APPRAISAL OF THE IMPACT OF A COMMUNITY-DRIVEN

DEVELOPMENT PROJECT (FADAMA II) IN ADAMAWA

STATE, NIGERIA

Umar Adamu Madu

Doctor of Philosophy

Community and Youth Development

2013

i

APPROVAL PAGE

I certify that I have supervised and read this thesis and that in my own opinion it conforms to

acceptable standard of scholarly presentation and fully adequate in scope and quality as a thesis

for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.

__________________

Dr John Phoa C.L.

Supervisor

_____________________

Prof. Dr Hew Cheng Sim

2ND

Supervisor

This thesis was submitted to the Faculty of Social Sciences, UNIMAS and is accepted in

fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.

__________________________

Prof. Dr Spencer

Dean, Faculty of Social Sciences, UNIMAS

ii

DECLARATION AND COPY RIGHT

Name: Umar Adamu Madu

Matric. Number: 10011466

I hereby declare that this thesis is based on my original work and investigation, except where

otherwise stated. All sources of data or information used in this thesis are acknowledged and a

list of references is appended.

Signature: …………………………………

Date: ……………………………………...

Copyright by Umar Adamu Madu and

Universiti Malaysia Sarawak

iii

ACKNOWLDGEMENT

I am most grateful and eternally indebted to the Almighty God for giving me the opportunity to

partake in this academic exercise, to Him be the honour for all the great things He has done for

me, my family and friends. May I also humbly and heartily appreciate the support and assistance

rendered to me by the following persons, groups and organizations in making this study a

success.

Dr John C.L Phoa supervised this study. I sincerely appreciate his disposition and prompt

attention, mentoring this work from scratch to finish, irrespective of his other tight assignments

within and outside UNIMAS. He has indeed acted not only as a mentor to me, but as a guardian,

parent and supporter. Professor Dr Hew Cheng Sim assisted and contributed immensely in

supervising this study. She made available some useful literature, useful suggestions and assisted

greatly in mentoring this study. Let me once more humbly appreciate her untiring support and

assistance to make my stay in Sarawak happy and lively.

I am highly grateful to Dr Poline Bala for her contribution, support and valued

encouragements. Dr Peter Nwanesi’s contribution to my initial work arrangement and assisting

with good number of literature as well as making some useful observations to this work was a

source of great inspiration to me. I will be highly indebted, if I did not acknowledge the untiring

support I received from the members of the Faculty of Social Sciences. My appreciation

especially goes to the Dean, Prof. Spencer Empading Sanggin and Deputy Dean Postgraduate,

Associate Prof. Dr Neilson Ilan Mersat for providing me with conducive environment capable of

facilitating my study.

iv

My special thanks go to Dr Ja’afar Furo, my head of department who encouraged me to

take up the study. His support and valued encouragement is highly appreciated. I also thank the

entire staff of the Adamawa state Fadama II office that made some useful literature and Fadama

II reports and bulletins available. Also of worthy to mention is the assistance rendered to me by

some Fadama II facilitators during the field work. I highly appreciate their relentless efforts.

I feel highly indebted without acknowledging the effort of the Education Trust Fund

(ETF) for making this study a reality. In fact, I owe ETF greatly if I did not divulge its effort for

giving me the opportunity to study oversea. I also thank the Adamawa State University (ADSU)

for making me, one of the beneficiaries of the ETF grant. I really feel honoured by the University

for giving me the opportunity to access the fund.

I respectfully appreciate my late parents whose peaceful philosophy had kept the family

united. Much thanks to my wife and my children for their patience, prayers and understanding.

Apart from my long absence from them, the family savings has really suffered a set back as a

result of this research work.

