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APPLIED POVERTY-ENVIRONMENT INDICATORS:
THE CASE OF NIGERIA
BY
PROF. ADENIYI OSUNTOGUN
DIRECTOR,
FOUNDATION FOR ENVIRONMENTAL
DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION IN NIGERIA ( FEDEN)
LAGOS,NIGERIA.
E-Mail: [email protected]
REPORT SUBMITTED TO THE ENVIRONMENT DEPARTMENT,
WORLD BANK, WASHINGTON, DC.
MARCH, 2002
2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABREVIATIONS…………….…………………………………………….5
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT………………………………………………… 6
1. INTRODUCTION...……………………………………………………7
2. TYPOLOGY OF INDICATORS..…………………………………… 8
3. CHOICE OF INDICATORS...……………………………………… 9
4. IDENTIFICATION OF INDICATORS FOR ASSESSING POVERTY-
ENVIRONMENT INTERRACTIONS……………………………………………. 9
4.1 Environment and Health……………………………………… 10
4.2 Poverty and Natural Resources ……………………………… 11
4.3 Poverty-Environment Maps………………………………….. 13
5. DATA AVAILABILITY.…………………………………………… 13
6. RESEARCH FINDINGS.…………………………………………… 14
6.1 Environment and Health…..…………………………………. 14
6.1.1 Selected Key Environmental Indicators for Malaria…. 14
6.1.2 Selected Key Environmental Indicators for Respiratory
Infections………………………………………………15.
6.1.3 Selected Key Environmental Indicators for Diarrhea…. 16
6.1.4 Selected Key Broad Environmental Indicators……….. 17
6.2 Poverty-Natural Resource Indicators ……………………….. 18
6.2.1 Deforestation and Income Impacts on the Poor …… 18
6.2.1.1 Rate of Deforestation ……………………………… 18
6.2.1.2 Soil Fertility and Income Impacts on the Poor……. 19
3
7. OBSERVATION.………………………………………………….. 19
8. QUALITY OF AVAILABLE DATA……………………………… 20
8.1. Roll Back Malaria (RBM)………………………………….. 20
8.2 The Multiple Indicators Cluster Survey……………………… 21
8.3 The Nigeria Demographic Health Survey……………………. 22
8.4 Annual Abstracts of Statistics……………………………… 23
8.5 Core Welfare Indicators Questionnaire Survey……………. 23
8.6 Human Development Report (HDR) ……………………… 24
8.7 World Development Indicators (WDI)……………………. 24
8.8 World Development Report ……………………………… 24
9. PRS PROCESS AND POVERTY-ENVIRONMENT INDICATORS.25
10. CONCLUSION...…………………………………………………… 28
REFERENCES...…………………………………………………… 34
4
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1 Selected Key Environmental Health Indicators ………………………. 35
2 A Sample of Poverty-natural resource indicators that affect income, security, and
vulnerability of poor people in poor countries………………………… 36
3 Deforestation and Income Impacts on the Poor-Indicators-within the Pressure--
State-Poverty-Response Framework ………………..………………………..37
4 Soil Fertility and Income Impacts on the Poor-Indicators-within the
Pressure-State-Poverty-Response Framework………………………………. 38
5 NIGERIA: Selected Key Environmental Health Indicators for Malaria,
Respiratory Infections and Diarrhea………………………………………… 39
6 Prevalence and Treatment of Fever …………………………………………. 41
7 Prevalence and Treatment of Acute Respiratory Infection and Fever………. 42
8 Reported Cases and Dealths from Notifiable Diseases (Malaria)…………… 43
9 Percentage Distribution of Dwelling Units By Types of Water Supply……..44
10 Percentage Distribution of Households by Type of Toilet Facilities…………45
11 Prevalence of Diarrhea………………………………………………………..46
12 Reported Cases and Deaths from Notifiable Diseases (Diarrhea)……………47
13 Expenditure of the Federal Government on Health (N Million)……………..48
14 Infant and Child Mortality Rates by five year periods Preceding the Survey,
Nigeria (1990)………………………………………………………………..49
15 A Sample of Poverty-natural resource indicators that affect income,
Security, and vulnerability of poor people in poor countries……………… 50
16. Deforestation and Income Impacts on the Poor-Indicators within the Pressure-State-
Poverty-Response Framework……………………………………………… 52
17. Soil Fertility and Income Impacts on the Poor-Indicators within the Pressure-
State-Poverty-Response Framework…………………………………… 53
5
ABREVIATIONS
• AAS Annual Abstract of Statistics
• ARI Acute Respiratory Infection
• BOD Burden of Disease
• CRI Chronic Respiratory Infection
• CHP Country Health Profile
• CWIQ Core Welfare Indicator Questionnaire
• DALY Disability Adjusted Life Years
• DFID Department For International Development
• FAO Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations
• FOS Federal Office of Statistics
• HDR Human Development Report
• IPRSP Interim Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper
• M&E Monitoring and Evaluation
• MICS Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey
• NDHS National Demographic and Health survey
• NISH National Integration Survey of Household
• PRS Poverty Reduction Strategy
• PRSP Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper
• PSPR Pressure –State- Poverty –Response
• PSR Pressure State Response
• RBM Roll Back Malaria
• UNDP United Nations Development Program
• UNICEF United Nations Children Fund
• WDI World Development Indicator
6
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This study was commissioned by the Environment Department of the
World Bank as part of its Mainstreaming Environment in Poverty
Reduction Planning Program. The objective is to apply the analytical
frame work for poverty environment indicators developed by Segnestam
(1999) and Shyamsundar (2001) to a given country context, i.e that of
Nigeria.
An earlier draft of this paper was presented at the workshop on
Mainstreaming Environment in Poverty Reduction Planning organized by
the World Bank in Abuja, Nigeria in September 2001. The useful
comments made by the participants at the workshop on the earlier draft of
this paper is hereby acknowledged. I also wish to acknowledge the
comments of Drs. Jan Bojo and Priya Shyamsundar of the Environment
Department of the World Bank, Washington, DC and Dr. Lukas Akapa
of the World Bank Nigeria Office.
I wish to acknowledge the co-operation of the staff of the following
organizations in Nigeria that were visited in the course of this study: (i)
Federal Office of Statistics, (ii) National Population Commission, (iii)
World Health Organization, (iv) United Nations Development
Programme, and
(v) United Nations Children’s Fund.
The author alone is responsible for the contents of the paper, which may
not necessarily reflect the views of the World Bank.
7
1. INTRODUCTION
The element of monitoring and evaluation (M & E) including the use of indicators
is one of the main instruments in designing effective Poverty Reduction Strategy
(PRS). Indicators constitute an important tool for designing and evaluating
poverty reduction strategies, projects, and outcomes (Shyamsundar, 2001).
Indicators are useful for monitoring changes and trends over time. They provide a
means for comparing cross-country progress and they are essential for evaluating
the result of projects.
