Application of Emptiness in Modern Science

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Applied Buddhism:

Application of

Emptiness in

Modern Science

Ankur Barua, M.A. Basilio

Hong Kong, 2009


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Applied Buddhism: Application of Emptiness in Modern SciencePage 2


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Background: Dr. Ankur Barua had graduated with distinction

from the University of Hong Kong (MBuddStud, 2009). He had

also completed two other Master Degrees, one from Sikkim

Manipal University (MBAIT, 2007) while the other from Manipal

University (MBBS-2000, MD in Community Medicine - 2003) and

presently working in professional field. Ms. M.A. Basilio is a

nursing professional who has also a keen passion for

conducting research on religion and science.

First Publication on 26th October 2009

Buddhist Door, Tung Lin Kok Yuen, Hong Kong

Copyright Ankur Barua and M.A.Basilio

Communication Address of Corresponding Author:

Dr. ANKUR BARUA

Block EE, No.-80, Flat No.-2A,

Salt Lake City, Sector-2,

Kolkata - 700091, West Bengal, INDIA.

Email: [email protected]

Mobile: +91-9434485543 (India), +852-96195078 (Hong

Kong)



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Contents

Items Page

No.

Acknowledgements 04

Preface

05

The Concept of Applied Buddhism

06

Relationship between Emptiness and Dependent

Origination 13

The Concept of Emptiness of Matter in Modern Science

31



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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to extend their sincere thanks to Ven.

Dr. Jing Yin, Professor of Buddhist Studies and Director of the

Centre of Buddhist Studies in the University of Hong Kong for

his kind support, inspiration, encouragement and timely advice

during the compilation of this book.

The authors would like to express their sincere gratitude and

indebtedness to Prof. Y. Karunadasa and Ven. Dr. Guang

Xing, the eminent professors at the Centre of Buddhist Studies

in the University of Hong Kong for their constant

encouragement, constructive criticism, personal attention and

valuable guidance throughout this work.

The authors would also like to acknowledge gratefully Dr.

Dipak Kumar Barua, who was the earlier Dean of the Faculty

Council for Postgraduate Studies in Education, Journalism &

Library Science in the University of Calcutta (1987-1991) and

the Director of Nava Nalanda Mahavihara, Nalanda (1996-1999)

for his technical guidance and valuable advice on various

aspects of this project.



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Preface

Applied Buddhism is the foundation of our true

understanding of all the events occurring in nature. The

term Applied Buddhism explains how every person can

relate Buddhist ideas in his or her daily life and in

profession.This book is a humble endeavour to motivate

the new learners and provide them first-hand guidance

on the vastness of the Philosophical approach of

Buddhism. This book is a simplified version and provides

guidance on how to apply the principles of the Doctrine

of the Buddha in our day to day life in an effective

manner.



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The Concept of Applied

Buddhism

Introduction

Applied Buddhism is the application of Buddhist

teachings in our daily life. It is a broad umbrella

under which all the essential aspects of life such as

physical, mental, social and spiritual wellbeing as

well as philosophical, bioethical, financial and

modern scientific aspects could be incorporated.

This includes the Buddhist ideas practiced by the

three major schools of Buddhist thoughts in modern

era, namely the Theravada, Mahyna and

Vajrayana / Tantrayana (Tibetan) traditions. Apart

from the commonly discussed philosophical and

psychological aspects, more emphasis is given here



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on the traditional culture and social aspects of

Buddhism.

1



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Applied Buddhism also shares valuable

information on Buddhist contributions to modern

science, health and wellbeing. As our concept of

wellbeing is directly related to our mental and

spiritual health, Buddhist Meditational practices are

given the prime importance for prevention of

mental illnesses and recommended for

incorporation in the regimen of regular

psychotherapy and in primary and secondary school

curriculum as a part of primordial prevention.1

Importance of Applied Buddhism

Without disrespecting the significance of religious

rituals, the myths and beliefs and traditional local

ceremonial practices related to Buddhism are

however, carefully extracted and excluded from this

domain of Applied Buddhism.