Finally, I am grateful to all my friends, brothers, sisters and well wishers who prayed and

looked forward for the successful completion of this study. No mention of names is important

here as they are too numerous to mention.

v

ABSTRACT

The community-driven development (CDD) approach has increasingly become fashionable due

to its impending capabilities to develop projects that are sustainable, receptive to local priorities,

empower local communities and targeting of the poor and vulnerable groups. The purpose of this

study is to assess the impact of Fadama II project, which is a CDD project and the first of its

kind in Nigeria. It is also the largest agricultural and rural development project in Nigeria. The

project focused on increasing the incomes of Fadama Users on sustainable basis via

empowerment in terms of capacity building, advisory services, acquisition of productive assets

and rural infrastructure development. This study used propensity score matching (PSM) to select

300 comparable project beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries. The study also used double

difference methods to compare the impact indicators. T-test analysis was used to compare means

and determine impact of the project apart from descriptive statistics used. Net Present Value

(NPV) was also used to determine economic viability of the productive assets acquired. The

results show that Fadama II project succeeded in targeting the poor and women farmers in its

activities. Participation in the project also increased the income of beneficiaries by about 60.8

percent, which is well above the targeted increase of only 20 percent in the six years period of

the project. Fadama II has as well successfully implemented its CDD approach, as community

members were given voice to decide for the planning and implementation of projects meant to

touch their lives. The value of productive assets has increased significantly among the

beneficiaries. The value of group assets increased more than individual assets. Regarding rural

infrastructure investments, Fadama II project had positive impacts on beneficiaries’ access to

market and reduced transportation cost. The study also revealed surprising effects on

beneficiaries’ commercial behavior and statistically significant impacts on nonfarm activities.

The study observed that Fadama II increased the demand for postharvest handling and marketing

information technologies but did not have a significant impact on the demand for financial

management. Fadama II reduced the demand for soil fertility management technologies. The

decline likely reflects the project’s focus on providing post-production advisory services and

suggests the need for the project to increase its support for soil fertility management and thus

vi

limit the potential for land degradation resulting from increased agricultural production. Conflict

has been reduced among the community members as a result of participation. The findings have

also revealed that the project has enhanced the capacities of the beneficiaries to cope with their

activities. The project has also succeeded in targeting the poor and vulnerable groups and

increased short-term household incomes among the core poor group significantly. The unique

feature that could have contributed to the significant impact of the project in a short time is its

participatory and demand driven approach that gives voice to the communities. It is also

attributed to its broad-based strategy of using CDD model, which addresses the major constraints

limiting the success of projects that do not take into consideration the interest of the community

members. It is concluded therefore, that the strategy of participatory and demand-driven

development should take a centre stage in any rural development process. This has implications

on planning poverty reduction efforts in low-income countries. CDD project that simultaneously

considers communities’ demand and addresses many constraints will likely build synergies that

will lead to larger impacts than will a top-down project. This suggests the need for the

government and donors to pool resources and initiate multipronged CDD projects rather than

many isolated and service oriented projects.

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ABSTRAK

Komuniti penggerak pembangunan (CDD) merupakan pendekatan yang semakin mendapat

perhatian berikutan keupayaannya dalam membangunkan projek yang lestari dengan memberi

keutamaan kepada penduduk tempatan melalui pemerkasaan di samping mampu untuk mengenal

pasti golongan sasaran dengan lebih berkesan. Tujuan kajian adalah untuk menilai impak

projek Fadama II iaitu projek pembangunan pertanian dan desa yang terbesar di Nigeria yang

turut menjadikan komuniti sebagai penggerak kepada pembangunan. Fokus utama projek

Fadama II adalah untuk memastikan kelestarian pendapatan penduduk yang terlibat melalui

pemerkasaan dari segi pembinaan keupayaan, khidmat nasihat, perolehan aset yang produktif

dan pembangunan infrastruktur luar bandar. Kajian ini menggunakan “propensity score

matching (PSM)” untuk memilih 300 responden yang ferdiri jaripada peserta dan bukan peserta

yang setanding daripada proket Fadama II di samping menggunakan kaedah perbezaan

berganda (double difference method) untuk membuat perbandingan antara petunjuk-petunjuk

impak. Di samping penggunaan statistik deskriptif, analisis Ujian-T juga turut digunakan untuk

membandingkan nilai min dalam mengenal pasti impak projek tersebut. Penggunaan Nilai Kini

