APRIL 12-15, 2018 DISEC - numun.orgnumun.org/2015/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/DISEC_NuclearArms.pdf · disec background guide numun xv • you have the floor • april 12-15, 2018

DISECBACKGROUND GUIDE

N U M U N X V • Y O U H A V E T H E F L O O R • A P R I L 1 2 - 1 5 , 2 0 1 8

2

DISEC: DISARAMENT AND INTERNATIONAL SECURITY | NUMUN XV

Introduction

The Disarmament and International Security Committee (DISEC) – the First Committee of

the United Nations and one of the six committees within the General Assembly – contains every

member nation of the UN body; it focuses on global issues of disarmament, challenges threats to

global stability and peace, and seeks to strengthen the global regime of international security1. As a

committee, DISEC ponders all situations relevant to international security and disarmament relating

to the powers and functions of other bodies within the United Nations2. The First Committee’s

primary objective is to achieve and maintain a climate of world peace and international security by

leading and overseeing disarmament and arms regulation initiatives. Our goals is to achieve global

compliance while minimizing international instability and encouraging global cooperation.3

Throughout this conference, DISEC must confront an issue of growing prominence,

pervasiveness, and danger: nuclear technology. Growing worries around nuclear warfare have made

headlines, but the interest in nuclear energy – and therefore the global spread of uranium resources

– is growing as well. Nuclear energy production is also viewed as a cleaner alternative to oil, coal,

and natural gas power plants, so its use is expanding. Nuclear energy presents its own set of dangers,

and while possibly imminent use of nuclear bombs presents an immediate geopolitical and

humanitarian crisis, nuclear power production – and the accidents that surround it – present long-

term dangers to entire populations and ecosystems. As a committee, you must confront both.

Nuclear weaponry has only been used twice in warfare, in the bombings of Nagasaki and

Hiroshima in Japan in 1945, but as of 2014, approximately 16,300 nuclear weapons are maintained

by nine countries – the United States, Russia, the United Kingdom, France, China, India, Pakistan,

1 United Nations. “Disarmament and International Security (First Committee).” General Assembly of the United Nations. http://www.un.org/en/ga/first/ (accessed October 23, 2017). 2 Ibid. 3 Ibid.

3


Israel and North Korea – and over 2,000 nuclear tests have been performed to date.4 Russia

possesses the largest nuclear arsenal in the world, estimated at 7,000 warheads, while the US follows

closely with an estimated 6,800.5

The proliferation of nuclear tension has always fallen under the purview of DISEC’s

governance. As nuclear weapons are unequivocally the most destructive munition ever created, the

First Committee has a vested interest in ensuring that the world does not see the presence of nuclear

technology in more countries, let alone its use in future warfare.6 Global tensions around nuclear

proliferation have reached “critical and imminent level,” as global powers – specifically the United

States – have heightened tensions with the powers-to-be in North Korea.7 While these two nations

dominate headlines, the conflict does not simply involve the two nations; issues of nuclear

proliferation pose risks for each nation’s allies and the people living within and around each

involved country.8

On July 7, 2017, 122 nations in the General Assembly voted in favor of the Treaty on the

Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons, which “outlaws the ultimate weapons of mass destruction and

establishes a pathway to their elimination.”9 While disarmament is a global ideal, 32 individual

countries, including those that possess their own nuclear weapons, have stated that American

nuclear weapons are critical for their national security due to other impending threats. These

countries voted against the treaty, and every nation that maintains nuclear weapons has not made

efforts to disarm, which violates the provisions of the treaty.10

4 "Nuclear Weapons – UNODA." United Nations. https://www.un.org/disarmament/wmd/nuclear/. 5 "Fact Sheets & Briefs." Nuclear Weapons: Who Has What at a Glance | Arms Control Association. 6 "Nuclear Weapons – UNODA." United Nations. https://www.un.org/disarmament/wmd/nuclear/. 7 Andrew Buncombe New York. "North Korea's Nuclear Threat Now at 'critical and Imminent Level', Says Japan." The Independent. October 23, 2017. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/us-politics/north-korea-latest-us-threat-trump-kim-jong-un-japan-critical-imminent-level-a8015511.html. 8 Ibid. 9 “Positions on the Treaty.” ICAN, www.icanw.org/why-a-ban/positions/. 10 Ibid.

