Approaches to Music Notation

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Music Education Research, Vol. 4, No. 2, 2002

Approaches to Music Notation:the printed score as a mediator of meaning

in Western tonal tradition

CECILIA HULTBERG, Malmo Academy of Music, University of Lund, Sweden

(E-mail: [email protected])

ABSTRACT In this exploratory, qualitative study, selected young musicians’ ways of

taking musical meaning from notation were investigated. A socio-cultural theoretical

perspective was applied, which means that relations between traditions and individuals

were especially accounted for. From the results of the study, conclusions on functions

of the printed score as a mediator of musical meaning were drawn, and a theory of

instrumental training was developed. Two main approaches to music notation were

found: a REPRODUCTIVE and an EXPLORATIVE APPROACH . In the REPRODUCTIVE APPROACH , the

function of the printed score is that of an explicitly normative document, which

prescribes how to play, and through which the performance is to be assessed. In the

EXPLORATIVE APPROACH , the function is that of an invitation to seek out implicit meaning

according to the musicians’ individual judgement, within a frame of agreed understand-

ing in Western tonal music that they share with the composer. The conclusion wasdrawn, that strategies for coping with music notation, used in early levels of instrumen-

tal education, might strongly inuence musicians in the long term, however skilled and

experienced they may be. Teaching methods based on a REPRODUCTIVE APPROACH to the

printed score may even prevent professional musicians from applying musical under-

standing developed later. Based on these results, a theory of instrumental teaching was

developed, meaning that teacher’s attitudes towards students, as well as towards music

notation, might either support or obstruct students’ development.

Introduction



186 C. Hultberg

play. Many colleagues teaching in different countries have reported similar difculties

amongst their students. This general nature of the problem was the reason why I decidedto carry out research into young musicians’ ways of coping with notation. In this article

an exploratory study of contemporary musicians’ ways of taking meaning from Western

music notation is presented, and a theory of instrumental training based on the results is

discussed.

Literature Review

Western tonal music represents a well-established tradition. It includes many periods and

styles in which printed scores are expected to provide the necessary information to

educated interpreters. Hence, not only the music tradition in itself had to be regarded in

this study, but also traditions of coping with notation and learning how to do so. These

considerations were of vital importance for the choice of perspective.

In a socio-cultural theoretical perspective, the connection between traditions and

individuals is of special interest (Saljo, 2000). This perspective is closely connected to

Vygotsky’s theory of cultural history, in which individuals inherit the cultural history of

the collective in which they live through the inuence of traditions (Vygotsky, 1971).

Material or intellectual cultural tools function as bearers of meaning and mediators of the

real world (Vygotsky, 1934/1981). Cultural tools may also consist of different kinds of

gestures, such as bodily gestures and ways of behaving. In this, Vygotsky’s ideas are

consistent with G.H. Mead’s theory of social inter-actionism, according to which we

understand ourselves as social beings by means of implicitly imagining the attitudes of

others towards us (Mead, 1934). Transferred to this study, notation has been regarded as

a cultural tool mediating real music to its interpreters. Further, inuences on themusicians’ approaches to printed scores through gestures have been considered, such as

the attitudes taken towards them by their earlier teachers (Hultberg, 2000).The idea of creativity as a way of living is central to Vygotsky’s theory of cultural

history, according to which individuals learn how to use and master cultural tools and

gestures through re-creation of experiences of the real world. Consequently, individual

re-creation is part of the concept of creativity: a process in which intellect and emotion

are connected (Vygotsky, 1934/1981). Applied to this study, the process of taking

musical meaning from notation has been regarded as the musicians’ individual re-cre-

ation of their experiences of real music (Hultberg, 2000).

Traditional Aspects of Music Notation

Even if musical practice has changed between styles and periods in Western tonal

tradition, a collection of conventions of expressions form a common frame, which is

taken for granted if nothing is explicitly marked. For instance, the time signature and the

general tempo/character designation set a frame of expression. Discords generally cause

an increase of tension, and the articulation of a part is inuenced by the tempo and the

register in which it is written, as well as by melodic and rhythmic patterns (Coker, 1972;Hultberg, 2000; Nielsen, 1976; Quantz, 1752). Many composers have not marked

conventional expression partly because they expected interpreters to be familiar with it





188 C. Hultberg

investigated. However, although the teacher’s strong inuence on students has been

conrmed, different ways of comprehending musical meaning in the printed scores stillremain rather unexplored.

Purpose of the StudyThe intention of my study was to contribute more knowledge about how musicians take

meaning from music notation of sections or entire pieces of music in the Western tonal

tradition. No particular period was especially selected and conclusions on functions of

printed scores as mediators of musical meaning were to be drawn from the interpreters’

actions.