Bersih dalam kajian ini adalah untuk mengenal pasti kebolehupayaan ekonomi dalam

memperoleh aset yang produktif. Hasil kajian mendapati bahawa projek Fadama II telah

berjaya mensasarkan aktiviti projek kepada golongan sasaran iaitu golongan petani miskin dan

golongan wanita. Penglibatan dalam projek ini juga telah meningkatkan pendapatan pihak

berkepentingan sebanyak 60.8 peratus yang jauh melebihi sasaran asal sebanyak 20 peratus

sepanjang tempoh enam tahun projek tersebut. Pendekatan CDD yang digunakan merupakan

faktor kejayaan kepada projek Fadama II ini berikutan peluang yang diberkan kepada komuniti

tempatan untuk menyuarakan pendapat dalam menentukan perancangan dan pelaksanaan

projek yang akan mempengaruhi kehidupan komuniti tempatan tersebut. Peningkatan nilai aset

produktif bukan sahaja berlaku dalam kalangan pihak berkepentingan secara individu tetapi

juga secara berkelompok. Dari segi pelaburan infrastruktur luar Bandar pula, projek Fadama II

telah memberi kesan positif kepada pihak yang berkepentingan iaitu akses terhadap pasaran dan

pengurangan pengangkutan. Hasil kajian juga mendapati bahawa wujudnya impak yang

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signifikan antara perlakuan komersial pihak berkepentingan dan aktiviti bukan pertanian. Hal

ini dapat dilihat apabila wujudnya peningkatan permintaan terhadap teknologi maklumat untuk

tujuan pemasaran dan pengendalian hasil pertanian selepas penuaian namun impak ke atas

permintaan terhadap pengurusan kewangan adalah tidak signifikan. Projek Fadama II turut

memperlihatkan pengurangan permintaan terhadap teknologi pengurusan kesuburan tanah.

Pengurangan ini memberi gambaran bahawa fokus utama projek adalah menyediakan khidmat

nasihat selepas pengeluaran. Adalah dicadangkan agar projek tersebut dapat meningkatkan

sokongan terhadap pengurusan kesuburan tanah di samping mengurangkan masalah hakisan

tanah yang berpunca daripada peningkatan pengduaran pertanian. Konflik antara komuniti juga

telah dapat dikurangkan akibat daripada penyertaan komuniti tersebut. Hasil kajian juga

mendapat bahawa projek ini telah meningkatkan keupayaan pihak yang berkepentingan dalam

mengendalikan aktiviti di samping berjaya meningkatkan pendapatan jangka pendek isi rumah

golongan sasaran yang berada dalam kumpulan miskin tegar. Pendekatan rangsangan

permintaan dan penyertaan yang memberi hak bersuara kepada komuniti merupakan ciri unik

yang menjadi penyumbang kepada kejayaan projek yang dikecapi dalam masa yang singkat.

Kejayaan projek ini juga adalah disebabkan oleh strategi menyeluruh dalam penggunaan model

CDD yang berupaya mengatasi kekangan projek yang sering kali tidak mengambil kira

pandangan daripada komuniti tempatan. Secara kesimpulannya, strategi pembangunan yang

melibatkan penyertaan dan rangsangan permintaan seharusnya dijadikan sebagai wadah dalam

proses pembangunan luar bandar. Ia turut dilihat memberi implikasi ke atas perancangan dalam

pembasmian kemiskinan khususnya di negara-negara yang berpendapatan rendah. Projek yang

menggunakan pendekatan komuniti penggerak pembangunan (CDD) turut mengambil kira

tuntutan komuniti di samping mengatasi kekangan yang sedia ada. Ia adalah seperti sistem

janakuasa yang memberi impak yang lebih besar berbanding dengan projek yang bersifat “top-

down”. Hal ini juga menunjukkan bahawa terdapat keperluan bagi kerajaan dan penderma

untuk mengumpul sumber yang diperlukan dan menjadikan CDD sebagai projek utama

berbanding dengan projek-projek sebelum ini yang lebih bersifat terpencil dan berorientasikan

perkhidmatan.