The analytical framework including criteria for choice of indicators from an
environmental perspective has been subject to much analysis (Segnestam, 1999;
Bojo et al 2000, and Shyamsundar, 2001). Given the importance of indicators for
project monitoring and evaluation, the objective of this Paper is to apply the
analytical framework for choice of indicators that can be used to assess poverty
and environment interaction in Nigeria.
This work was commissioned by the World Bank as part of its Mainstreaming
Environment in Poverty Reduction Planning Program. Specifically, the study will
pay particular attention to the following:
1. The extent to which data are actually available to match the proposal for
indicators regarding environmental health and natural resources conditions
advanced in Shyamsundar (2001).
2. The quality of available data including collection methods, analytical
treatment, frequency of gathering and accessibility.
8
3. The indicators that emerged as the leading issues to be included in the
package of poverty-environment indicators. This includes a review of what
is being proposed in the interim Property Reduction Strategy (PRS) Paper
for Nigeria.
4. A proposal on how further work in these areas might best proceed to serve
the needs of Property Reduction Strategy (PRS) in Nigeria.
2. TYPOLOGY OF INDICATORS
Indicators can be used to monitor changes at different scales for different purposes
and in a number of different ways. At the national level, poverty-environment
trends can be monitored over times across geo-political areas. At the project level,
indicators or series of indicators are developed to monitor inputs or resources
provided by the project, output referring to goods and services that result from the
project, outcomes or short term results from the projects and impacts, that is,
longer term changes that result from the project (Segnestam, 1999). Another
categorization is to analyse indicators in terms of (i) intermediate and (ii) final
indicators.
Geo-reference indicators have been developed for monitoring poverty-
environmental changes. (Henninger and Hammond, 2000). These indicators are
made up of maps that overlay poverty indicators over a geographical framework.
Geo-reference indicators are spatially referenced and are based on household data
as well as satellite images and geographical information.
9
3. CHOICE OF INDICATORS
One of the main challenges for monitoring and evaluation is the choice of
indicators. Given the diversity of environmental problems, the variety of contexts
in which they arise, and the numerous possible solutions to them, no “correct” set
of indicators exist. Thus there is no universal set of indicators that is equally
applicable in all cases. Against this backdrop some generic guidance in the choice
of indicators include the following (Segnestam, 1999)
-Direct relevance to project objectives
-Limitation in number
-Clarity of design
-Realistic collection or development costs
-Clear cause and effect links
-High quality and reliability
-Appropriate spatial and temporal scale
-Targets and baseline.
4. IDENTIFICATION OF INDICATORS FOR ASSESSING POVERTY-ENVIRONMENT INTERRACTION
Two major areas of intervention discussed by Shyamsundar (2001) are
environmental health and natural resources management. This section focuses on
the discussion of indicators proposed by Shyamsundar with a view to determining
the extent of data availability.
10
4.1 Environment and Health
According to Shyamsundar,(2001) the two most important ways in which
environmental quality has a negative impact on the health of the poor is through
water and indoor pollution. A ranking of environmental diseases in terms of their
contribution to burden of disease suggests that water and sanitation related diseases
are the most important for developing countries. This is followed by vector borne
diseases such as malaria, indoor pollution, urban air pollution and agro-industrial
waste.
Table 1 shows the core environmental health indicators discussed by Shyamsundar.
They are made up of intermediate and impact indicators that are most routinely
used for monitoring the three most common environmental health problems faced
in developing countries – malaria, ARI and Diarrhea. The malaria-related
indicators have been developed from the WHO initiated Roll Back Malaria
(RBM).
The core indicators are as presented in Table 1. Availability of ventilation in poor
households, children sleeping in cooking areas, and the types of cooking stoves
and fuel used are the indicators for assessing respiratory infections (ARI and CRI).
Access to sanitation, complimented with quantity of water used per capita and
hours of available water supply, disposal practices of feaces and hand washing
behaviour are indicators for assessing diarrhea.
11
Government expenditure on health, which is proxy indicator for policy, and Under-
Five mortality rates are other important indicators for health.
For the purposes of PRSP, it is important to disaggregate most of these indicators
and monitor them by income or wealth quintile groups.
In order to determine which of these indicators are important for monitoring
environmental health outcomes, a lot will depend on (i) availability of data, (ii)
cost and ease of measurement and monitoring; (iii) Stakeholder perceptions on
what is important to monitor and acceptance of indicators, and (iv) final purpose
for which the information will be used. At the project or programme level, it is
important that indicators fit into the logical framework used in designing
interventions and that indicators are used to track progress towards planned goals.
At the national level, a core of environmental health indicators could be selected
based on international dialogue and agreement.
4.2 Poverty and Natural Resources Indicators
In Table 2, a sample of indicators suggested by Shyamsundar for monitoring the
natural resource related factors that affect the income and security of the poor in
developing countries are presented. Indicators such as “time spent to or distance
traveled to collect forest produce” and consumption relate to poverty issue on
income and opportunity. Also indicators such as households rendered homeless
from floods/hurricanes/cyclones/landslides and percent of farmers with land on
slopes/wetlands are broad indicators of vulnerability. Indicators of food security
include: rural per capita cereal production and percent of farmers who grow
drought resistant crops.
12
An important basic indicators of income poverty in rural areas is the widely
published and used percent of rural population below the poverty line’ (World
Bank 2001a). This is a broad indicator that is expected to decline over time if
natural resources are unsustainably managed.
The lists of indicators presented in Table 2 are by no means exhaustive. It will
have to be modified to suit local conditions and local data sets. Also, natural
systems are extremely complex and it would not be cost effective to monitor all the
different ways in which the poor are affected by their natural environment.
The Pressure-State-Poverty-Response framework (PSPR), which is a modified
version of OECDs Pressure-State-Response (PSR) model was developed to track
the poverty impacts of degradation and to address some of the complexities of
resource degradation-poverty links.
Table 3 presents a set of poverty indicators that can be monitored to capture the
effects of deforestation on the income of the poor. The first four poverty indicators
in the table are village or community level indicators while the remaining are
household level indicators.
Table 4 presents another example of environmental degradation and how its
income impacts on poverty can be monitored. The focus is on land degradation and
soil fertility loss, which is one of the main environmental problems in Nigeria.
Some of the indicators that can be used to capture the impact of land degradation
13
on poverty are rural population below poverty line, infant mortality rate and rural
poverty head count index. Others are declining food production index, household
expenditure and demographic changes.
4.3 Poverty-Environment Maps
Geo-referenced indicators are other tools for monitoring the impact of natural
resource degradation on poverty. The use of this technique will largely depend on
skills and data availability and the cost of mapping.