The Study

Taking meaning from notation of entire sections or works requires practice and

reection. Consequently, explorative interviews needed to be included in the study.

General categories of using notation could not be established in advance, but needed to

be generated from the collected data. These conditions correspond to the criteria for

qualitative studies (Kvale, 1997; Starrin, 1994) which is why a qualitative method

chosen for this project.

In order to satisfy the requirement of the harmonic dimension of tonal music, I

decided to direct this study at pianists. Eleven musicians, six music students and ve

professional musicians and piano teachers were invited to participate. The participants

represented different countries and traditions of music education, as well as professionalorientation. Two of the students were preparing their entrance tests for higher music

education. The others were studying at music academies. Two of them attended theSwedish IE programme (instrumental and ensemble teaching) while the others attended

the performers’ programme. However, irrespective of how they had been educated, all

participants were capable of interpreting printed scores independently—an important

criterion in this study.

In order to consider inuences from both traditions involved in this process, music

education and musical practice, I asked the participants to perform one tonal work of

their own choice, as well as three short pieces that I composed especially for this study,and therefore were unknown to them. In a background study, piano teachers at the

Academy of Music in Malmo had examined the musical relevance of these pieces. They

do not represent any specic period but are based on simple ‘musical sentences’ that maybe related to different contexts.

Interpreting the freely chosen pieces, the participants could present themselves as

musicians. Preparing these, their strategies of coping with the printed scores would

directly (students) or indirectly (professionals) have been inuenced by their teachers’

advice. When playing unknown pieces, the musicians would have to rely completely on

their personal experiences (the participating students’ teachers had agreed not to supportthe process of interpretation). These pieces, which caused no technical problems to them,

had different characters time signatures and part-writing structures Besides the indis-



Approaches to music notation 189

their freely chosen pieces and to comment on the printed score of each piece after having

played it.The data collection included three stages: each musician

(1) performed a piece of music, after which he/she

(2) commented on the printed score, sitting at the piano.

These two stages, which were video-recorded, were repeated with each piece of music.

Then, while viewing his/her own video recording, each musician was given an oppor-

tunity to

(3) evaluate his/her performances and comments.

This last stage was audio-recorded.

All sessions took place in November and December 1997. Each musician decided

when to make the recording. No time limit was set, and because of the uncertainty of

duration, there was not only a room for playing and commenting reserved, but also a

convenient place for a break. Before recording, the participants were given an oppor-

tunity to warm up on the piano, for as long as they wished. They were also informed

that they could stop a performance and start again if they wished. In order to disturb the

recording as little as possible I stayed beside the camera during the playing sections,

watching and listening.

No interview questions or categories were set up in advance, but the participants

commented freely. However, unclear statements as well as gestures and played examples

were followed up with additional questions. A content analysis of the data was

undertaken. The statements in each interview were double-checked and compared to the

interpretation actually played on the video. As expected, I gained knowledge of how theparticipants referred to conventions in tonal music, but the data also formed patterns I

had not expected to nd. Thus, the data shed new light on how the musicians usedprinted scores.

Results

Two main approaches were identied in which the origin of the musical meaning

differed. The editor’s special interpretation of the composer’s intention was mediated in

a REPRODUCTIVE APPROACH, while the composer’s possible intention was mediated in anEXPLORATIVE APPROACH. According to this divergence, the roles of the musicians as well

as the functions of printed scores diverged.

In a REPRODUCTIVE APPROACH, the musicians restricted their observations to phenom-ena to which special meaning was assigned by means of performance markings. They

concentrated on visual observation of instructions on how to play, through which a

horizontal/temporal dimension of attention dominated. Through playing (motor observa-

tion) and listening (aural observations), they assessed how they managed to follow the

instructions. Consequently, motor and aural observation served as the means for

executing and controlling the attempts to reproduce the prescribed interpretation visuallyobserved. Thus, the musicians acted on behalf of a superior interpreter, the editor, whose

interpretation they tried to reproduce Some of them even disregarded their own



190 C. Hultberg

and familiarity with musical practice even if this meant that they had to disregard the

editor’s instructions. In this exploration, they paid attention to horizontal/temporal and

vertical/tonal dimensions; and coordinated observations of visual, motor, aural and

intuitive orientations in different ways. Hence, in an EXPLORATIVE APPROACH, each

musician’s individual understanding of conventions of expression was at the core of the

interpretation.