4


Conversely, as global fears surrounding nuclear weaponry and its use continues to grow,

international interest in the use of nuclear energy is spreading as it is viewed as an alternative to

traditional oil, coal and natural gas energy production. Global nuclear energy capacity is estimated to

nearly double by 2030, according to a recent report by the International Atomic Energy Agency.11

But, as shown in crises as recent as that at the Fukushima nuclear plant, the production of electricity

by use of nuclear technology poses a critical risk to large urban populations and ecosystems. In the

history of nuclear accidents, 78 people have died from meltdowns or other accidents, which pales in

comparison to the 105,000 estimated deaths from the bombings in Hiroshima and Nagasaki.12

Due to these risks, some countries, including such large economic forces as Switzerland and

Germany, have decided to phase out nuclear energy.13 In Switzerland’s case, nuclear energy accounts

for one third of the nation’s energy needs. The countries phasing out nuclear energy will replace the

energy source with hydro and solar power. Other nations, however, are deciding to continue to use

nuclear energy without using it for war, including Egypt, Ghana and other African and Middle

Eastern nations.14 Thirteen countries and counting are currently constructing or planning to

construct new nuclear plants for nuclear energy, and for some, weaponry.15 Major world powers that

11 “Energy, Electricity and Nuclear Power Estimates for the Period up to 2050.” International Atomic Energy Agency, 2013 Edition, http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/Publications/PDF/RDS-1-33_web.pdf. 12“ The Accidental Century: Prominent Energy Accidents in the Last 100 Years.” Scribd, www.scribd.com/doc/51178589/The-accidental-century-prominent-energy-accidents-in-the-last-100-years.; “The Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.” Total Casualties | The Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki | Historical Documents, http://www.atomicarchive.com/Docs/MED/med_chp10.shtml 13 “Industry Meltdown: Is the Era of Nuclear Power Coming to an End?” Yale E360, https://e360.yale.edu/features/industry-meltdown-is-era-of-nuclear-power-coming-to-an-end.; “Switzerland Votes to Phase out Nuclear Power.” BBC News, BBC, 21 May 2017, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-39994599. 14 “Nuclear Power in Egypt” Nuclear Energy in Egypt: Egyptian Nuclear Electricity - World Nuclear Association, http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-a-f/egypt.aspx; “The Promise of a Nuclear Power Plant in Ghana,” http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2017/ph241/gambrah1/ 15 “Plans For New Reactors Worldwide” Plans for New Nuclear Reactors Worldwide - World Nuclear Association, http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/plans-for-new-reactors-worldwide.aspx

5


not only favor nuclear energy production, but also weapons development include France, the United

Kingdom, the United States, Russia and China.16

With the spread of nuclear power in the 1950’s, the UN established the International Atomic

Energy Agency to create a set of safeguards to prevent the misuse and mismanagement of uranium

and thorium resources worldwide17 While the IAEA standards have proven effective in eight of the

nations that maintain nuclear weapons, Iraq, Iran and North Korea (the only other to possess

weapons) have subverted efforts to track the use of radioactive materials worldwide.18

As delegates, you must formulate a globally applicable resolution to address the growing use

and spread of nuclear technologies, paying particular attention to the geopolitical, humanitarian, and

ecological impacts of the use and spread of both.

History

Technological Development

The history of the technological developments of nuclear energy is centuries-old; however,

we only recently began to understand the unparalleled power contained in the miniscule atom. While

the concept of the atom has existed since the time of Greek philosophers, Uranium was only

discovered in 1789.19 The concept of the atom and our understanding of radioactivity continued to

grow and evolve, with the biggest breakthrough occurring in 1939: the concept of nuclear fission,

the splitting of a large nucleus into two (or more) smaller nuclei accompanied by the release of

16 “Fact Sheets & Briefs.” Nuclear Weapons: Who Has What at a Glance | Arms Control Association, https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/Nuclearweaponswhohaswhat 17 “Safeguards to Prevent Nuclear Proliferation.” Nuclear Proliferation Safeguards - World Nuclear Association, http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/safety-and-security/non-proliferation/safeguards-to-prevent-nuclear-proliferation.aspx 18 Ibid. 19“Outline History of Nuclear Energy,” www.world-nuclear.org, March 2014, http://www.world-

nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/outline-history-of-nuclear-energy.aspx.; U.S. Department of Energy, “History of Nuclear Energy”, energy.gov, https://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/The%20History%20of%20Nuclear%20Energy_0.pdf.

