, 100Castillo de San Marcos, 45, 52“Century of Islam in America, A,”

dominant paradigm established by, 24

charities, Muslim, designation as terrorist groups, 155–156

Charles V (King), 56Choctaw Indians, 57, 63, 71

“Chrislam,” 29Christian conversion, faked, 76Christians, Arab, 25civil liberties

Bush administration and, 86–87post-9–11, 99

Civil Rights Movement, omission of non-Christian participants in, 69–72

“civilized” Indian tribes, 57Clark, Richard, 145Clash of Civilizations, The (Huntington),

1, 80, 156Clinton, Bill, 87, 95, 109, 143communication networks, hidden, 75Congress, Muslim members of, 8; see

also Carson, André; Ellison, Keith“conversion,” 29–30

rejection of term, 16, 85versus reversion, 68, 98during 21st century, 4–5WOI theory and, 26, 44, 67

Coolidge, Calvin, 112Coulter, Ann, 107Council on American-Islamic Relations

(CAIR), Muslim categorization of, 36

Creek federation, 56, 57civil war in, 57–58 (see also Lower

Creek Indians; Upper Creek Indians)Crockett, David, 63Crypto-Muslims, 158Cudjo, 62Cuffe, Paul, 114cultural practices, African, 45, 51Curtis, Edward, IV, 155

Dahomey kingdom, captives from, 48dan Fodio, Shehu Usman, 22Dannin, Robert, 31–32, 70, 123–124Davis, Miles, 40Davis, Raymond A., 142Dean, Harry, 111, 159, 169

case assessment of, 114–115democracy, in Arab/Muslim world, 1DeSoto, Ferdinand, 47Dia, Oumar, 140Diallo, Ahmadu, 140, 150–151Din, Ahmad, 115, 169Diouf, Sylviane, 32, 119divergent perspectives, 13, 67–89

on black freedom movement, 69–72color-blind versus race-sensitive,

87–88

196 Index

hidden transcripts theory, 72–80 (see also hidden transcripts; hidden transcripts theory)

immigrant, 67immigrant versus indigenous, 84–85mainstream/assimilationist versus

separatist, 85–87new versus old, 82–84pre- and post-9–11, 88–89us versus them, 80–82

Donaldson, Sam, 124Doucet, Lyse, 147Douglass, Frederick, 29, 70, 72drug arrests, for minorities, 138–139Dubois, W. E. B., 70, 114, 115Dunmore, Lord, 77Dupree, Cornelius, Jr., 154Duran, Khalid, 97–98Duvale, Patrick, 87Duvalier, Jean Claude, 70

Edgerton, Robert, 78Egypt

Arab Spring and, 144US support of, 141

Ellington, Duke, 40Ellison, Keith, 36, 37, 111, 128–129,

140, 161, 163–164England, Lyndie, 149enhanced interrogation techniques;

see also prisoner abuse; tortureObama and, 135

enslaved Africansagricultural skills of, 50Arabic skills of, 75fighting skills of, 44–45 (see also black

warriors)Muslim (see African Muslims)regions of origin, 73–74smuggling of, 45, 59, 66–67, 75transcontinental communication by,

55, 176n19West African wars and, 75

escaped slaves; see black fugitivesEsposito, John, 1, 26, 80, 99, 100

and black Muslim US history, 103and distinction between indigenous/

immigrant Muslims, 30Esposito, Miguel A., 154Estephan, 25, 35ethnocentrism, 103–104

Ezeagwula, Quinton, 36Ezeldeen, Muhammad, 170

al-Faisal, Daoud Ahmed, 115, 170al-Faisal, Turki, 148Falwell, Jerry, 5, 18, 85, 86Farrakhan, Louis, 5, 83, 101, 102, 103,

119, 120, 161fitnah, resistance to, 19–20Florida

black fugitives in, 71, 76–77 (see also black fugitives)

black towns in, 56–57colonial conflict in, 47as magnet for slaves, 47–48Muslim place names in, 54–55policies toward slaves, 45political Islam in (see political Islam in