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This is intentionally done in order to make the

Buddhist ideas more acceptable to people

belonging other religious realms and cultural

backgrounds. The idea behind this is to enable

people practice Buddhism without being converted

into a Buddhist. One should understand that

Buddhism is not just a religion, but a way of life.1

In order to incorporate Buddhist ideas in daily life,

one need not give up his or her own religion. Just

that one can remain spiritual without being

religious, in the same way; one can practice

Buddhist teachings without formally being a

Buddhist.1

Applied Aspect of Buddhism: Integration of

Buddhist Philosophy with Activities in Daily

Life1,2



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Thus, the term Applied Buddhism explains how

every person can relate Buddhist ideas in his or her

daily life and in profession. The main focus of this

new concept is to diffuse the teachings of the

Buddha in every nook and corner of the society, so

that all sentient beings, irrespective of their

religion, culture and creed can benefit from it.

In recent times, some of the new concepts that

have evolved in Buddhism are Engaged Buddhism,

Social Buddhism, Socially Engaged Buddhism and

Green Buddhism. Like the String Theory of

quantum physics, Applied Buddhism is an effort

to integrate all these scattered aspects of Buddhism

under one single and unified concept in order to

make it more appealing to the global community.

Through this Applied Buddhism, one should be able

to follow Buddhism without being a Buddhist.



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Evolution of the Concept of Applied

Buddhism

1,2

The term Applied Buddhism was first coined by an

eminent Buddhist Scholar from India, Dr. Dipak

Kumar Barua. He was the elected Dean of the

Faculty Council for Postgraduate Studies in

Education, Journalism & Library Science in the

University of Calcutta, West Bengal, India (1987-

1991) and the Director of Nava Nalanda

Mahavihara, Nalanda (a Deemed University) in

Nalanda, Bihar, India (1996-1999). He had

discussed at length about this new concept of

Applied Buddhism in his Book entitled, Applied

Buddhism: Studies in the Gospel of Buddha from

Modern Perspectives. This book was first published

during the year 2005 by the Centre of Buddhist

Studies, under the aegis of the Department of Pali

and Buddhist Studies of the Banaras Hindu

University in India.



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However, due to limited publications and restricted

circulation of this book within the country, the new

concept of Applied Buddhism could not be

popularized outside India for quite some time.

However, during the later years, this new concept

was widely appreciated by the renowned scholars in

various intellectual forums throughout the world.

The common people from varied religious

background also found comfort in easy

understanding of the principle teachings of the

Buddha.

Conclusion

This new concept of the applied aspect of Buddhism

is destined to bridge the gap of understanding that

exists due to misinterpretation of the teachings of

the Buddha by people belonging to diverse religious



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backgrounds. Once popularized and accepted, it

would pave the way in promoting peace and

harmony in the society. Applied Buddhism is also a

noble endeavor to integrate the Buddhist

philosophy with modern science and technology.

This applied philosophy is an integral part of our

daily life and is expected to be accepted by

everyone without any discrimination.



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References

1. Barua, A., Basilio, M.A. 2009. Applied

Buddhism in Modern Science: Episode 1.

Hong Kong: Buddhist Door, Tung Lin Kok

Yuen & Unibook Publications.

2. Barua, D.K. 2005. Environment & Human

Resources: Buddhist Approaches. Applied

Buddhism: Studies in the Gospel of Buddha

from Modern Perspectives. . Varanasi, India:

Centre for Buddhist Studies, Department of

Pali & Buddhist Studies, Benaras Hindu

University: 90-6.



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Relationship between

Emptiness and Dependent

Origination

Introduction

In early Buddhism, the term suat or nyat

is used primarily in connection with the no-self

(anatman) doctrine to denote that the Five

Aggregates (skandhas) are empty of the

permanent self or soul which is erroneously

imputed to them.1

The doctrine of emptiness, however, received its

fullest elaboration by Ngrjuna, who wielded it

skillfully to destroy the substantiality conceptions of

the Abhidharma schools of the Theravda. Since



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there cannot be anything that is not the Buddha-

nature (buddhat), all that appears is in truth

devoid of characteristics.1,2



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The doctrine of emptiness is the central tenet of the

Mdhyamaka School. A statement of Ngrjuna's

views in support of it may be found in his Mla-

Mdhyamaka-Nrik.1,2

Ngrjuna is regarded as the founder of the

Madhyamaka school of Mahyna Buddhist

philosophy which he had established during the 2nd-

3rd Century A.D. The Mulamadhyamaka-Karika

("Fundamentals of the Middle Way") is his major

work. It was originally composed in Sanskrit. The

Sanskrit as well as early Tibetan versions of the

work had survived without significant damage over

the ages along with the later Chinese translations.