6


energy.20 This not only confirmed Einstein’s theory on mass and energy equivalence but also sparked

activity in laboratories all across Europe and USA.

In the years just before and during World War II, nuclear research was almost solely focused

on weaponization. The concept of the atomic bomb began to take shape in 1939 through the

German Uranverein project, which provided the primary incentive of development the atomic bomb

by USA and Britain.21 Another significant entity while looking at the technological development of

nuclear physics is Russia, which at one point had the biggest research institute in Europe. Despite

complications that arose around 1940 due to Stalin’s purges, there were great advances in the

understanding of controlled nuclear fission, with Germany’s invasion of Russia in 1941 turning this

fundamental research to potential military applications. Britain was also making great strides around

this time: the key driving force being the Military Application of Uranium Detonation (MAUD)

committee, which was set up to supervise research at several British universities. By the end of 1940

remarkable progress had been made by the groups coordinated by the MAUD committee with

minimal financial expenditure. Interestingly, all of this work was kept secret, whereas several

American publications continued to appear and the Americans seemed less motivated.22 The

ultimate outcome of the MAUD Committee was two summary reports in July 1941, which were on

“Use of Uranium for a Bomb” and “Use of Uranium as a Source of Power”. The reports drew

definitive conclusions on the feasibility and impact of nuclear weaponry and detailed the costs and

manpower associated. However, more pivotal was the suggestion that the Germans could also be

working on the atom bomb. Future British efforts should be executed in cooperation with America,

even though America was reportedly concentrating on the future use of uranium for power and

20 “What is Nuclear Fission? - Definition and Process,” study.com, http://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-

nuclear-fission-definition-process-quiz.html. 21 Ibid. 22 Outline History of Nuclear Energy,” www.word-nuclear.org, March 2014, http://www.world-

nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/outline-history-of-nuclear-energy.aspx.

7


naval propulsion. However, it wasn't until December 1941, when the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor

and the US entered the war, that American efforts truly picked up.23

Research continued in both the USA and Britain with considerable sharing of information,

but the American developments soon outstripped the British thanks to the establishment of the

Manhattan Project. In early 1942, several British scientists were given complete access to all

American research; however, in June of that year, the US army took over the projects and

information flow to the British reduced significantly.24 In August 1943, an agreement between the

two countries led to the British giving all their reports to the Americans, and in return the British

received copies of the progress reports given to President Roosevelt. The latter revealed that the

cost of the US atomic bomb program would be more than $100 million, since no work was being

done on the other applications of nuclear energy. Combined British, American and Canadian efforts

led to sufficient Plutonium and highly enriched Uranium being produced by mid-1945, with the

Uranium mostly originating from the Belgian Congo. The first atomic device was successfully tested

in New Mexico in July 1945. It should be noted the device tested was Plutonium based, rather than

the simpler Uranium device. The first atomic bomb, which was Uranium based, was dropped on

Hiroshima on August 6, 1945 and the second, which contained Plutonium was dropped on Nagasaki

3 days later. On August 10, 1945, the Japanese government surrendered.

Until he received intelligence reports of the nuclear developments in Germany, Britain and

USA, Stalin was not in favor of diverting resources to developing nuclear weaponry. He established

a relatively small research program in 1942, convinced that the bomb could be developed quickly.

After the defeat of Nazi Germany in May 1945, German scientists were brought on board. By the

time of the testing of the first atomic bomb in USA, the Russians had made considerable progress.

The bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki led to an increase in Russian efforts, including the 23 “Pearl Harbour,” www.history.com, http://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/pearl-harbor. 24 “The Manhattan Project,” www.ushistory.org, http://www.ushistory.org/us/51f.asp.