Florida)and smuggling of enslaved Africans,

45, 49, 55–56, 75Floyd, John, 72Fodio, Uthman dan, 110Ford, Henry, 31Fort Gadeson, 71Fort Mims, 63Fort Musa

black warriors of, 52Carolina and African roots of, 50–55Muslim significance of name, 48Muslims and, 47–48resistance at, 54strategic significance of, 45–46

Fort Negro, 63, 71Forzados, 73–74Franklin, John Hope, 71, 72Frazier, E. Franklin, 73Frazier, Joe, 126freedom; see black freedom movementFulani, 110al-Fuqra, 124

Gansler, Douglas F., 124Gardell, Mattias, 30, 40–41Garner, Jay, 144Garrido, Juan, 56Garvey, Marcus, 28, 110, 113, 115,

159, 169case assessment of, 111–112UNIA and, 23–24

Gates, Henry, 87Geertz, Clifford, 29

Diouf, Sylviane—Continued

Index 197

Georgiablack fugitives from, 45, 47,

49–52, 71Muslim presence in, 53

GhaneaBassiri, Kambiz, 2–3, 80, 83, 161

Gibb, H. A. R., 80, 81Gilmore, James S., III, 153Global Relief Foundation, 155Goldwater, Barry, 119Gore, Al, 150Graham, Franklin, 18Graner, Charles, 149Grant, Oscar, 140Great Britain

black fugitives and, 71blacks’ collaboration with, 77in Carolinas, 45discriminatory law enforcement in,

139–140in Florida, 46–47, 49–50Red Sticks War and, 62–63

Greater Jihad, 19; see also jihad (struggle)

Green, Steven D., 137Guantánamo Bay prison

abuse in, 153Bush and, 136–137Obama and, 135U.S. Supreme Court ruling on, 151

Guerrero, Vincente, 65Gunnell, Jose, 139

Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck, 2, 25hadiths, 8Haiti, slave revolt of, 70Hajj, 17Hajj Ali, 25Haley, Alex, 3, 26, 40, 94, 119Hamilton, Charles V., 128Hamm, Mark, 153Hampton-El, Clement Rodney, 36, 111,

118, 131, 132case assessment of, 123–124

Hanafi Muslim Massacre, 122–123Hasan, Nidal Malik, 156Hasan-al-Bana, 18Hassan, Margaret, 152Hawkins, Yusef, 138Haymen, Andy, 140Hersh, Seymour, 151–152Herskovitz, Melville, 73

hidden transcripts, 13–41and de-marginalization of black

Muslims, 35–38versus public transcripts, 33as tools of resistance, 39

hidden transcripts theory, 33–35, 105, 158, 164

US policy and, 147–148hijra (flight), 6

black Muslims and, 162examples and controversy, 98–100and political Islam in Florida, 55survival in black culture, 73

Hinks, Peter, 72hip-hop, influence of, 94Hispaniola, slave revolts in, 54, 74Holy Land Foundation, 155Hoover, J. Edgar, 86Horse, John, 64, 65, 77Horseshoe Bend, battle of, 58Houston, Sam, 63human rights abuses; see also Abu

Ghraib prison; Guantánamo Bay prison; prisoner abuse; torture

US silence about, 134Huntington, Samuel, 1, 80, 156Hurricane Katrina, 136Hussein, Saddam

fall of, 144US support for, 141

Ibn Ata’ Allah al-Iskandari, 19Ibrahima, Abd al-Rahman, 29, 75, 76, 169immigrant Muslims, 3–4

1st wave of, 13–14, 25, 27, 75, 1052nd wave of, 253rd wave of, 254th wave of, 25commonalities with indigenous black

Muslims, 15disparities between indigenous

Muslims and, 31, 97–98enslaved, 25Esposito and, 30misleading statistics on, 24–25“pure” practice of, 41racism of, 103–104, 160research emphasis of, 6, 13–14,

27–28, 39sanitized image of, 103tension between indigenous Muslims

and, 160

198 Index

immigrant-indigenous distinction, 83, 84–85

Indian Removal Act of 1830, 65, 77Indian tribes, “civilized,” 57indigo production, enslaved Africans

and, 52–53, 160Iran hostage crisis, 141Iran-Contra scandal, 141Iranian Revolution, 73Iraq War