5. DATA AVAILABILITY
An investigation was carried out between August and September, 2001 to
determine the extent to which data are actually available to match the
proposals for indicators regarding environmental health and natural
resources conditions. The study took a two-phased approach. The first was
a content analysis of relevant publications of agencies of the national
government and of international organizations. The second phase involved
informal interviewing of the officials of relevant agencies, the objective of
which is aimed at gathering other information that may not normally be
contained in published documents. As far as the agency of the national
government was concerned, particular attention was paid to the Federal
Office of Statistics which is the agency charged with the responsibility of
generating and disseminating information on all aspects of the Nigerian
economy. Others include the Federal Ministry of Health, Agriculture
National Planning and Environment. The international agencies include
the World Bank, UNDP, UNICEF, FAO, WHO and DFID.
14
6. RESEARCH FINDINGS
6.1 Environment and Health
6.1.1 Selected Key Environmental Indicators for Malaria.
Our investigation shows that most of the data in the format proposed by
Shyamsundar(2001), is only available, for now, in the monitoring and
evaluation data of the WHO Roll Back Malaria Initiative for Nigeria
(Table 5). As for Intermediate Indicator, the proportion of households
having at least one treated bednet is 2.3% , while the percentage of health
facilities reporting no distruption of stock of anti-malaria drugs (as specified
by national health policy) for more than one week during the previous three
months is 84.8%.
As for Impact Indicators, malaria death rate probable and confirmed among
target groups under 5 and others is 23.0%, while the number of malaria
cases, severe and uncomplicated probable and confirmed among target
groups is 17,004. The percentage of patients with uncomplicated malaria
getting correct treatment at health facility and community levels, according
to the national guidelines, within 24 hours of on set of symptoms is 30.6%.
In addition to the information obtained from WHO Roll Back Malaria
Initiative for Nigeria, some relevant statistics on prevalence and treatment of
malaria are contained in the 1990 and 1999 Nigerian Demographic and
15
Health Survey (NDHS). ( Tables 6 and 7). Also the Federal Office of
(FOS) statistics has published data on reported cases and deaths from
malaria for the period 1994 – 1998. (Table 8). The analyses of the Nigerian
demographic and health surveys, indicate that almost 33 percent of the
children under five years of age were reported to have had fever in the two
weeks prior to the 1990 NDHS compared to about 30 percent of children
under three years for the 1999 NDHS. Compared to NDHS, the FOS figures
refer to the entire population (i.e. all age groups) while the NDHS data are
specific for children under five years old.
6.1.2 Selected Key Environmental Indicators for Respiratory Infections
Table 5 shows that most of the information, on the impact indicators aspects
of respiratory infections is contained in the National Demographic and
Health Survey (NDHS). The prevalence of ARI/CRI is 11.3%, while the
prevalence of chronic lung disease (COPD) is 6.7%. Other sources of data
are Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS).
Information on most of the intermediate indicators can be obtained through
special surveys. An example is the Core Welfare Indicators Questionnaire
(CWIQ) survey (1999) that was conducted by FOS in Lagos State. The
survey gives information on distribution of households by fuel used for
lighting and cooking. Of the 1,054 households that were interviewed, 91.5
percent use gas for cooking while 5.2 percent made use of wood and
16
charcoal. This is typical of Lagos which is the commercial and industrial
nerve center of Nigeria. The figures may not be representative for other
parts of Nigeria where income, commercial and industrial activities are not
developed as in Lagos.
6.1.3 Selected Key Environmental Indicators for Diarrhea
The Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey, and the Nigeria Demographic and
Health Survey are prominent sources of information for indicators on
diarrhea (Table 5). Other sources include the World Development Indicator
(WDI) and the Country Health Profile (CHP). The MICS (1995) shows that
nationally, about half (49.9 percent) of the household interviewed had
access to safe drinking water although there was a significant difference
between the urban and the rural sectors. Overall, 80 percent of the
households in urban areas had access to safe water compared to the 39
percent in the rural areas. The World Development Report (2000/2001)
and the Human Development Report (1998) record that the percentage of
Nigeria population with improved access to water supply increased from
49.0 per cent in 1990 to 50.0 percent in 1998 and 57.0 percent in 2000.
The proportion that had access to improved sanitation increased from 57.0
per cent to 63.0 per cent between 1995 and 2000. Tables 9 and 10, give
additional statistics from various sources, on access to improved water
source and access to improved sanitation facilities in Nigeria. Statistics on
persons per room of housing is contained in NDHS (1990). ( Table 5). The
mean persons per room is 3.2.
17
MICs (1995) shows that the average time taken per households in collecting
water is about 1.50 hours. The report also concludes that 57.0 per cent of
households had satisfactory excretal disposal facilities. The other
intermediate indicators for Diarrhea - Hours/Day available pipe-borne
water, and percentage of child care givers and food prepared with
appropriate hand washing behaviour, E.coli/100ml of water consumed by
residents by source - can be generated by surveys that are designed for that
purpose.
Information on the impact indicator on prevalence of Diarrhea is contained
in the NDHS (1999) (Table 11). Other sources of statistics on this
Indicator include MICS (1995) and the AAS (1999) (Table 12).
6.1.4 Selected Key Broad Environmental Indicators
Data on Public Health Expenditures are contained in the WDI (2001) and the
AAS (1999). Between 1990 and 1998, public health expenditure as a
percentage of GDP was 0.8 while Health expenditures per capita was $23.
Table 13 gives detailed analysis of Expenditure of Federal Government on
Health for the period 1994 – 1998.
Data on Infant Mortality rate and Under-five mortality rate are contained in
the NDHS (1990) (Table 14), MICS (1995), AAS (1999) and WDI (2001)
(Table 5). Under-5 mortality rate declined from 201 deaths to 192 deaths
per thousand from 1985 to 1990. The rate reduced further to 147 deaths per
18
thousand in 1995 (NDHS,1990; MICS 1995). Infant mortality rate per 1000
live births reduced from 99 to 83 between 1980 and 1999 (WDI, 2001).
The Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALY), which measures the Burden of
Disease (BOD) is being developed for some countries in Sub-Saharan
Africa. It appears that this indicator is not yet developed in Nigeria.
6.2 Poverty-Natural Resource Indicators
Compared to the environmental health indicators, data is not readily
available on almost all the poverty-environment indicators proposed by
Shyamsundar in Table 2. Most of the information required could be
generated through surveys that are specifically designed for that purpose.
Table 15 shows that the percentage of rural population below poverty line is
85 percent. The table also indicates that the distance walked by household
members, particularly women and children, to collect water and fuel wood is
about 1.0 km. The few other indicators on which some data are available on
the Pressure-State-Poverty-Response-Framework are as follows:
6.2.1 Deforestation and Income Impacts on the Poor
6.2.1.1 Rate of Deforestation
The World Development Indicator estimates an average annual deforestation
of 3,984 sq.km per annum for Nigeria for the period 1990-2000. The total
area under forest cover is put at 135 sq. km. While the rate of forestland
conversion is 2.6 percent (WDI, 2001). (Table 16)
19
6.2.1.2 Soil Fertility and Income Impacts on the Poor
(a) Population below poverty line is estimated to be 36.4 per cent in 1992-93
(WDI 2001)
(b) Infant mortality rate per 1000 live births (rural and by quintile) was
estimated to be 102 in 1990 (WDI 2001)
(c) The food production index with 1989-1991 = 100 amounted to 57.2 between
1979 and 1981 and 152.2 per cent between 1998 and 2000 (WDI 2001)
(d) Female headed households (rural) are put at 14.1 of household size (AAS
1991) (Table 17)
7. OBSERVATION
It should be noted that with environmental health issues , given the three main
environmental health problems faced by the poor, it is relatively straight forward to
identify indicators to monitor outcomes. While there are a number of local issues
that need to be considered in several instances, the same indicator can be used both
at the global and the local levels. With natural resource degradation, partly because
of the circular nature of the interactions between poverty and resource degradation,
and partly because of the range of natural resource problems faced by the poor,
identifying a common set of indicators is difficult.