Several complete English translations of the Karika

are available in recent times.1,2



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Emptiness thus becomes a fundamental

characteristic of Mahyna Buddhism. The teaching

is subtle and its precise formulation a matter of

sophisticated debate, since the slightest

misunderstanding is said to obstruct progress

towards final liberation. Emptiness is never a

generalized vacuity, like an empty room, but always

relates to a specific entity whose emptiness is being

asserted. In this way up to twenty kinds of

emptiness are recognized, including the emptiness

of emptiness. The necessary indiscoverability is the

essence of emptiness of Mdhyamika. It is

important to distinguish this emptiness from

nihilism.1,2,3

The Buddhist notion of emptiness is often

misunderstood as nihilism. Unfortunately, 19th

century Western philosophy has contributed much

to this misrepresentation. However, the only thing



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that nihilism and the teaching of emptiness can be

said to have in common is a skeptical outset.

Nihilism concludes that reality is unknowable, that

nothing exists, that nothing meaningful can be

communicated about the world. The Buddhist

notion of emptiness is just the opposite. It states

that the ultimate reality is knowable, there is a

clear-cut ontological basis for phenomena and we

can communicate and derive useful knowledge

from it about the world. Emptiness (nyat) must

not be confused with nothingness. Emptiness is not

non-existence and it is not non-reality.1,2,3,4

However, in Yogcra (Vijnavda), emptiness is

taught as the inability to think of an object apart

from the consciousness which thinks of that object,

i.e. the necessary indissolubility of subject and

object in the process of knowing is the concept of



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emptiness in Yogcra. It is important to distinguish

this from idealism and solipsism.

1



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The Concept of Emptiness3,4,5

In order to understand the philosophical meaning

of the term emptiness (nyat ), let us take a

simple solid object, such as a bowl. We usually say

that a bowl is empty if it does not contain any liquid

or solid. This is the ordinary meaning of emptiness.

But a bowl empty of liquids or solids is still full of

air. To be precise, we must therefore state what the

bowl is empty or devoid of. A bowl in a vacuum

does not contain any air, but it still contains space,

light, radiation, as well as its own substance. Hence,

from a physical point of view, the bowl is always full

of something. But from the Buddhist point of view,

the bowl is always empty. The Buddhist

understanding of emptiness is different from the

physical meaning. The bowl being empty means

that it is devoid of inherent existence.



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The Concept of Non-inherent Existence

Though from the Buddhist point of view everything

is impermanent, but this does not mean that the

bowl is non-existent. The bowl actually exists, but

like everything in this world, its existence depends

on other phenomena. There is nothing in a bowl

that is inherent to that specific bowl in general.

Properties such as being hollow, spherical,

cylindrical or leak-proof are not intrinsic to bowls.

Other objects which are not bowls have similar

properties, as for example, vases and glasses. The

bowl's properties and components are neither bowls

themselves nor do they imply our perception of

bowl on their own. The material is not the bowl. The

shape is not the bowl. The function is not the bowl.

Only all these aspects together make up the bowl.

Hence, we can say that for an object to be a bowl

we require a collection of specific conditions to

exist. It depends on the combination of function,



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use, shape, base material and the bowl's other

aspects.

3,4,5,6



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Only if all these conditions exist simultaneously

does the mind impute the label of a bowl to the

object. If one condition ceases to exist, for instance,

if the bowl's shape is altered by breaking it, the

bowl forfeits some or all of its attributes and our

mind cannot perceive it as a bowl anymore. The

bowl's existence thus depends on external

circumstances. Its physical essence remains

elusive.3,4,5,6

It is our mind that perceives properties of an object

and imputes attributes such as bowl onto one

object and table onto another. It is the mind that

thinks "bowl" and "table". Apparently, the mind

does not perceive bowls and tables if there is no

visual and tactile sensation. However, there cannot

be visual and tactile sensation if there is no physical

object. The perception thus depends on the

presence of sensations, which in turn relies on the



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presence of the physical object. We must

understand that the bowl's essence is not in the

mind, also it is never found in the physical object.

Obviously, its essence is neither physical nor

mental. As the essence of an object cannot be

found either in our external world or in our mind, we

must conclude that the objects of perception have

therefore no inherent existence. 3,4,5,6

If this is the case for a simple object, such as a

bowl, then it must also apply to compound things,

such as cars, houses and machines. For example, a

car needs a motor, wheels, axles, gears and many

other things to work. We should also consider the

difference between man-made objects, such as

bowls, and natural phenomena, such as earth,

plants, animals and human beings. One may argue

that lack of inherent existence of objects does not

imply the same for natural phenomena and beings.