8


building of ten secret nuclear cities in the Soviet Union. Russian research was influenced greatly by

foreign intelligence: the first bomb, which was tested in August 1949, was based closely on the

Nagasaki bomb. Even before the test, work on the fusion Hydrogen bomb, which is considerably

more powerful than either the Plutonium or Uranium based fission bombs, had commenced.25

The Spread of Nuclear Weaponry and Energy

The Manhattan Project, during World War II, marked the race to obtaining nuclear weapons

all over the world as people observed the power of the war-ending weapon. The atomic bombings

of Hiroshima and Nagasaki leveled the two cities to the ground and killed more than 100,000

people, causing the Japanese forces to surrender.26 The development of nuclear weaponry

automatically made America the most powerful nation in the world, until the Soviet Union followed

the trend and started their nuclear program and on 29th August 1949 secretly conducted its first

successful weapon test.27 This discovery of atomic energy led to the United Nations General

Assembly establishing the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission (UNAEC) on 24th January

1946 in resolution 1.28 The decision asked the commission to make proposals to exchange nuclear

information to all nations to encourage peaceful development and that atomic energy is only used

for peaceful purposes. Thus, attempting to eliminate its existence as a weapon of mass destruction.

Nevertheless, tensions between the Soviet Union and the United States started a race to stockpile

25 Stephanie, Pappas “Hydrogen Bomb vs Atomic Bomb: What’s the Difference?,” www.livescience.com 22

September 2014, https://www.livescience.com/53280-hydrogen-bomb-vs-atomic-bomb.html. 26 “The Manhattan Project,” www.ushistory.org, http://www.ushistory.org/us/51f.asp. 27 "Soviet Atomic Program - 1946," Atomic Heritage Foundation, June 05, 2014, , accessed October 30, 2017,

https://www.atomicheritage.org/history/soviet-atomic-program-1946. 28 Ibid.

9


nuclear ammunition, which in turn rendered the UNAEC ineffective and caused it to disband in

1952.29

Post-World-War II the arms race between the Soviet Union and the United States led to

competition for supremacy in nuclear dominance. Throughout the 1950s, the nuclear arms race

became the primary focus of the cold war. By creating the first Hydrogen bomb in 1952, the United

States led the race with the creation of a super bomb.30 The tensions between the two countries grew

even further, and the Soviet Union was forced to increase their stockpile. The spread of nuclear

weaponry throughout the cold war resulted in the Cuban Missile Crisis, which almost resulted in

Mutually Assured Destruction through nuclear warfare. The United States discovered that the

Soviets positioned their nuclear missiles in Cuba, which resulted in America setting up a blockade to

prevent Soviet ships carrying missiles into Cuba. The confrontation between the two nations almost

led to all-out nuclear warfare that could have been catastrophic. However, luckily, Khrushchev and

Kennedy manage to come to an agreement, which led to both sides realizing that risking nuclear

warfare was not worth attaining political objectives. Following this, the two nations continued to

have proxy wars throughout history. Nevertheless, nuclear warfare was never part of the equation.

The United Nations to prevent such instances of nuclear warfare from occurring again decided to

create the Treaty on the Nonproliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT), which aimed to prevent the

spread of nuclear weapons and attempts to promote the peaceful use of atomic energy.31

Through the NPT, countries were encouraged to work towards creating a sustainable

development of atomic energy and, thus, were encouraged to share their information and increase

transparency between nations. A total of 191 countries are part of the NPT, excluding India, Israel, 29 "THE TREATY: 1945-54," 1945-54: Early efforts to restrain nuclear testing: CTBTO Preparatory Commission,

https://www.ctbto.org/the-treaty/history-1945-1993/1945-54-early-efforts-to-restrain-nuclear-testing/. 30 "Truman announces development of H-bomb," History.com, http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/truman-

announces-development-of-h-bomb. 31 History.com Staff, "Cuban Missile Crisis," History.com, 2010, http://www.history.com/topics/cold-war/cuban-

missile-crisis.