20
8. QUALITY OF AVAILABLE DATA
The analysis of our findings on data availability shows that the most common
sources of data are Roll Back Malaria (RBM), MICS, NDHS, AAO, CWIQ, HDR,
WDR, WDI. In this section each of these sources are appraised in terms of the data
collection methods, analytical treatment, frequency of data generation,
dissemination and accessibility.
8.1 Roll Back Malaria (RBM)
The Roll Back Malaria is an initiative of the World Health Organisation (WHO).
It is an international programme that aims that accelerating malaria control in
Africa. The programme aims at reducing by halve the malaria burden in
participating countries through interventions that are adapted to local needs. The
targets set are to halve malaria mortality and morbidity by the year 2010 with
further reduction of morbidity and mortality figures by 50 percent and 75 percent
respectively by 2015. These levels will be further reduced by 50 percent and 80
percent respectively by the year 2025, and by the year 2030, malaria will not more
be a major public health problem in the African Region.
RBM proposes a series of key impact, prevention and disease management, health
sector development, interlinkages and partnership indicators.
21
In Nigeria, the RBM – Monitoring and Evaluation Core Indicators survey was
conducted in the year 2001. The provisional result of analysis has been released to
us for the purposes of this investigation. Data collection was conducted in some
selected states of the Federation. Data processing consists of manual editing,
data entry, computer editing and tabulation.
RBM is not a yearly exercise. This is the first time the survey will be conducted in
Nigeria. RBM data will be made readily accessible once it is finalized and
published.
8.2 The Multiple Indicators Cluster Survey:
MICS was designed by the United Nations Fund to assist developing countries to
conduct a survey to measure and review progress towards the achievement of the
goals of the decade in such areas as health, nutrition, education, water and
sanitation, and progress of women. The Federal Office of Statistics conducted the
Survey in March 1995, with technical assistance from UNICEF. The Survey was
conducted as a supplemental module of the National Integrated Survey of
Households (HISH).
Data collection was conducted throughout the Federation with the aid of
household questionnaire and the children questionnaire. MICS data processing
consisting of four stages, namely: manual editing, data entry, computer editing and
tabulation.
22
MICS is not an every year exercise because the variables do not change yearly.
The frequency of the exercise is between four and five years. The 1999 Survey is
at an advanced stage. It is not yet released for public use.
MICS data is readily accessible once it is published.
8.3 The Nigeria Demographic Health Survey:
NDHS was conducted in 1990 and 1999. The 1990 Survey was conducted by the
Federal Office of Statistics (FOS) with the aim of gathering reliable information on
fertility, family planning, infant and child mortality, maternal care, vaccination
status and nutrition.
The NDHS sample was drawn from the National Master Sample for 1987/1992
National Integration Survey of Households (NISH) programme being implemented
by FOS. NISH as part of the United Nations Household Survey Capability
Programme is a multi-subject household-based survey system. NDHS data
processing includes manual editing, data entry , computer editing and tabulation.
NDHS is conducted almost every ten years. The 1999 NDHS was handled by the
National Population Commission. The NDHS information is accessible once it is
published.
23
8.4 Annual Abstracts of Statistics:
This is an annual publication of the Federal Office of Statistics. It contains
information on the entire National economy. Data is collected from all ministries
and agencies of government, as well as the private sector. Some of the Statistics
originate from surveys conducted by FOS. Others are secondary data.
Most of the data are presented in tabular analysis. The frequency of gathering is
yearly and data is accessible once published. As of now, the 1999 edition is in
circulation.
A main limitation is that most of the statistics are presented in broad form and they
may present limited utility for derivation of poverty-environmental indicators.
8.5 Core Welfare Indicators Questionnaire Survey
The CWIQ is a recent instrument developed by FOS to produce indicators of
social welfare regularly for continuous monitoring of poverty alleviation
programmes. The maiden attempt was conducted in Lagos State in August
1999. There was a recent follow-up in Benue State.
The survey method is adopted. Information is collected on human
development indicators which measure access, utilization and satisfaction
with social services on a single visit to households. Data is analyzed and
presented in tabular form. It is envisaged that this maiden attempt will be
conducted in other parts of the Federation. The maiden issue contains
information which has relevance for the poverty-environment indicators. At
present the accessibility is fairly limited.
24
8.6 Human Development Report (HDR)
This is an annual publication of the United Nations Development
Programme. The 1998 edition for Nigeria is devoted to Human
Development and Poverty. It contains an array of vital information and
data on poverty which are derived from the State Poverty Studies that was
commissioned in 1996 by the Federal Government with the support of the
UNDP.
The dissemination and accessibility of the publication is wide, consistent
and reliable.
8.7 World Development Indicators (WDI)
This is a World Bank publication which contains vital information on all
nations of the World. Data is collected on array of subjects and analyzed in a
form that makes possible international comparability. Frequency is annual
and it is accessible.
8.8 World Development Report
Is a World Bank annual publication which focuses on specific themes of global
interest. It contains statistical appendix which in most cases are similar, but not as
extensive as those in the WDI. The Publication is accessible.
25
9. PRS PROCESS AND POVERTY-ENVIRONMENT INDICATORS
The overall goal of the Poverty Reduction Plan for Nigeria is to have a
people-centered approach to growth and development where every Nigerian
is economically empowered to access the basic needs of life. In addition, the
goal is to ensure social harmony and political stability. An integrated
approach that pays due attention to growth and equity, social infrastructure
and good governance to support a targeted intervention is a sine qua non.
The revised interim PRSP for Nigeria (Nov, 2001) discusses policy issues
in critical sectors including agriculture and rural development, health
infrastructures and education. It also has a critique of current Poverty
Reduction Programme, as well as, suggestions on cross cutting issues, such
as, gender, governance, debt burden, HIV/AIDS, environment, science and
technology.
Even though the paper discusses the PRSP process and recognizes the need
for detailed diagnosis of the obstacles to poverty reduction and growth, as
well as, identification of data gaps, articulation of medium and long-term
objectives and policies, monitoring and participatory process, nonetheless
very little, if any, emphasis was placed on the development of poverty-
environment indicators.