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CONTENTS

PRELIMINARY PAGES i

Title Page i

Approval Page ii

Declaration and Copyright iii

Acknowledgement v

Abstract vii

Abstrak ix

Table of Contents ix

List of Tables xv

List of Figures xvii

List of Abbreviations xix

CHAPTER ONE – INTRODUCTION 1

1.0 Introduction 1

1.1 Background of the study 1

1.2 Background of the study area 5

1.3 Background and Approach of Fadama II Project 12

1.3.1 Community-Driven Nature 16

1.4 Overview of Fadama II 18

1.4.1 Federal Level Project Implementation 19

1.4.2 State Level Project Implementation 19

1.4.3 Local Level Project Implementation 20

1.4.4 Community Level (FCAs) 20

1.4.5 Community Level (FUGs) 22

1.4.6 Facilitators 23

1.5 Statement of Problem 24

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1.6 Research Questions 27

1.7 Objectives of the study 27

1.8 Research Hypothesis 28

1.9 Significance of the study 30

1.10 Scope and Limitation of the study 31

1.11 Research Ethics 32

1.12 Organisation of the study 33

CHAPTER TWO – THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 35

2.0 Introduction 35

2.1 Conceptual Theory 35

2.2 Benefits of Community-driven development 43

2.3 Rural Community Participation 53

2.4 Conclusion 54

CHAPTER THREE – LITERATURE REVIEW 56

3.0 Introduction 56

3.1 State and Development 56

3.2 Policies for Rural Development in Nigeria 65

3.3 Concept of Rural Development 77

3.4 Rural Infrastructure and Community Development 82

3.5 Rural Community Development 87

3.6 Power Relations and Community-Driven Development 93

3.7 Rural Community Decision-making Process 98

3.8 Participatory Community Development in Nigeria 102

3.8 Conflict and Conflict Resolution 105

3.9 Conclusion 109

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CHAPTER FOUR – METHODOLOGY 110

4.0 Introduction 110

4.1 Population of the study 110

4.2 Sampling Procedure 112

4.3 Justification for Sampling 114

4.4 Survey Instrument 115

4.5 Major Variable 116

4.5.1 Characteristics and Strategy of Fadama II 116

4.5.2 Productive Assets 116

4.5.3 Rural Infrastructure 117

4.5.4 Advisory Services 117

4.5.5 Capacity Building 118

4.5.6 Conflict Resolution 118

4.6 Data Collection 120

4.6.1 Household Survey Data 120

4.6.2 Community Survey Data 122

4.6.3 Baseline Data Collection 123

4.7 Data Analysis 123

4.8 Conclusion 131

CHAPTER FIVE – HOUSEHOLD’S PROFILE, INCOME AND STRATEGY 132

5.0 Introduction 132

5.1 Socio-economic Characteristic and Participation 132

5.2 Major Sources of Income 136

5.3 Household Income 140

5.3.1 Increase in Production 148

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5.3.2 Consumption Expenditure 151

5.4 Community-driven and Power Relations 155

5.4.1 Planning and Implementation Decisions 155

5.4.2 Influence of Community Leader/Authorities 159

5.4.3 Role of Community Leader/Authorities 160

5.5 Conclusion 167

CHAPTER SIX – PRODUCTIVE ASSETS AND ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE 170

6.0 Introduction 170

6.1 Productive Assets Acquisition 170

6.1.1 Access to Credit 177

6.1.2 Agro-processing and Value Addition 180

6.1.3 Sustainability of Assets/Activities 184

6.2 Rural Infrastructure Development 188

6.2.1 Sources of Funding 188

6.2.2 Importance of Fadama Roads 190

6.2.3 Time Dimension of Roads 191

6.2.4 Access to Roads 194

6.2.5 Transportation Services 200

6.2.6 Uses, Benefits and Problems of Roads 203

6.2.7 Road Infrastructure and Marketing 207

6.2.8 Non-farm Economic Activities 208

6.3 Conclusion 212

CHAPTER SEVEN – ADVISORY SERVICES, CONFLICTS RESOLUTION AND

CAPACITY BUILDING 213

7.0 Introduction 213

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7.1 Advisory Services 213

7.1.1 Types of Technologies Adopted 214

7.1.2 Sources of Advisory Services 217

7.2 Conflict and Conflict Resolution Mechanism 224

7.3 Capacity Building 231

7.3.1 Trainings Received 231

7.3.2 Outcome of trainings received 234

7.4 Conclusion 237

CHAPTER EIGHT – SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND POLICY IMPLLICATIONS 239

8.0 Introduction 239

8.1 Summary 239

8.1.1 Household Income and Participatory Nature 241

8.1.2 Productive Assets and Rural Infrastructure 242

8.1.3 Advisory Services and Capacity Building 243

8.1.4 Conflict Resolution Mechanism 244

8.2 Conclusion 244

8.3 Policy Implication 254

8.3.1 Policy Makers 254

8.3.2 Programme/Projects Organisers 256

8.3.3 Future Research 256

REFERENCES 258

APPENDICES 275

Appendix I: Rural Development Programmes in Nigeria 275

Appendix II: Cost and Benefit Analysis 278

xiv

Appendix III: Interview Schedule (Questionnaire) 289

Appendix IV Interview Guideline 301

xv

LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1 Budgetary Allocation to Agric. and Rural Development 73