Bush and, 142Obama and, 135

Islam; see also Sunni Islamauthoritative sources for, 1basic themes of, 6black Muslim contributions to, 32black resistance and, 73in black struggle for freedom, 69church-state dichotomy and, 37corrected American image of, 101–102defined, 16diversity of, 81, 96–101enslaved Africans and, 45five pillars of, 17ignorance about, 18impact since 9–11, 7internationalist, 95Jewish and Christian elements in, 17long-term presence of, 157mainstream, 83–84Mandingo culture and, 48myths about, 3 (see also stereotyping)non-Muslim ignorance about, 157path of moderation in, 19political (see political Islam)racism and ethnocentrism in, 103–104recruitment to, 94survival of, 8, 73universalist principles of, 100–101varieties of, 32

Islam in Americas/USbackgrounds of historians of, 164divergent perspectives on (see

divergent perspectives)diversity of, 162–163five centuries of history in, 29growth of, 31ignorance of, 164prevalence of, 16secret, 1721st-century growth of, 29survival of, 14, 38–39

Islam studies, 1–2authoritative sources for, 8black marginalization in (see

black indigenous Muslims, marginalization of; Waves of Immigration [WOI] theory)

immigrant emphasis of, 28Islamic Center at Ground Zero,

controversy over, 109, 163Islamic Circle of North America

(ICNA), 97Islamic institutions, in early Florida, 13Islamic law, 20–21Islamic Society of North America

(ISNA), 30, 97, 120dominant paradigm and, 24

Islamic threat; see also al-Qaeda; terrorism

non-Muslim fear of, 67Islamic world, US policy and, 140–144Islamists

US attitudes toward, 37–38US-born, 8

Jackson, Andrew, 63–64Jackson, Jesse, 103, 104Jackson, Sherman, 87, 159Jai, Anna Madgigine, 54Jallo, Africa, 84al-Janabi, Fadhil, 137al-Janabi, Sameer Sabri, 137Jenkins, Phillip, 15, 39–40Jesup, Thomas, 62, 64, 65jihad (struggle), 6, 19–20

in Americas, 7black Muslim actions and, 50black warriors and, 46defensive, 10, 74Jamaican maroons and, 76misperceptions about, 5and political Islam in Florida, 55versus slave revolt, 74survival in black culture, 73

Johnson, Lyndon, 134Johnson, Paul, 152Jones, Sam (Arpeika), 65, 77; see also

Black Warrior

Kaba, LamineKaba, Muhammad, 76, 78Kaha, Abul Koyair, 140Kaha, Muhammed Abdul, 140

Index 199

Kaplan, Robert, 1Karpinski, Janis, 151–152Karzai, Hamid, 137Katyal, Neal K., 121Kay, David, 136Kerry, Bob, 134Khaalis, Hamaas Abdul, 111

case assessment of, 122–123Khan, M. Muqtedar, 103–105Khomeini, Ayatollah Ruhollah, 124, 141Kid Brothers, 94al-Kidd, Abdullah, 111

case assessment of, 120–121Kinchen, Ricky, 118King, Martin Luther, Jr., 70, 129, 131King, Peter, 37King, Rodney, 150–151Kingsley, Anna, 60Kingsley, Zephaniah, 54, 60Kissinger, Henry, 126Ku Klux Klan, 23Kuhn, Thomas, 88Kur, Budruddin Abdulla, 39Kurzman, Charles, 132

LaFlorida; see FloridaLamb, Brian, 15Lancaster, Roger, 138language, oppressed people and,

34–35law enforcement

in Great Britain, 139–140in US, 137–140

Lebanon, US soldiers killed in, 141Lee, Spike, 93–94, 163Leigh, John, 110Leonard, Karen I., 104Leone, Gary, 118Lewis, Bernard, 80, 81, 147Lim, Robin, 124Limbaugh, Rush, 85, 150Lincoln, Abraham, 70, 114Lincoln, C. Eric, 3, 159Lincolnville (Africville), 46Lindh, John Walker, 36, 94, 96, 151Little, Earl, 24Little Stephen; see EstephanLong, William A., 36Lotfi, Abdelhamid, 35Louima, Abner, 150–151Lower Creeks, 63lynching, of blacks, 23