The IPRSP does not contain concrete proposals on Poverty-Environment
Indicators in Nigeria, rather the document simply indicates that use should
be made of surveys based on core welfare indicators and other studies
26
carried out by relevant institutions particularly the Federal Office of
Statistics.
Quoted below is paragraph 9.5 of IPRSP – Performance Monitoring and
Data Collection and Analysis - which is the relevant section:
“Data collection and analysis constitutes one of the crucial aspects of the
PRSP process, and will be undertaken by the Federal Office of Statistics
(FOS), in collaboration with the Central Bank of Nigeria and the Nigerian
Institute of Social and Economic Research (NISER). There is need to
undertake a National Consumer Survey (NCS) in order to update the poverty
profile which was last done in 1996. Outcomes under the PRSP will be
closely monitored and evaluated at least once yearly; and for this purpose,
the Core Welfare Indicators Questionnaire (CWIQ) approach, an effective
monitoring instrument, will be instituted expeditiously, it is also envisaged
to undertake service delivery surveys, to ascertain that improvements in
services are actually reaching the poor.
Other relevant analysis will include Rural and Agricultural Poverty
Analysis, poverty indicators and social capital surveys, gender related
analysis, Public Expenditure Reviews (PER), as well as regular updates of
social indicators statistics.
27
Currently, there are several agencies at the various tiers of government with
machineries for monitoring poverty. They have clear cut indicators that
have been validated over the years. Particularly vigorous in the area are the
Federal Office of Statistics (FOS), National Planning Commission (NPC)
and Central bank of Nigeria (CBN). However, at the full PRSP level, the
design, implementation and monitoring of poverty reduction programme will
be made more participatory and more robust”.
The above indicates that as far as poverty-environment indicators are
concerned, the Nigeria IPRSP does not contain much details.
Given the context of the Nigerian PRS process, the following are suggested
as some of the priority and leading issues to be included in the package of
poverty-environment indicators.
• Prevalence of and deaths caused by malaria
• Prevalence of and death caused by diarrhea and vector-borne diseases
• Prevalence of and death caused by acute respiratory infections
• Infant mortality rate
• Under 5 mortality rate
• Coverage of safe water supply
• Time spent/distance involved in collecting water and fuel wood
• Kind of toilet/latrines provided for the community
• Proportion of households using coal, wood or dung as primary fuel
• Proportion of households using improved stoves or cleaner fuel
28
• Persons per room of housing
• Amount of Public Health Expenditures
• Percentage of rural population below poverty line
Incidentally, our analysis shows that data is available on most of these
priority and leading issues.
10. CONCLUSION
This paper has focused on the application of the analytical framework for
choice of indicators that can be used to assess poverty and environment
interaction in Nigeria. The analysis has shown that data are actually
available to match the proposal for indicators regarding environmental
health and natural resources condition s advanced in Syhamsundar (2001) in
the following areas:
a. Environmental Health Indicators
i. Malaria
1. Proportion of households having at least one
treated bednet
2. Percentage of health facilities reporting no
distruption of stock of anti-malaria drugs (as
specified by national health policy) for more than
one week during the previous 3 months
29
3. Malaria death rate (probable and confirmed)
among target groups (under 5 and others)
4. Number of malaria cases, severe and
uncomplicated (probable and confirmed) among
target groups
5. Percentage of patients with uncomplicated malaria
getting correct treatment at health facility and
community levels, according to the national
guidelines, within 24 hours of onset of symptoms.
(ii) Respiratory Infections
• Percentage of households using clean fuel/improved stoves
• Prevalence of ARI/CRI
• Prevalence of chronic lung disease (COPD)
(iii) Diarrhea
• Access to safe water (Private or Public)
• Access to sanitation (Private or Public)
• Time taken/distance involved in collecting water and fuel wood
• Disposal practices of children’s feaces
• Person per room of housing
• Prevalence of Diarrhea
30
(iv) Broad Indicators
• Public Health Expenditures
• Infant mortality rate
• Under 5 mortality rate
b. Natural Resources
Income and Opportunity
• Percentage of rural population below poverty line
• Time spent by household members, particularly, women and children,
to collect water and fuel wood
• Distance walked by household members, particularly women and
children, to collect water and fuel wood
• Rate of deforestation
• Total area under forest cover
Soil fertility and income impact
• Food production index
• Female headed household
For most sources the quality of data is highly reliable. Data is mostly
generated by reputable national and international organizations including the
Federal Office of Statistics, The National Population Commission, WHO,
The World Bank, UNICEF, and UNDP,
31
The frequency of data collection varies from annual to 5 yearly and 10
yearly. The analytical treatment is good and current and most of the data
are accessible.
Given the critical role and utility of poverty environment indicators in the
PRS, it is suggested that due emphasis should be giving to such indicators
in the national data bank. This implies that the poverty environment
indicators should be fully integrated into the overall context of the statistics
production in Nigeria. The Federal Office of Statistics should be charged
with such responsibility. The Annual Abstract of Statistics – the
publication of Federal Office of Statistics - should contain a section on
poverty environment indicators. It is also important to put in place the
mechanism to improve data collection to cover key priorities and leading
issues to be included in the package of Poverty-Environment Indicators in
Nigeria. This may involve co-ordination of on-going research, adapting on
going survey instruments and or commissioning new studies.
Specific attention should be paid to the generation of data on the following
Poverty-Environment Indicators on which data is presently lacking in
Nigeria:
Environmental Health
• Disability Adjusted Life years
32
Poverty-natural resources
Income and Opportunity
• Rural per capita cereal production
• Quantity of annual household consumption derived from common
lands
• Quantity of annual household consumption that is derived from forest
products and fisheries
• Percentage of irrigated areas in total cultivated area.
Vulnerability
• Households rendered homeless from floods/landslides per year
• Number of deaths from natural disasters
• Percentage of farmers with land on slopes/wetlands
• Percentage of rural children under five who are wasted
Food Security
• Rural per capita cereal production
• Percentage of farmers who grow drought resistant crops
• Quantity of household consumption that is derived from forest
products and fisheries
• Percentage of rural children under five who are underweight
• Percentage of rural children under five who are stunted
• Percentage of rural children under five who are wasted.
33
It is critical to note that the Poverty-Environment Indicators discussed in this
paper will be useful not only for the PRS process but also for national
planning , policy, research and training and for over-all development of the
National economy.
34
REFRENCES
• Bojo. J, Bucknall. J, Halmilton. K, Kishor. N, Kraus.C and Pillai. P
(2001`) : Environment, The World Bank Environment Division,
Washington, D.C
• Federal Ministry of Agriculture(1997): Nigeria Agricultural Statistics,
Lagos
• Federal Republic Of Nigeria (2001): Interim Poverty Reduction
Strategy Paper (Draft), Abuja.
• Federal Office of Statistics (1999): Poverty and Agricultural Sector ,
Lagos
• Segnestam Lisa (1999): Environmental Performance Indicators, 2nd
Edition, Environmental Economic Series Paper No.71, World Bank,
Washington, D.C
• Shyamsundar. Priya (2001): Poverty-Economic Indicator , Environment
Department, World Bank, Washington, D.C
• World Bank (2001): World Bank Development indicator 2000/2001,
Washington, D.C.