Reproductive Approach

An idea corresponding to the description of a REPRODUCTIVE APPROACH was expressed by

Elisabeth, a music education student, as she commented on the dynamics in her freely

chosen piece, the rst movement of Sonata G major , K.V. 183 by W.A. Mozart, edition

Peters.

Yes, you could ask yourself that. You play a lot because it says as it does. If

you would think up more by yourself, then there are sort of many ways inwhich you can do it, that I think would be equally good.

Reecting that various individually created interpretations might be acceptable as well,

Elisabeth presumed that these would mostly not be realised. Her reection was based on

her experiences during years of learning, and observations that students do not try out

their own ideas of expression, because of a tradition to follow performance markings as

instructions in order to reproduce the edited version.

In Daniela’s reections on the middle section of her freely chosen piece, Romance in

A minor by Clara Schumann, the subordination of motor and aural observations to visual

observations of performance markings was evident. A p marking at the beginning of thesection rst caught her attention. Besides a diminuendo sign in the following bar and theinstruction on playing crescendo in the middle of the section, no further markings were

added.

That should be very weak, and I don’t think I quite managed it now. There isreally a bit of time before the crescendo begins, here, when about half the page

has come. A difcult thing is the bass of the third staff, that you don’t [plays

the left hand in order to show]. You easily play the thumb a little stronger.

When one [tone] is to be repeated all the time, you have to be careful about

it, in order to make it [plays as she wishes to realise it] very weak.

Daniela, an established performer, criticised how she followed the instruction on

dynamics. Playing (motor observation) and listening (aural observation) to a difcult

passage, her attention was directed towards corresponding to the instruction (visual

observation). Motorically, she carried the instruction through which she had discerned

visually. Aurally, she controlled if the outcome corresponded to the visual instruction in

the printed score.

Since no markings on expression had been added to the notes in the prescribed pieces,

I assumed that the musicians would comment exclusively on how to comprehend

implicit musical meaning. However, to my surprise two musicians paid special attentionto the lack of markings. One of them was Karen, a young piano teacher. She commented




Karen reected on the information not provided since the lack of markings caused her

problems with the notation. Once she had added the performance markings they turnedinto instructions, which she followed accurately although she felt uncertain whether they

were ‘musically correct’. In a later statement, Karen commented that she had learned to

respect performance markings highly as demanding instructions for expression, articula-

tion and touch.Most other musicians of all levels participating in the study also made similar

statements. All of these pianists also used a REPRODUCTIVE APPROACH in some of their

comments on the printed scores.

Explorative Approach

Reections on implicit musical meaning might be seen as a determining indication of an

EXPLORATIVE APPROACH. Opening with a formal and harmonic overview of his freely

chosen piece, Preludium op. 13: No. 3, G major, by A. Scriabin, Charles reectedexclusively on this kind of musical phenomena:

Well, as I see the structure of the piece, you can split it into four parts. There

is an exposition until the beginning of the third staves. Then the [theme] comes

in another key, which makes me play it differently, that is, a nuance stronger[plays the ending of the rst part and the beginning of the second], G major

goes to E at major there, which is not especially close to G major. That’s a

change you need to emphasise so the listener pays attention to it.

Charles, a rst year student of music performance, commented on an unexpected key as

an indication of a higher dynamic level, and the interpreter’s responsibility towards theiraudience. This is consistent with a common convention, mentioned for instance by

Quantz (1752). According to this, unexpected events are to be emphasised in order tomake these accessible to listeners.

In marked contrast to the dominance of visual observations in reproductive statements,

various combinations of visual, motor, aural and emotional observation were made in

explorative statements. Charles did so as he played and commented on Scriabin’s

Preludium, but this became still more evident in Beatrice’s opening comments on the

prescribed Allegretto. Like Charles, she studied music performance. First she played and

commented on her interpretation by referring to implicit indications of expressionconnected to part-writing and register. She maintained that it is ‘… natural—to play as

the notes say’. Then she reected on an alternative interpretation of the Allegretto as a

whole:

This variation [Allegretto] tends to become a little Russian, if you wish so. I

don’t know if you have heard it, but I will play it once more and you maylisten. At rst you might not notice it especially well [plays the beginning], but

if you listen, you will hear that it has a very, very Russian succession of notes

[plays]. So, if you get into that swing which I made now, in the entire

piece—well I made it more solid with more of that kind of swing, which youmay develop from the harmonies themselves—it will very quickly change its



192 C. Hultberg

required in order to reveal this alternative character. Maintaining that a specic swinging

feeling (emotional and intuitive orientation) developed ‘from the harmonies themselves’would be a presumption for achieving it, she implicitly connected this exploration with

a familiarity with Russian music. With the image of a Russian character in mind, she had

re-explored the music.