Table 4.1 Total Number of Respondents Selected for the Study 113

Table 5.1 Probit Regression of the Respondent’s Characteristics 133

Table 5.2 Sources of Income for Beneficiaries and Non-beneficiaries 137

Table 5.3 Household Income of the Beneficiaries 140

Table 5.4 Target Increase in Income among Fadama II Beneficiaries 143

Table 5.5 Household Income across Gender and Poverty Groups 144

Table 5.6 Average Farm Sizes and Outputs 149

Table 5.7 T-test Analysis of Productivity and Income 151

Table 5.8 T-test Analysis of Household Expenditure 153

Table 5.9 Decision Making, Influence and Role of Community Leaders 164

Table 6.1 Average Value of Productive Assets 171

Table 6.2 Access to Credit 179

Table 5.3 Agro-Processing and Value Addition

181

Table 5.4 Respondents Stating Importance of Fadama II Roads 191

Table 6.5 Reported Year in which Fadama II roads were Constructed 192

Table 6.6 Respondents Reporting Changes in Distance to All-weather Roads 194

Table 6.7 T-test analysis of access to road infrastructure 199

Table 6.8 Average Waiting Time for Motor Vehicle Transportation 200

Table 6.9 Transportation Cost 201

Table 6.10 T-test analysis of transportation services 201

Table 6.11 T-test analysis of nonfarm economic activities 211

xvi

Table 7.1 Adoption and Demand for Technologies 215

Table 7.2 Sources of Advisory Services by Type of Production Technologies 219

Table 7.3 Conflict Resolution Mechanism 230

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 Map of Africa Showing the Location of Nigeria and its Border Nations 6

Figure 1.2. Map of Nigeria Showing the Location of Adamawa State 9

Figure 1.3 Map of Nigeria Showing Fadama II Participating States 14

Figure 2.1 Community-Driven Development Result Framework 43

Figure 3.1 Map of Adamawa State Showing Fadama II LGAs 72

Figure 5.1 Household Consumption Expenditure 152

Figure 5.2 Decision Making Process Among Beneficiaries and Non-beneficiaries 156

Figure 5.3 Influence of Community Leaders on Project Implementations 159

Figure 5.4 Roles of Community Leaders in Project Implementation 162

Figure 6.1 Team Spirit and Regular Meeting Among the Respondents 184

Figure 6.2 Proceed Set Aside for Investment and Maintenance 186

Figure 6.3 Sources of Funding for Roads Construction and Rehabilitation 189

Figure 6.4a Distance to All-weather Roads Before Project 196

Figure 6.4b Distance to All-weather Roads After Project 196

Figure 6.5a Distance to Nearest Town Before Project 297

Figure 6.5b Distance to Nearest Town After Project 298

Figure 6.6a Uses of All-weather Roads 203

Figure 6.6b Uses of Fadama II Roads 204

Figure 6.7 Reported Benefits of Roads 205

Figure 6.8 Reported Problems of Roads 206

Figure 6.9 Share of Total Production Marketed 207

Figure 7.1 Conflict Resolution Status As a Result of Fadama II Intervention 226

xviii

Figure 7.2 Trainings Received As a Result of Project Participation 232

Figure 7.3 Outcome of Trainings Received As a Result of Project Participation 235

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ABBREVIATION

ADAP – Accelerated Development Area Project

ADP – Agricultural Development Project

AIDS – Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

ASA – Advisory Services Activity

ATE – Average Treatment Effect

BLP – Better Life Program

CB – Community Based

CBO – Community Based Organization

CDD – Community - Driven Development

DCA – Development Credit Agreement

DD – Double Difference

DFRRI – Directorate of Food, Road and Rural Infrastructure

FAO – Food and Agricultural Organization

FCA – Fadama Community Association

FCT – Federal Capital Territory

FII – Fadama II

FUG – Fadama User Group

HIV – Human Immunodeficiency Virus

IGAs – Income Generating Activities

IDA – International Development Assistance

LDPs – Local Development Plans

LFD – Local Fadama Desk

LFDC – Local Fadama Desk Committee

LGAs – Local Government Areas

MANR – Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources

M &E – Monitoring Evaluation

MSADP – Multi-State Agricultural Development Project

MTR – Mid – Term Review

NAFPP – National Accelerated Food Production Project

NAIS – Nigeria Agricultural Insurance Scheme

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NDE – National Directorate of Employment