• World Bank (2000): Health and the Environment, Washington, D.C
• World Health Organization (2000): Roll Back Malaria Initiative In The
African Region, Harare.
35
Table 1: Selected key environmental health indicators
Environment Related Illness Intermediate Indicator Impact Indicator Malaria • Proportion of households having at
least one treated bednet • Percentage of health facilities
reporting no distruption of stock of anti-malaria drugs (as specified by national health policy) for more than one week during the previous 3 months
• Malaria death rate (probable and confirmed) among target groups (under 5 and others)
• Number of Malaria cases, severe and uncomplicated (probable and confirmed) among target groups
• Percentage of patients with uncomplicated malaria getting correct treatment at health facility and community levels, according to the national guidelines, within 24 hours of onset of symptoms.
Respiratory Infections • Availability of ventilation in cooking area
• Children sleeping in cooking area • Percentage of households using clean
fuel/improved stoves
• Prevalence of ARI/CRI • Prevalence of chronic lung disease
(COPD)
Diarrhea • Access to safe water (private or public)
• Access to sanitation (private or public)
• Hours/day of available piped water • Quantity of water used per capita per
day • Time taken/distance involved in
collecting water • Disposal practices of children’s faces • Percentage of child caregivers and
food prepares with appropriate hand washing behaviour
• E.coli/100ml of water consumed by residents by source
• Persons per room of housing
• Prevalence of Diarrhea
Broad Indicators Public Health Expenditures • Infant mortality rate • Under 5 mortality rate • Disability Adjusted Life Years.
Source: Shyamsundar, 2001.
Table 2: A sample of poverty-natural resource indicators that affect income, security, and vulnerability of poor people in poor countries
Poverty Issue
Poverty-Environment Indicator Natural Resource Problems that could influence this indicator
Income and Opportunity
Percentage of rural population below poverty line Rural per capita cereal production Time spent by household members to collect water and fuel wood Distance walked by household members to collect water and fuel wood Quantity of annual household consumption dervived from common lands1 Quantity of annual household consumption that is derived from forest products and fisheries1 Percentage of irrigated area in total cultivated area by wealth/income categories2 Percentage of rural households with adequate water for livestock by wealth/income categories2
Deforestation Water Scarcity Over-fishing Land Degradation
Food Security Rural per capita cereal production Percentage of farmers who grow drought resistant crops by income/wealth quintiles Quantity of household consumption that is derived from forest products and fisheries1 Percentage of rural children under five who are underweight Percentage of rural children under five who are stunted Percentage of rural children under five who are wasted
Land Degradation Water Scarcity Pest Outbreak Natural Disasters Deforestation Over-fishing Land Degradation Water Scarcity Water Quality
Vulnerability to Natural Disasters
Households rendered homeless from floods/hurricanes/cyclones /landslides per year by income/wealth quintiles Number of deaths from natural disasters by income/wealth quintiles Percentage of farmers with land on slopes/wetlands by income/wealth quintiles Percentage of rural children under five who are wasted
Natural disaster Deforestation
Source: Shyamsundar, 2001. 1 Among households that are largely dependent on natural resources with few alternative
income/employment opportunities 2 Field tested by a DFID Research Group (DFID 2001)
37
Table 3: Deforestation and Income Impacts on the Poor – Indicators within the Pressure-State-
Poverty-Response Framework
Signals of Pressure on Forest
Indicators of Impact on State of Response Factors
Forest Poverty Rural population growth rate
Rate of deforestation % of poor households in forest rich provinces
Increased access to non-traditional sources of energy
Rural population density
Total area under forest cover
% of indigenous people in forest rich provinces
Increased access to piped water
Unclear property rights Rate of forest land conversion
% of common lands available for women to collect fuel wood and NTFPS
Strengthened community governance of forest access and use
Increased rural under or un-employment rate
No of protected areas % of village lands in commons No. of forest user groups in district or state
Decrease in fallow period
Distance and Time to collect fuel wood (by quintile and season)
Modernized land registry
Increase in fertilizer prices
Distance and Time to collect water (by quintile and season)
No of land titles granted
Increased export of forest products
Decline in agriculture output because of use of marginal lands
Increase in timber prices
% of household who collect fuel wood (by quintile)
% of households who collect other forest products (by quintile)
% of household income from forest products (by quintile and season)
Source: Shyamsundar, 2001.
Table 4: Soil Fertility and Income Impacts on the Poor – Indicators within the Pressure-State-
Poverty-Response Framework.
Signals of Pressure on Soil fertility
Indicators of Impact on State of Response Factors
Natural Resources Poverty
Rural population density in relation to agro-climatic zone and soil type
Ratio between actual and estimated crop yields
Population below poverty line (% rural)
Extent of cultivation of marginal land
Cultivated land/fallow land
Changes in soil properties over time
Infant mortality rate (rural and by quintile)
Extent of use of biological methods of soil improvement
Cultivated land/cultivable land
Occurrence of specific soil deficiencies e.g. Micro nutrients
Rural poverty head count index
Use of crop rotation or multiple cropping
Land in monoculture/land in multiple cropping or crop rotation
Occurrence of indicator plants for soil degradation or soil health
Mean per capital expenditure (rural and by quintile)
Fertilizer use
Rural population growth rate
Balance between soil nutrient inputs and outputs (obtained by measurement and modeling)
Food production index Number of farmers groups
Agricultural productivity
Female headed households (rural)
Abandonment of farm land
Cereal yield Net migration rate (rural to urban)
Conflicts over land resources
Source: Shyamsundar, 2001.