The impact of individual experience on the exploration of implicit musical meaningwas further emphasised by some of the musicians who decided to disregard the editors’

instructions, and to give priority to their personal judgement instead. Peter, a piano

teacher at an academy of music, even changed the notated text. Just before playing S.

Lindberg’s Meditation (on a Swedish folk tune) he added a silent chord extracted from

the theme, and ended each phrase with a fermata during which the sound of that chord

remained. Stating that ‘… you have got that licence’, he combined his knowledge about

traditions of coping with notation of this style with his imagination of pastoral ‘mountain

surroundings’, which issued from the theme. Thus, individual musical judgements made

these musicians extend their creativity while exploring the printed scores.

An EXPLORATIVE APPROACH was represented in many comments made by all partici-

pants. However, the degree of exploration differed according to their individual familiar-

ity with conventions of expression. A thorough exploration of the printed score was

characterised by a complex coordination of observation through different senses and

intuition/emotion, as well as reection.

Shifts of Approaches

Most musicians shifted between both approaches. Shifts from a REPRODUCTIVE to anEXPLORATIVE APPROACH were connected to individual understanding of conventions of

expression. For instance, in her opening comment on her freely chosen piece, F.

Chopin’s Sonata in B at minor , Beatrice referred exclusively to markings on dynamicsas explanations of how to play without mentioning the actual notes. However, she then

reected:

So actually my task is to make it work, and understand what he wants, and to

what degree these fortes and pianos are used. … You should listen to the

chords you play, which colouring the chord has, and which jumps you do,

because that’s where the music is.

Still following the expression suggested by the performance markings, Beatrice also

explored the printed score in order to comprehend fully the musical intention. Thus, sheused an EXPLORATIVE APPROACH based upon a REPRODUCTIVE one. Her understanding of

conventions of expression was a prerequisite for this process.

Unlike Beatrice, Daniela shifted from an explorative to a reproductive approach as she

commented on C. Schumann’s Romance. Having described its structure and her idea of

interpretation, Daniela reected that the musical expression of its rst section ‘goes

without saying, because it exists in the music’. Consequently, she had played with moreshades of nuances than were explicitly marked. As I asked her to explain what actually

caused these changes she said ‘I guess nuances are things that you maybe if you’re




Like the reproductive comments in general, the shifts from an EXPLORATIVE to a

REPRODUCTIVE APPROACH were characterised by a respectful attitude towards the printedperformance markings. In some cases, this attitude even made experienced piano

teachers and performers disregard their personal ideas of interpretation.

Functions of the Printed Scores

Based on the participant’s performances and comments, the primary function of a printed

score in a REPRODUCTIVE APPROACH was found to be that of an explicitly normative

document in which the composer’s intention is correctly decoded. The normative

function concerns a prescriptive and a controlling aspect. It provides instructions on how

to solve a dened task: the reproduction of the editor’s interpretation of the composer’s

intention. These instructions also serve as tools for assessing the musician’s interpret-

ation. Thus, being the starting point as well as the goal of the process of interpretation,

the printed score directs the interpreter’s actions.

In an EXPLORATIVE APPROACH, music notation serves the primary function of a

document providing incomplete, coded information on the composer’s possible musical

intention within a normative frame settled by the discourse in music. Each interpreter

needs to decode the general musical message and complete the missing information

through investigation of implicit meaning. Thus, the printed score is a source for

exploration based on the musician’s individual familiarity with conventions of ex-

pression.

The musician’s earlier experiences from practice of using music notation inuence its

secondary function. Inuenced by experiences from a REPRODUCTIVE APPROACH, the

function may on the one hand be restricted to an exclusively temporal dimension, andon the other hand be restrictive, breaking the musician’s self-condence. Inuenced by

experiences from an EXPLORATIVE APPROACH, it may be extended to further exploration,and thus challenge and extend the musician’s creativity.

Discussion

As mentioned earlier, I had expected to learn more about how these pianists refer to

musical conventions. Hence, it surprised me that reproductive statements were made by

most of these experienced musicians, all of whom were thoroughly familiar withconventions of expression. This major nding made me aware of a wider perspective of

coping with music notation: the complex long-term consequences of traditions of

teaching.

Traditions and Individuals

The reproductive statements and the descriptions made by some musicians of being

taught to obey explicit markings rather than to develop personal musical judgement,

exemplify attitudes adopted in instrumental training forming patterns of behaviour instudents’ future life. Connected to earlier research results, indicating that young students

as well as adult amateurs give up playing their instruments because they could not cope



194 C. Hultberg

A)

FIG. 1. Teacher-centre d education—reproduction of the marked expression .