Maden, R. R., 78Madrid train bombings, 82, 147, 153Makandal, Francois, 158Malcolm X, 40, 58, 80, 86, 87, 111, 118,

119, 159, 163, 170Ali and, 125case assessment of, 129–131father of, 24influence of, 146portrayals of, 93–94Sunni Islam and, 161threats against, 123as transformative figure, 130

al-Maliki, Nuri, 137, 147Malvo, John Lee, 36Mandingo culture, 50

warrior role and Islam in, 48Mandingo Kingdom, 53Marable, Manning, 119, 123, 130maroon communities, 59–65

Abraham and, 62Fort Negro (Fort Gadeson) and, 71Islam continuation and, 159and maintenance of Islamic/traditional

beliefs, 28–29Native American alliances with, 35

Masud, Muhammad Khalid, 21Mawdudi, Sayyid Abu al-A’la, 18, 22Mayfield, Brandon, 82, 153McCain, John, 89, 136McCloud, Aminah, 111

case assessment of, 127–128contributions of, 32

McNeil, Travis, 154–155McVeigh, Timothy, 96media, Muslim stereotypes and, 95Menéndez, Francisco, 49–50, 158Menezes, Jean Charles de, 139Mernissi, Fatimah, 87Mexico, slavery abolished in, 65Meyers, Richard, 152Micanopy, 61–62, 77Michener, James A., 26Middle East, US alliances in, 141Middle East Institute, dominant

paradigm established by, 24Million Man March, 83minorities

incarceration of, 137–139slang of, 34US policy toward (see U.S.

policy)

200 Index

wrongful arrest and imprisonment of, 153–155

Mitchell, David B., 49Mitchell, George, 135Mogahed, Dalia, 8Moore, Michael, 145Moorish Science Temple (MST), 24, 113Moors, 59Morisco refugees, 17, 35Morning Dew, 64Mosque Cares, The, 120Moultrie, Treaty of, 63Moussaoui, Zacarias, 122Mubarak, Hosni, 22, 123, 144Mueller, Robert, 140, 187n21Muhammad, Abdulhakim Mujahid, 36Muhammad, Akbar, 119Muhammad, Elijah, 24, 85, 101, 112,

118–120, 131, 161, 170Malcolm X and, 130

Muhammad, John Allen, 36Muhammad, W. D., 24, 97, 98, 102, 104,

111, 112, 113, 130, 131, 132, 159, 161, 170

case assessment of, 118–120mujahedeen, Afghani, US support

of, 141Muskogee tribe; see Creek federationMuslim Alliance of North America

(MANA), 104, 120, 162Muslim Brotherhood, 18, 94Muslim charities, designation as terrorist

groups, 155–156Muslim extremism, 37–38Muslim identity

concealing, 158corrected American image of,

101–102definitions of, 93, 95diversity of, 96–101media stereotypes of, 95 (see also

stereotyping)Muslim names, 51, 68–69

adoption of, 158Muslim world

contributions to West, 79Obama and, 135–136

Muslimsin Americas, 30diversity of, 5, 128Hanafi, 122–123

immigrant-indigenous distinction among, 83 (see also black indigenous Muslims; immigrant Muslims)

Iraq/Afghanistan deployment of, 109portrayals of (see prominent black

Muslims)post-9–11 targeting of, 36–37war on, versus war on terrorism,

133–135White European, 35

Muslims in United Statesdivisions among, 104–105ethnic distribution of, 34marginalization of, 146number of, 3, 82–83

Muslims overseas, US policy toward; see U.S. policy

Muttalib, Omar Farouk Abdul, 144Muzikir, Abdul, 122

names; see also place namesMuslim, 51, 68–69, 158

Narváes, Pánfilo de, 35Nasr, Abdul; see Abdul Nasr, JamalNation of Islam (NOI), 5, 24, 85, 113,

118–119, 161Ali and, 125diminished influence of, 101FBI COINTELPRO and, 145–146Malcolm X and, 130studies of, 3

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), 114

nationalism, black cultural, 23–24nation-state, Islam and, 100Native Americans; see also Choctaw