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In case of a human being, there is a body, a mind, a

character, a history of actions, habits, behavior and

other things to describe a person. We can even

divide these characteristics further into more

fundamental properties. For example, we can

analyze the mind and see that there are sensations,

cognition, feelings and ideas. 3,4,5,6

We can analyze the brain and find that there are

neurons, axons, synapses, and neurotransmitters.

However, none of these constituents describe the

essence of the person, the mind, or the brain. Here

again, the essence remains elusive.3,4,5,6

Emptiness of Emptiness:

The ultimate nature of reality is deepened and

enhanced in our mind. We would develop a

perception of reality from which we could perceive

phenomena and events as sort of illusory or illusion-



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like. This mode of perceiving reality would

permeate all our interactions with reality. Even

emptiness itself, which is seen as the ultimate

nature of reality, is not absolute, nor does it exist

independently. We cannot conceive of emptiness as

independent of a basis of phenomena. Because

when we examine the nature of reality, we find that

it is empty of inherent existence. If we are to take

that emptiness itself as an object and look for its

essence, again we would find that it is empty of

inherent existence. Therefore, the Buddha actually

taught us the emptiness of emptiness. 3,4,5,6

The Concept of Dependent Origination

The Principle of Dependent Origination or the

Doctrine of Impermanence is a twelve-factor

formula titled Paiccasamuppda in Pli. The key

concepts within the causal relationships are



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identified as the antecedents and consequents in a

linear sequence. One factor is identified as a

conditioning factor for the next which in turn is the

conditioning factor for the following factor until the

final stage, the twelfth concept, birth, which

recommences the process of existence and

becoming and the whole twelve steps.6

This formula can also be viewed in reverse order to

indicate how the removal or cessation of one factor

leads to the predominant influence of another

factor, and down the line until the first conditioning

factor ignorance is removed completely thus

eliminating the proliferation and building of factors.

Once this is achieved an individual can be said to

be enlightened because he is no longer haunted by

the specter of ignorance as he has defeated the

three poisons and understood the arising and

ceasing of phenomenon.4,6



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The traditional interpretation of this formula states

that this is what causes the arising or rebirth and

death and requires at least three lifetimes. The

Dependent Origination can be viewed

microcosmically and be applied just to this lifetime

to describe the arising and ceasing of thoughts and

the perceptual process, thereby indicating the

correct way to apprehend an object if

enlightenment is sought.4,6



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Emptiness in Relation with Dependent

Origination

Dependent Origination demonstrates the

interconnectedness of all phenomenons, their

impermanence, their lack of an intrinsic self, and

factors of conditioning. Likewise, emptiness for

Ngrjuna is equivalent to Dependent Origination

as stated by Candrakrti, The meaning of the

expression Dependent Origination is the same as

emptiness, but it entails a further emphasis on

the lack of intrinsic nature of dhammas and states

that all dhammas are conceptual constructs. To the

Abhidhamma, dhammas are the smallest

analyzable unit of existence, but for Ngrjuna,

even these dhammas are conceptual constructs,

and understanding this is having proper wisdom

(praja): the understanding of emptiness.2,4,6



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Dependent Origination is the main ontological

principle in early Buddhism and Abhidhamma

Buddhism, but in Nagrajunas system emptiness

becomes the term to represent this chief

ontological principle. He writes, It is Dependent

Origination that we call emptiness. Dependent

arising and emptiness describe how reality comes

to be; as such, it is ultimate truth and an ontological

truth. This emphasis of emptiness as an ultimate

truth is a later development unique to Ngrjuna

and later Buddhist thought. Ngrjuna emphasizes

the lack of intrinsic existence in the conventional

level of reality. This lack must be apprehended by

understanding the ultimate truth of emptiness.2,4,6

These two levels of reality mutually imply each

other. Emptiness becomes dhammatta, the true

nature of things. A commentator to Ngrjuna

describes emptiness as, non conditioned by others,



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quiescent, accessible to saints only by direct

intuition, beyond all verbal differentiations, still, it is

nothing more than the mere absence of inherently

or intrinsically real existence. As a principle

nyat states that everything that one encounters

in life is empty of a permanent soul or inherent

nature and is inter-related, never self-sufficient, or

independent; thus nothing has independent

reality.2,4,6

Although there are different ways to explain the

theory of emptiness, all are based on the theory of

Dependent Origination. Ngrjuna provides an

insightful formulation of nyat as the mark of all

phenomena, as a natural consequence of

Dependent Origination and an elaboration upon

dependent arising. A further elaboration upon

Dependent Origination is that the concept of

emptiness is not itself a true doctrine or view, but is



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a therapeutic device. Ngrjuna had explained this

as the antidote to all viewpoints (i).