NEEDS – National Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy

NFDO – National Fadama Development Office

NFDP – National Fadama Development Project

NFTC – National Fadama Technical Committee

NGOs – Non – Governmental Organizations

NSPFS – National Special Program for Food Security

NWC – National Women Council

OFN – Operation Feed the Nation

PAP – Poverty Alleviation Program

PAA – Pilot Asset Acquisition

PCU – Project Coordinating Unit

PRA – Participatory Rural Appraisal

PSM – Propensity Score Matching

RI – Rural Infrastructure

REAP – Rural Economic Advancement Programme

SAP – Structural Adjustment Programme

SFDO – State Fadama Development Office

SMANR – State Ministry of Agric, and Natural Resources

SSA – Sub- Saharan Africa

TV – Television

UN – United Nation

UNCTAP – United Nation Council on Trade and Development

UNDP – United Nation Development Program

UNEP – United Nation Environmental Program

UNICEF – United Nation International Children Education Fund

WB – World Bank

WHO – World Health Organization

APPRAISAL OF THE IMPACT OF A COMMUNITY-DRIVEN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT

(FADAMA II) IN ADAMAWA STATE, NIGERIA

BY

.

UMAR ADAMU MADU

A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

Faculty of Social Sciences

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SARAWAK

2013

1

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1 .0 Introduction

This chapter provides background information in relation to the conceptualization of the

statement of problem for this research. The major thrust of this study is to appraise the impact of

a World Bank supported community-driven development project, called Fadama II in Adamawa

State, Nigeria. This present study intends to evaluate or empirically assess the project outcome in

relation to income, participatory nature, access to infrastructure and productive assets, and

provision of demand-driven advisory services. The study also investigates how the project

affected the capacity to resolve conflicts among users of Fadama resource and the capacity of

beneficiaries to manage CDD project. It also examines whether the project has succeeded in

targeting the poor and the vulnerable groups through its poverty reduction efforts and productive

asset acquisitions.

1.1 Background of the Study

The quest for proper model of development emerged as a result of strong criticisms of neo-

classical development models and theories due to latter’s failure to address issues such as

poverty, human welfare, income distribution, unemployment, environmental health, security,

popular participation and equitable distribution of growth benefits (Eboh et al, 1999; Dennis,

2007). After several decades of emphasis on rapid economic growth, there is an increasing

realization that development is not just higher growth of national income, but a means of

Faculty of Social

2

achieving basic human needs and development particularly those related to individual and

collective wellbeing (Helleiner, 1992).

Several studies have described development as a means through which basic human needs

and individual wellbeing are achieved (Diana and Peter, 1984; Helleiner, 1992). This is debated

to be achieved through self-reliance and with the use of the community or society’s own

resources (Sweindell et al, 1981; Nwanesi, 2007). In this context, a community that discusses its

needs, plans to meet these needs, organizes its resources for action and carries out that action and

continues its efforts to meet these needs or solve new problems will, through its efforts improve

itself. This is what is regarded as community-driven development (CDD) or people oriented

development.

The People Oriented Development approach, otherwise known as CDD, emerged against

the conventional “top-down” syndrome which never had any sustainable impact on the living

conditions of community members especially in rural Nigeria. The model instead, develops a

more people centred and inclusive “bottom-up” development approach (Abdoul, 2010). This

development approach gives voice to community members or beneficiaries to have absolute

control over resources and decisions affecting them. This strategy allows community members

(beneficiaries, stakeholders etc.) to freely decide what action to take, and take responsibility for

initiatives that affect their lives (Narayan, 2000; Abdoul, 2010).

Community-driven development (CDD) has gained popularity at both international and

local levels. As shared by some scholars, the approach is currently the most widely used method

by both government and development assistance programmes (Gillespie, 2004; Mansuri and Rao,