Indians; Creek Federation; Seminole Indians

maroon alliances with, 35possible Islamic presence among, 101

“Negro towns,” 56–57; see also black towns

Nero, 639–11, 1

civil liberties and, 99immigrant Muslim image and, 146Islamophobia after, 7, 18Muslim arrests and convictions

after, 36Muslim emigration to US after, 40

minorities—Continued

Index 201

Muslim-non-Muslim conflict after, 5perpetrators of, 141–142responses to Islam after, 80terrorism convictions after, 155views of Islam/Muslims after, 88–89

North, Oliver, 141Nunzio, Nicholas S., 122Nyang, Sulayman, 80

contributions of, 32

Obama, Barack, 35–36, 69, 103, 143, 145

African visits of, 143Aristide and, 70Cairo speech of, 16, 32, 109, 135, 148civil liberties and, 87expectations for, 155Islamic stereotypes and, 7Islamophobia and, 96, 146Muslim controversy and, 5Muslim rights and, 163Muslim world and, 135

Oceola, 77O’Connor, Sandra Day, 151Oglethorpe, James, 45–46, 48Oklahoma City bombing, anti-Muslim

responses to, 95–96O’Neal, Paul, 145oppression, hidden transcripts theory

and, 34–35; see also hidden transcripts theory

Organization of African American Unity (OAAU), 94

Orientalism (Said); see also Said, Edwardand omission of black Muslims, 80

Osceola, 64Osman, General, 169Owen, James, 75

Padilla, Jose, 152Pakistan, Muslim massacres in, 102Paleologus, Manuel, II, 18Pan-Africanism, 23–24, 111Parker, Charlie, 40Passaro, David A., 150Patriot Act, 99Payne’s Landing, Treaty of, 62, 64Pierpoint, Richard, 77Pipes, Daniel, 1, 16, 26, 55, 125, 187n21Pitcairn, John, 78place names, Muslim influences on, 47,

54–55, 82, 101

Poindexter, John, 141political Islam

defined, 1religious underpinnings of, 16–19survival in US, 3US policy and, 133

political Islam in Florida, 13, 43–65and conflict among colonial

powers, 44Fort Musa and, 47–48, 50–55Indian and slave wars and, 57–59jihad, hijra, and ummah and, 55maroon communities and, 59–65overlooked southern history and,

49–50research support for, 43–44

Ponce de Leon, Juan, 56Poor, Salem, 78popular culture, influence of, 94–95Portland Seven, 36Powell, Colin, 96, 136praying Moors, 24prisoner abuse, 147, 148–151; see also

Abu Ghraib prison; Guantánamo Bay Prison

in Iraq, 152in U.S., 149, 151wrongful arrest and torture and,

153–154prisons

Muslim prevalence in, 153Muslim radicalization in, 39US population of, 137–139

Progressive Muslim Union of North America (PMUNA), 127, 162

prominent black Muslims, 107–132; see also specific individuals

Abdullah al-Kidd, 120–121Amina Wadud, 127Aminah McCloud, 127–128case assessments of, 108, 131–132Clement Rodney Hampton-El,

123–124Daoud Salahuddin, 124–125Duse Mohamed Ali, 113Edward Wilmot Glyden, 113–114Hamaas Abdul Khaalis, 122–123Harry Dean, 114–115Hasan Akbar, 125James Ujaama, 121–122Jamil al-Amin, 117–118Keith Ellison, 128–129

202 Index

Mahdi Bray, 115–116Mahmoud Abdul-Rauf, 116–117Malcolm X, 129–131Marcus Garvey, 111–112Muhammad Ali, 125–126portrayals of, 109–110Siraj Wahhaj, 120Tarajee Abdur-Rahim, 129Warith Deen Muhammad, 118–120

Prophet Muhammad, 98, 118, 122black Muslims since time of, 16

prophets, migration of, 21

qiblah, 100quasi-Islam; see also Nation of Islam

(NOI)abandonment of, 161Malcolm X and, 130repudiation of, 15

Quick, Abdullah Hakim, 101Quran, 8

2:11–12, 1422:216, 933:4, 1074:100, 435:8, 1575:67, 225:87, 996:116, 9916:41, 2249:13, 8157:3, 1392:1–4, 67authority of, 18oppressed called to action by, 22taqiyah in, 17verses on resistance, 20