2,4,6



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Conclusion

Emptiness is a key concept in Buddhist philosophy,

or more precisely, in the ontology of Mahyna

Buddhism. The phrase "form is emptiness;

emptiness is form" is perhaps the most celebrated

paradox associated with Buddhist philosophy. It is

the supreme mantra. The expression originates

from the Prajna Paramita Hridaya Sutra, commonly

known as the Heart Sutra, which contains the

philosophical essence of about six hundred scrolls

making up the Maha Prajna Paramita. The Heart

Sutra is the shortest text in this collection. It

belongs to the oldest Mahyna texts and

presumably originated in India around the time of

Jesus Christ.2,4,5,6

Ngrjunas unique version of emptiness is a direct

result of the eight-fold method of negation. It is

interpreted as non-arising, non-ceasing, non-



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permanence, non-annihilation, non-identity, non-

difference, non-coming, and non-exiting. Through

the eight-fold negation, all the concepts by which

we normally apprehend the world are placed in the

negative form. In this way, one is supposed to

realize correct understanding of emptiness. By

understanding the emptiness of these concepts by

which we conceptually construct and apprehend the

world and even the Dhamma, the teaching of the

Buddha, one can understand the emptiness of

emptiness (unyatunyat). This is an innovation

in Buddhist thought attributed to Ngrjuna.2,3,4,6



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References

1. Bowker, J. 1997. nyat. The Concise Oxford

Dictionary of World Religions. UK:

Encyclopedia.com. [Serial online]. [Cited

2009 April 28]; [2 screens]. Available from:

URL: http://www.encyclopedia.com

2. Garfield, J.L. 1995. The Fundamental Wisdom

of the Middle Way: Ngrjuna's

Mulamadhyamakakarika, translation (from

Tibetan) and commentary. New York: Oxford

University Press.

3. Finkelstein, D.R., Wallace, B.A. ed. 2001.

Emptiness and Relativity. Berkeley, CA:

University of California Press.



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4. McCagney, N. 1997. Ngrjuna and the

Philosophy of Openness. Lanham, MD:Rowman & Littlefield Publishers: 135-218.

5. Knierim, T. 2009. Emptiness is Form [serial

online]. [Cited 2009 October 20]; [4 screens].

Available from: URL:

http://www.thebigview.com/buddhism/emptin

ess.html

6. Williams, P. 2009. Mahyna Buddhism: The

Doctrinal Foundations, 2nd edition. UK:

Routledge: 69-82.



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The Concept of Emptiness

of Matter in Modern Science

Introduction

Dependent Origination demonstrates the

interconnectedness of all phenomenons, their

impermanence, their lack of an intrinsic self, and

factors of conditioning. Likewise, emptiness for

Ngrjuna is equivalent to Dependent Origination

as stated by Candrakrti, The meaning of the

expression Dependent Origination is the same as

emptiness, but it entails a further emphasis on

the lack of intrinsic nature of dhammas and states

that all dhammas are conceptual constructs.1

To the Abhidhamma, dhammas are the smallest

analyzable unit of existence, but for Ngrjuna,

even these dhammas are conceptual constructs,



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and understanding this is having proper wisdom

(praja): the understanding of emptiness.

Ngrjunas concept of emptiness can also be

applied to the analysis of matter and explains why

our very existence is based on emptiness.1

The Emptiness of Atoms

The ancient Greeks believed that matter is

composed of indivisible small elements with certain

characteristics, such as the characteristics of earth,

water, air, and fire. They called these elements

atoms and they held that atoms were solid and

fundamental. However, Ernest Rutherford later

demonstrated that atoms have an internal structure

though an experimental verification. 2,3

Rutherford had discovered that atoms have a

nucleus containing most of its mass and that



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electrons orbit the nucleus.2,3 Moreover, he