(1930, 1934) and Mead’s (1934) theories concerning the inuence of early experiences

on social interaction. In instrumental training this means that students implicitly take up

their teachers’ attitudes in all kinds of communication: in their behaviour towards them,

as well as setting and assessing tasks. Accordingly, the context itself and the entire social

practice used in it will inuence the student’s development. Thus, in contexts of coping

with music notation as a cultural tool (Vygotsky, 1934) in instrumental training, teachers

need to consider relations between teachers, students and printed scores.

A Theory of Instrumental Training

Based on the results of this study a theory of instrumental training was developed. It

represents three main models of teaching—A, B and C—which might be regarded as

different sub-cultures in Western music education. In the following presentation, the

correspondence of these models with Western music tradition will be discussed.

A. The teachers’ approach to the printed score is reproductive. Without considering a

socio-cultural context, they take musical meaning from the performance markings

which represent a strictly normative interpretation. The printed score directs theactions of the teachers who teach the students how to follow the markings appropri-

ately. The students’ initiative is not required since they have to follow instructions

on how to play in order to correspond to the correct execution of the musicalmessage transmitted through the printed score. In this one-way-communication, the

students will learn about explicit meaning of markings, but not about implicit

meaning of the actual notes, indicated by conventions of expression (Figure 1).

Since the prescribed interpretation remains without any context, it is difcult for

the students to transfer the knowledge achieved in one piece of music to another one.

Thus, the students inherit the cultural history of the tradition of instrumental trainingrepresented by their teacher rather than a tradition of music.

B In this model the teachers are familiar with established interpretations of Western




B1)

FIG. 2. Teacher-centre d education—reproduction of the teacher’s model.

The teachers’ familiarity with practice of interpretation also enables them to give

meaning to the printed score within the acceptable space of individual licence. Thus,

they participate in a dialogue with the printed score.

Based on their understanding these teachers are representatives of certain traditions

of interpretation. They teach the listening students how to understand the perform-

ance markings, and exemplify this by their own interpretations, which—to some

extent—may diverge from those of the editors. In a one-way communication between

teachers and students, the teachers act as indispensable decoders who make the

printed musical messages accessible to the students. Thus, conditions for receiving

musical messages through notation are mainly regarded. Since the students areintroduced to a tradition of interpreting certain works studied with their teachers, they

inherit the cultural history of the tradition of interpretation represented by theirteacher (B1; Figure 2).

Even if little space may be left for the beginner students’ initiative, this may

increase on higher levels of education. After years of studies, the students may

develop musical independence by means of growing into practice of interpret-

ation. This process may result in a dialogue between teachers and students, in which

both of them exchange ideas of how to understand musical meaning (B2; Figure 3).

However, to many young pupils this will be of little relevance, since they mightgive up playing before reaching the independence referred to here. Taking up their

teachers’ attitudes, the students may get the impression that they are not capable of

coping with printed scores without the support of their teachers.C. Here, the teachers are familiar with traditions of coping with music notation among

composers as well as interpreters. This familiarity enables them to use the printed

score as a tool for communicating with the composer within the frame of musical

practice. This means that they take explicit musical meaning from markings, and

implicit meaning from the actual notes, thus individually giving musical meaning to

the printed score as well. They adapt the repertoire to the students’ capacity and tellthem about how composers and performers coped with notation in the style in

question In a dialogue with the students the teachers take their ideas into account



196 C. Hultberg

B2)

FIG. 3. Student-centre d education—exploratio n of practice of interpretation .

C)

FIG. 4. Student-centre d education—exploratio n of implicit musical meaning.

In this model, the students develop an individual musical judgement on which theycan rely in musical practice, irrespective of the level of music education. Adopting

the teachers’ attitudes, the pupils develop a habit of independently exploring implicit

indications of expression. Thus, they inherit the cultural history of co-creative

musicianship in Western tonal music tradition.

To summarise, according to this discussion, familiarity with musical practice is a

presumption for coping independently with the printed score as a cultural tool in Western

tonal music. To a large extent, the conditions for acquiring this traditional knowledge

depend on teaching methods and teachers’ attitudes towards students as well as towardsmusic notation. Depending on these attitudes the students’ development might be either

supported or obstructed. In order to introduce students, at all levels, to Western tonal

music tradition, and to support their musical and personal growth, instrumental teachers

need to be familiar with general practice of notation and interpretation of different

periods. They also need to respect their students and consider their ideas in mutual

communication.

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Approaches to Music Notation