Qutb, Sayyid, 22

“race riots,” 23, 111, 146, 188n48racism, of immigrant Muslims,

103–104, 160Rahman, Fazlur, 147Rahman, Ibrahima Abdul, 158Ramadhan Ibn Wati, 101Rashid, Amra, 162, 164Rather, Dan, 95Reagan, Ronald, 5Red Sticks movement, 58–59, 71Red Sticks War, 62–63

Reed, Ishmael, 38–39Reid, Richard C., 122resistance

at Fort Musa, 54Islamic notion of, 10

reversion, versus “conversion,” 68, 98Rice, Condoleezza, 134, 145rice cultivation

Baga, 50, 52–53enslaved Africans and, 160

Ridge, Tom, 135Robertson, Pat, 5, 18Robinson, Randall, 70Rock, Chris, 150Roy, Arundhati, 137Roy, Oliver, 83–84al-Rubbaia, Amash, 137Rumsfeld, Donald, 144, 147, 152, 153Rushdie, Salman, 123Ryan, George, 154

Sadat, Anwar, 22Safi, Omid, 156Said, Edward, 80, 81, 87–88Said, Mohammed Ali ben, 178–179n46Said, Muhammad Ali ibn, 169Said, Nicholas, 78, 158–159Said, Omar ibn, 23, 27, 29, 74–75, 76,

84, 158, 160, 169St. Augustine, 46

black fugitives in, 48, 50Salahuddin, Daoud, 111, 131–132

case assessment of, 124–125Salat, 17Salem, Peter, 78Sammis, Egbert, 60San Augustin, 74Sanchez, Ilich Ramirez (Carlos the

Jackal), 83Santeria, 73Sarkozy, Nicolas, 145Saudi Arabia, US support of, 141,

143, 156Sawm, 17Scheuer, Michael, 40Scott, Gladys, 154Scott, James, 104–105, 154

hidden transcripts theory of, 33–35, 153, 158 (see also hidden transcripts theory)

secret societies, 75

prominent black Muslims—Continued

Index 203

Seminole Indian Wars, 45, 55, 62–65, 77

Seminole Indiansblack fugitives and, 71, 77black intermarriage with, 44black warriors and, 60–61cultural similarities with blacks, 60fugitive slaves and, 47–48, 56slaves of, 61

Senegambia, enslaved blacks from, 47, 50, 53, 73

shahadah (confession of faith), 16, 17–18

shariah (Islamic law), source of divinity in, 20–21

Shia Islam, resistance against Sunnis, 147Siddiqui, Nabi, 152Siouf, Sylviane, 26Sivits, Jeremy C., 149slang, hidden transcripts theory and,

34–35slave revolts, 54

in Hispaniola, 54, 74versus jihad, 74

Muslim involvement in, 25slave trade, outlawing of, 75slavery

in Mexico, 65Seminole Indians and, 61

slaves, escaped; see black fugitivessmuggling of enslaved Africans, 45, 49,

55–56, 75socioeconomic status, of black versus

immigrant Muslims, 100, 160Solomon, Job ben, 158, 169Solzehnitsen, Alexander, 148Somalia, US soldiers killed in, 141Sori, Almaami Ibrahima, 75South America, Muslim slave rebellions

in, 26–27South Carolina; see also Carolinas

Muslim presence in, 53slave code of, 52

Spaincolonial policies of, 44, 47, 56–57, 59and freedom for conversion policy, 48,

53–54Spanish Inquisition, 82stereotyping, 3–4, 7, 79, 95, 108, 162Stevens, Christopher, 144Steward, Jacob, 48

Stono Rebellion, 51–52, 54Sufi Muslim movements, 102sunnah, 8Sunni Islam, 113

assumed disappearance of, 24black Muslims and, 15, 159Malcolm X and, 161NOI and, 101Shia resistance to, 147W. D. Muhammad and, 101, 119

Sunni Muslim governments, US support for, 142–143

Swift, Sambo, 169

Tabatabai, Ali akbar, 124Taguba, Antonio, 152Tantai, Hassan, 124taqiyah, quranic verse authorizing, 17Taylor, Robert, 122Tecumseh, 58, 71Ternikar, Farhar, 81terrorism

and assumptions about Arab/Muslim guilt for, 95–96

fear of, 40in United States, 150–151

Thomas, Clarence, 87Thompson, Wiley, 61Till, Emmit, 151torture; see also prisoner abuse