established that the nucleus of an atom is only

about one ten-thousandth of the diameter of the

atom itself, which means that 99.99% of the atom's

volume consists of empty space. This is the first

manifestation of emptiness at the subtle level of

matter.2,3

Soon after Rutherford's discovery, physicists found

that the nucleus of an atom likewise has an internal

structure and that the protons and neutrons making

up the nucleus are composed of even smaller

particles, which they named quarks after a poem of

James Joyce. Interestingly, quarks are hypothesized

as geometrical points in space, which implies that

atoms are essentially empty. This is the second

manifestation of emptiness at the subtle level of

matter.2,3



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Emptiness and the Quantum

The terms "quarks" and "points in space" still

suggest something solid, since they can be

imagined as irreducible mass particles. Yet,

quantum field theory does away even with this finer

concept of solidity by explaining particles in the

terms of field properties. Quantum electrodynamics

(QED) has produced an amazingly successful theory

of matter by combining quantum theory, classical

field theory and relativity. No discrepancies

between the predictions of QED and experimental

observation have been found till date. According to

QED, subatomic particles are indistinguishable from

fields, whereas fields are basically properties of

space. In this view, a particle is a temporary local

densification of a field, which is conditioned by the

properties of the surrounding space. This implies

that matter is not different from space. This is the



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third manifestation of emptiness at the subtle level

of matter.

2,3,4



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Emptiness and Interrelations of Quantum

Physics

An important class of phenomena in the subatomic

world is defined by the various interactions between

particles. Although interactions can be described

clearly in mathematical terms, there is no clear

distinction between the notions of phenomena,

particles and interactions. For example, there are

interactions between free electrons by means of

photons that result in an observed repelling force.

There are also interactions between the quarks of a

nucleon by means of mesons, interactions between

the neighboring neutrons or protons, interactions

between nucleus and electrons and interactions

between the atoms of molecules. The phenomena

themselves involving the nucleon, the nucleus, the

atom and the molecule are sufficiently described by

these interactions.2,3,4,5



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Study of the respective equations suggests that

interactions and these phenomena are

interchangeable terms. However, the interrelations

of quantum physics do not describe actual

existence. Instead they predict the potential for

existence. A manifest particle, such as an electron,

cannot be described in terms of classical

mechanics. It exists as a multitude of superposed

"scenarios" in which one or another manifests only

when it is observed upon measurement. Therefore,

matter does not inherently exist. It exists only as

interrelations of "empty" phenomena whose

properties are determined by observation. This is

the fourth manifestation of emptiness at the subtle

level of matter.2,3,4,5



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Conclusion

Findings from the Buddhist analysis of matter goes

hand in hand with our modern scientific

understanding of matter. Quantum physics has

recently proved that the major part of matter

actually consists of empty space. Whenever we

analyze matter, most of the time we come across

emptiness, while the solid part of matter is hard to

recognize. On one side all the atoms are empty at

micro level, on the other side at macro level; most

part of the space is also empty.2,3

Albert Einstein, the pioneer for Quantum Mechanics,

and many modern scientists were very much

influenced by the Buddhist doctrines related to the

concepts of absence of any Creator God, absence of

any soul or self (anatta), Dependent Origination

(paticcasamuppada), impermanence (anicca) and



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the emphasis on practicing compassion with moral-

driven, volitional activities (kamma).

4,5

Einstein had also predicted that the religion of the

future will be a cosmic religion and

enthusiastically stated that if there is any

religion that would cope with modern

scientific needs, it would be Buddhism.4 In his

opinion, Buddhism has the characteristics of what

would be expected in a cosmic religion for the

future. Buddhism transcends a personal God and

avoids dogma and theology. Buddhism covers both

the natural and spiritual domains of human

existence. Buddhism is also based on a religious

sense aspiring from the experience of all things,

natural and spiritual, as a meaningful unity.4



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References

1. Williams, P. 2009. Mahyna Buddhism: TheDoctrinal Foundations, 2nd edition. UK:

Routledge: 69-82.

2. Knierim, T. 2009. Emptiness is Form [serial

online]. [Cited 2009 October 20]; [4 screens].

Available from: URL:

http://www.thebigview.com/buddhism/emptin

ess.html

3. Finkelstein, D.R., Wallace, B.A. ed. 2001.

Emptiness and Relativity. Berkeley, CA:

University of California Press.

4. Dukas, H., Hoffman B., ed. 1954. Albert

Einstein: The Human Side. Princeton, NJ:

Princeton University Press.



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5. Jammer, M. 1999. Einstein and religion:

physics and theology. Princeton, NJ: PrincetonUniversity Press.

Documents

Application of Emptiness in Modern Science