Table 5: Selected Key Environmental Health Indicators for Malaria, Respiratory Infections and Diarrhea 39 Environment Related Illness
Intermediate Indicator Data %
Frequency
Source Comment Impact Indicators Data Frequency
Source Comme nts
Malaria - Proportion of households having at least one treated bednet - Percentage of health facilities reporting no distruption of stock of anti-malaria drugs (as specified by national health policy) for more than one week during the previous 3 months
2.3 84.8
Occa ssional “
RBM RBM
RBM has been carried out only once in Nigeria. “
- Malaria death rate (probable and confirmed) among target groups (under 5 and others) - Number of malaria cases, severe and uncomplicated (probable and confirmed) among target groups - Percentage of patients with uncomplicated malaria getting correct treatment at health facility and community levels, according to the national guidelines, within 24 hours of onset of symptoms
23.0 17,004 30.6
Occa ssional “ “
RBM RBM RBM
Respiratory Infections
- Availability of ventilation in cooking area - Children sleeping in cooking area - Percentage of households using clean fuel/improved stoves
91.5
Occa ssional
CWIQ
- Prevalence of ARI/CRI - Prevalence of chronic lung disease
11.3 6.7
10 yearly
NDHS “
40
Diarrhea - Access to safe water
(private or public) 1990 “ 1995 “ 1998 “ 2000 - Access to sanitation (private or public) 1995 “ 2000 - Quantity of water used per capita per day - Hours/Day of available piped water - Time taken/distance involved in collecting water - Disposal practices of children’s feaces - Percentage child care givers and food prepared with appropriate hand washing behaviour - E.coli/100ml of water consumed by residents by source - Person per room of housing
49.0 49.9 50.0 57.0 57.0 63.0 1.5hrs 57.0 - - 3.2
Annual 5yearly Annual Annual 5yearly Annual 5yearly 5yearly 10 yearly
WDI MICS HDR WDI MICS WDI MICS MICS NDHS
Prevalence of Diarhea 15.3 10 yearly
NDHS
Broad Indicators
Public Health Expenditure -As % of GDP 1990-1998 - Per capital 1990-1998
0.8 $30.0
Annual “
WDI WDI
- Infant mortality rate 1980 1999 - Under 5 mortality rate 1985 1990 1995
- Disability Adjusted Life years
99 per’000 83 per’000 201 per’000 192 per’000 147 per’000
5 yearly 5yearly
WDI MICS
RBM = Roll Back Malaria, CWIQ = Core Welfare Indicator Questionnaire, MICS = Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey, WDI = World Development Indicator, NDHS = Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey
Table 6: Prevalence and Treatment of Fever Percentage of children under five years who had a fever during the two weeks preceding the survey, and the percentage of children with a fever who were treated with specific remedies, by selected Background characteristics, Nigeria 1990. Among children with fever Percentage Percentage treated with Background percentage taken to Antibiotic None/ Number characteristics of children a health Anti - pill or Home cough don’t know/ of with fever facility malarial syrup Injection remedy syrup Missing Children Child’s age < 6 months 25.4 36.7 10.3 13.1 27.5 9.2 39.4 1 7516-11 months 37.4 34.6 24.6 19.9 19.6 4.8 44.8 0.5 81312-23 months 41.4 34.7 23.5 24.5 25.7 4.5 49.5 0.8 138024-35 months 34.9 27.6 20.3 24.3 21.5 9.2 43.5 1.5 132036-47 months 30.3 22.3 17.7 17.3 14.3 6 44.7 0.6 141548-59 months 24.9 27.4 24 21.9 23.2 12.8 36.4 1.1 1349 Sex Male 33.5 31.8 23.2 23.4 21.8 8.6 43.8 0.8 3431Female 31.8 28.2 18.6 18.9 21.6 6.1 44.2 1.1 3596 Birth order 1st 29.6 27.4 17.9 21.5 18.6 11.9 39.7 0.3 12812nd-3rd 30.4 32.5 23.4 22.1 26.8 6.2 39.7 1.3 22264th-5th 33.9 30.3 20.8 19 21.5 5.8 46.3 0.9 17076+ 36.2 28.8 20 21.8 18.3 7.3 48.9 0.9 1814 Residence Urban 22.2 49.3 30.3 28.8 27.2 5.9 61.3 0.4 1532Rural 35.5 26.7 19.3 19.8 20.7 7.6 41 1 5496 Region Northeast 32.9 33.2 23.6 27.9 14.7 9.4 36.6 1.9 1653Northwest 37.5 22.7 14.9 18.2 26.5 8.7 22.3 0.8 1862Southeast] 36.1 26.5 22.3 15.8 19 5.4 61.5 0.3 2166Southwest 19.9 53.2 26.8 31 31.1 5.9 64.3 1.4 1347 Mothers education No education 33.6 25 16.8 20.3 18.6 9.1 33.9 0.9 4330Some primary 37.2 25.6 23.3 21.4 23.9 4.1 57.6 1.1 718Completed primary 32.4 39.3 30.6 21.7 27.1 6.6 60.2 1 1076Some secondary 29.9 52.4 27.8 23.7 30.1 0.8 64 0.9 406completed secondary/ 20.2 56.4 31.7 27.9 32.1 1.5 72 0.8 492 All children 32.6 30 20.9 21.1 21.7 7.4 44 0.9 7028 Note: Figures are for children born in the period 1-59 months preceding the survey. Source: Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey, 1990 41
42
Table 7: Prevalence and Treatment of Acute Respiratory infection and fever Percentage of children under five years who were ill with a cough accompanied by rapid breathing During the two weeks preceding the survey, by selected background characteristics, Nigeria 1999. Percentage Percentage of children of children with cough Percentage taken to Background and rapid of children a health characteristics breathing with fever facility Number of provider children Child’s age < 6 months 7.5 21.7 39.5 574 6-11 months 13 35.7 55.3 534 12-23 months 13.1 34.4 48.7 1161 24-35 months 10.5 27.1 51.8 937 Sex Male 11.8 31.8 48.8 1632 Female 10.8 28.6 50.7 1574 Birth order 1st 13.2 28.9 47.6 675 2nd-3rd 10 27.7 44.9 1071 4th-5th 11.5 31.1 51.8 754 6+ 11.4 34.3 56.2 706 Residence Urban 10.3 26.5 64.8 896 Rural 11.7 31.6 44.5 2310 Region Northeast 12.9 34.4 33.4 684 Northwest 10.8 32.9 45.5 572 Southeast] 11.7 39.7 46 586 Southwest 9.3 22.8 68.6 714 12 23 58.7 649 Mothers education No education 11.5 29.9 39.5 1522 Primary 11.1 34.4 56 780 Secondary 11 27.6 58.5 775 Higher 13.1 23.8 78.2 130 All Children 11.3 30.2 49.7 3206 Source: Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS), 1999; National Population Commission, 1999 42
43
Table 8: Reported Cases and Deaths from Notifiable Diseases (Malaria)
Year Cases Deaths
1994 1,154,728 1,686
1995 1,133,926 3,268
1996 1,423,533 6,320
1997 1,176,363 3,490
1998 1,875,380 3,189
Source: F.O.S. Annual Abstract of Statistics, 1999. Table 9: Percentage Distribution of Dwelling Units By Types of Water Supply
Type of Water 1993/94 1994/95 1995/96 1996/97 Pipeborne 24.70 24.213 26.70 24.74 Borehole 7.00 9.61 10.40 15.41 Well 37.00 27.26 30.70 27.62 Stream/Pond 31.30 38.91 32.10 32.23 TOTAL 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 Source: FOS Annual Abstract of Statistics, 1999. Table 10: Percentage Distribution of Households by Type of Toilet Facilities Type of Toilet 1993/94 1994/95 1995/96 1997
Pit 63.30 61.36 61.60 56.97
Pail 1.90 0.96 1.00 1.40
Water Closet 3.50 8.58 8.50 10.30
Others 31.30 29.10 28.90 31.33
Total 100 100 100 100 Source : FOS: Annual Abstract of Statistics, 1999
Table 11: Prevalence of diarrhea
Percentage of children under three years with diarrhoea and diarrhoea with blood during the two weeks
preceding the survey, by selected background characteristics, Nigeria NDHS,1999.