Obama and, 135UN Committee against, 154of U.S. prisoners, 154

Toure, Samory, 114Trail of Tears, 45, 62, 64Trans-Africa, 70Treaty of Moultrie, 63Treaty of Payne’s Landing, 62, 64Tubman, Harriet, 69–70, 72Tunisia, fall of government of, 144Turkey, US relations with, 143,

187n35Turner, Nat, 72Turner, Richard Brent, 26–27, 32, 43,

86, 88, 113, 146, 158

Ujaama, James, 36, 111case assessment of, 121–122

Ujaama, Mustafa, 122ummah (community), 6, 22–24

defined, 22

204 Index

and political Islam in Florida, 55survival in black culture, 73

UN Committee Against Torture, 154Uncle Jack Smith, 54Underground Railroad

African quilt designs and, 75Harriet Tubman and, 69–70south versus north, 71–72southern, 64traditional interpretations of, 70–71

U.S. Muslims, black majority of, 8U.S. policy, 7, 133–156

consequences of, 144–145disasters of, 145–147and domestic Abu Ghraibs/

Guantanomos, 153–155domestic policies toward Muslims,

145–147failures of, 140–144hidden transcripts perspective on,

147–148Muslim reactions to, 155–156prison and abuse and, 148–153as tragedy in making, 135–140as war on terrorism versus war on

Muslims, 133–135U.S. Supreme Court

cocaine sentencing ruling of, 139ruling on California prisons, 149ruling on Guantánamo prisoners,

136–137, 151, 153United Nations, Guantánamo Bay

closure and, 153United States

as microcosm of Muslim diversity, 96–101

prison population of, 137–139prisoner abuse in, 149Turkey and, 143

Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA), 23–24, 111–112, 113

Upper Creek Indiansblack fugitive collaboration with,

57–58US government and, 63

us versus them perspectives, 80–82USA Patriot Act, 99

VanVelkinburgh, Jeanie, 140Vesey, Denmark, 51

Voll, John O., 100voodoo, 73Voting Rights Act of 1965, 134

Wadud, Amina, 111, 162case assessment of, 127

Wahhaj, Siraj, 102, 104, 111, 161, 162case assessment of, 120

Wali, Abdul, 150Walker, David, 72Wallace, Mike, 146War on Terrorism

Muslim reactions to, 155–156neglected targets of, 134versus war on Muslims, 133–135

Washington, Earl, Jr., 153Waves of Immigration (WOI) theory, 3

assumptions about Middle Eastern names and, 30–31

assumptions of, 28contradictions of, 94critique of, 4, 13, 28–32and “disappearance” of black

Muslims, 23, 43–44dominance of, 6, 88–89inadequacy of, 164–165lack of evidence for, 15, 23, 79–80limitations of, 14and marginalization of black Muslims,

102–103summary of, 26

weapons of mass destruction, 136Webb, Jim, 137–138Webb, Muhammad Alexander

Russell, 27West

commonalities with Muslims, 80Islam and, 22Muslim world’s contributions to, 79

West, Cornel, 87West Memphis Three, 138White, Vibert, Jr., 123White European Muslims, 35white Northern liberals, overemphasis on

role of, 70, 72, 75Wild Cat, 59Williams, Maurice, 122Wilmore, Curtis R., 153Wolfowitz, Paul D., 187n35Wolof (Jolof) Empire, 74Wolof language, influence of, 160Woodward, Bob, 145

ummah (community)—Continued

Index 205

World Trade Center, bombing of, 1, 141Wright, J. Leitch, 60Wright, Robyn, 147

Yamasse Indian Wars, 49Yee, James, 152–153Yusef, Hamza, 161

Yusuf, Shaykh Hamza, 104

Zakaria, Fareed, 18Zakat, 17Zebra Killers, 38Zemmouri, Mustafa; see EstephanZuma, Jacob, 70

Documents

Appendix I - Springer978-1-137-33… · · 2017-08-25black Muslims in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries: ... clashes with his father Elijah Muhammad. ... Mumtaz Ahmad,