Diarrhoea in the preceeding two weeks
Background
Characteristics all diarrhoea diarrhoea Number of
with blood children
Child’s age
< 6 months 8.2 1.2 574
6-11 months 18.8 1.5 534
12-23 months 18.3 3.1 1161
24-35 months 13.8 2.8 937
Sex
Male 15.1 2.8 1632
Female 15.4 2 1574
Birth order
1st 14.7 2.4 675
2nd-3rd 14.6 2.5 1071
4th-5th 16.7 2.3 754
6+ 15.1 2.4 706
Residence
Urban 13.9 2 896
Rural 15.8 2.6 2310
45
Region
Northeast 22.3 3.9 684
Northwest 17.9 2.2 572
Southeast] 15 3.3 586
Southwest 7.1 0.7 714
Central 14.6 2.1 649
Mothers education
No education 18 2.9 1522
Primary 13.8 2.7 780
Secondary 12.2 1.5 775
Higher 10.7 0 130
Total 15.3 2.4 3206
Table 12: Reported Cases and Deaths from Notifiable Diseases (Diarrhea)
Year Cases Deaths
1994 599,824 941
1995 511,250 2,056
1996 749,657 2,503
1997 675,065 2,392
1998 1,297,690 1,703
Source: FOS Annual Abstract of Statistics, 1999. Table 13: Expenditure of the Federal Government on Health (N Million)
Total Expenditure 1994 1995 1996 1997 Recurrent Expenditure 89,974.90 127,629.80 129,416.30 146,421.00 206,477.50 2094 3320.7 3,175.30 4,702.30 5,333.60 % 0.023 0.026 0.025 0.032 Capital Expenditure 70,918.30 121,138.30 158,678.30 209,841.30 237,085.80 749.1 1,312.3 1,659.6 2,623.80 % 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
Source: FOS Annual Abstract of Statistics, 1999.
Table 14: Infant and child mortality rates by five year periods
preceding the survey, Nigeria (1990).
Years preceding Neonatal Post neonatal Infant Child Under five Survey Mortality mortality mortality mortality mortality
(NN) (PNN)
0-4 42.1 45.2 87.2 115.2 192.4 5 to 9 48.7 47 95.7 103.3 189.1
10 to 14 51.9 46.7 98.6 113.5 200.9 Source: NDHS (1990)
50
Table 15: A sample of poverty-natural resource indicators that affect income, security, and vulnerability of poor people in poor countries Poverty Issues Poverty-Environment Indicators Data Frequency Source Comments Natural Resource Problems that
could influence this indicator Income and Opportunity
Percentage of rural population below poverty line Rural per capita cereal production Time spent by household members to collect water and fuel wood Distance walked by household members to
collect water and fuel wood
Quantity of annual household consumption derived from common lands1 Quantity of annual household consumption that is derived from forest products and fisheries1 Percentage of irrigated area in total cultivated area by wealth/income categories2 Percentage of rural households with adequate water for livestock by wealth/income categories2
85.0 1.5 Hrs 1.0Km
Annual 5 yearly 5 yearly
HDR MICS MICS
Deforestation Water Scarcity Over –fishing Land Degradation
Food Security
Rural per capita cereal production Percentage of farmers who grow drought resistant crops by income/wealth quintiles Quantity of household consumption that is derived from
1
Land Degradation Water scarcity Pest outbreak Natural disasters
48
forest products and fisheries1 Percentage of rural children under five who are underweight Percentage of rural children under five who are stunted Percentage of rural children under five who are wasted
Deforestation Over-fishing Land degradation Water scarcity Water quality
Vulnerability to Natural Disasters
Households rendered homeless from floods/hurricanes/cyclones/landslides per year by income/wealth quintiles Number of deaths from natural disasters by income/wealth quintiles Percentage of farmers with land on slopes/wetlands by income/wealth quintiles Percentage of rural children under five who are wasted
Natural disaster Deforestation
MICS = Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey HDR = Human Development Reports
3 Among households that are largely dependent on natural resources with few alternative income/employment opportunities 4 Field tested by a DFID Research Group (DFID 2001)
49
Table 16: Deforestation and Income Impacts on the Poor-Indicators within the Pressure-State-Poverty-Response Framework. Indicators of Impact on State of Signals of
Pressure on Forest Forest Data Frequency
Source Comment
Poverty Data Frequency
Source
Comment
Response Factors
Rural population growth rate
Rate of deforestation
3,984sq km
Annual WDI % of poor households in forest rich provinces
Increased access to nontraditional sources of energy
Rural population density
Total area under forest cover
135sq. km
Annual WDI % of indigenous people in forest rich province
Increased access to piped water
Unclear property rights
Rate of forest land conversion
% of common lands available for women to collect fuel wood and NTFPS
Strengthened community governance of forest access and use
Increased rural under or un-employment rate
No of protected areas
% of village lands in commons
No. of forest user groups in district or state
Decrease in fallow period
Distance and Time to collect fuel wood (by quintile and season)
Modernized land registry
Increase in fertilizer prices
Distance and Time to collect water (by quintile and season)
1.0km/ 1.5hrs
5yearly
MICS
No of land titles granted
Increased export of forest products
Decline in agriculture output because of use of marginal lands
Increase in timber prices
% of household who collect fuel wood (by quintile)
% of households who collect other forest products (by quintile)
% of household income from forest products (by quintile and season)
WDI = World Development Indicator 52
50
Table 17: Soil Fertility and Income Impacts on the Poor-Indicators within the Pressure-State-Poverty-Response Fr amework Signals of Pressure on Soil fertility
Indicators of Impact on State of
Natural Resources Poverty Data Frequency Source Comments
Response Factors
Rural population density in relation to agro-climatic zone and soil type
Ratio between actual and estimated crop yields
Population below poverty line (% rural) (1992-1993)
36.4
3 yearly WDI Extent of cultivation of marginal land
Cultivated land/fallow land
Changes in soil properties over time
Infant mortality rate (rural and by quintile)
102 5 yearly WDI Extent of use of biological methods of soil improvement
Cultivated land/cultivable land
Occurrence of specific soil deficiencies e.g. Micro nutrients
Rural poverty head count index
Use of crop rotation or multiple cropping
Land in monoculture/land in multiple cropping or crop rotation
Occurrence of indicator plants for soil degradation or soil health
Mean per capital expenditure (rural and by quintile)
Fertilizer use
Rural population growth rate
Balance between soil nutrients inputs and outputs (Obtained by measurement and modeling)
Food production index (1979 – 1981) (1993 – 2000)
57.2 152.20
3yearly “
WDI WDI
Number of farmers groups
Agriculture productivity
Female headed households (rural)
14.1 5 yearly AAS Abandonment of farm land
Cereal yield Net migration rate (rural to urban
Conflicts over land resources
WDI = World Development Indicator AAS = Annual Abstract of Statistics 53