10


North Korea, Pakistan and South Sudan. Furthermore, to stop the spread of nuclear weaponry the

United Nations established the International Atomic Energy Agency in 1957.32 The IAEA exists to

pursue the "safe, secure and peaceful uses of nuclear sciences and technology." The IAEA executes

this mission with three primary functions: the inspection of existing nuclear facilities to ensure their

peaceful use, providing information and developing standards to ensure the safety and security of

nuclear facilities, and as a hub for the various fields of science involved in the peaceful applications

of nuclear technology.33 Nuclear energy is considered one of the most environmentally friendly

sources of energy as it produces fewer greenhouse gas emissions during the production of electricity

as compared to traditional sources like coal power plants.34

Although Nuclear Energy is beneficial for the environment, nuclear energy can also be

catastrophic. Its drawbacks not only include public health problems, but also many environmental

problems that result from meltdowns and poor storage of waste. The Chernobyl Disaster of 1986

was caused by a reactor meltdown, which resulted in facility exploding. The disaster caused 14,000

residents to evacuate from their homes, resulting in the town becoming a complete ghost town.

Furthermore, it resulted in 237 people suffering from acute radiation sickness, 31 of which died in

the first three months. The chances of obtaining cancer are still prevalent within that region, and the

people still suffer from the hazardous effects. In response to the disaster, the UN adopted resolution

45/190 in attempts to mitigate the consequences of the effects of Chernobyl. This event showed the

world that dealing with Nuclear energy can be just as catastrophic as Nuclear weaponry.

32 "Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) – UNODA," United Nations,

https://www.un.org/disarmament/wmd/nuclear/npt/. 33 "IAEA Overview," IAEA, June 08, 2016, https://www.iaea.org/about/overview/. 34 "Pros and Cons of Nuclear Energy," Conserve Energy Future, December 24, 2016, https://www.conserve-energy-

future.com/pros-and-cons-of-nuclear-energy.php.

11


Nevertheless, the United Nations and IAEA are working towards spreading Nuclear Energy in

countries, while monitoring the usage, so that it is used safely and sustainably by all nations.35

Current Situation

Global Progress on Nuclear Compromise

The Treaty on the Nonproliferation of Nuclear Weapons, which was designed to move

towards a disarmed, non-nuclear future, presently faces challenges with regards to both disarmament

and nonproliferation, according to the Nuclear Threat Initiative.36 The treaty calls upon all member

states to “pursue negotiations in good faith on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear

arms race at an early date and to nuclear disarmament, and on a treaty on general and complete

disarmament under strict and effective international control.”37 The Treaty, which went into effect in

1970 in response to Cold War nuclear escalation, now is applicable once again, as North Korea and

Iran look to create and grow their nuclear arsenals. While disarmament of current nuclear states is a

key pillar of the Treaty on the Nonproliferation of Nuclear Weapons, Article VI (as quoted above)

faces the greatest challenge today, as states not only disregard progress on disarmament, but actively

seek to build nuclear weapons in the sake of self-defence.38

One of the crowning achievements of Western foreign relations to help reduce the

proliferation of nuclear weapons tech was the creation of the Iran Nuclear Deal, which lifted a series

35 "Chernobyl Accident," Chernobyl Disaster - World Nuclear Association, http://www.world-

nuclear.org/information-library/safety-and-security/safety-of-plants/chernobyl-accident.aspx. 36 “Current Issues and Challenges.” Nuclear Threat Initiative, tutorials.nti.org/npt-tutorial/current-issues-and-challenges/. 37 United Nations, “Treaty on the Non-proliferation of Nuclear Weapons,” Disarmament Treaties Database. United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs, 2013, http://disarmament.un.org/treaties/t/npt. 38 Ibid.

12


of economic sanctions from Iran in exchange for its greatly reducing its nuclear stock.39 The deal –

brokered by the United States, the United Kingdom, Russia, France, China, and Germany – created

a framework for the future of negotiations with other nations to begin the process of reducing the

prevalence of weapons-grade substances and advancing the creation of safe, responsibly run nuclear

power and research operations. The deal first reduced the number of nuclear centrifuges used to

enrich uranium as reactor fuel Iran could operate from approximately 20,000 to 5,060 for a decade.40

Jointly, Iran had to reduce the amount of uranium it possessed by 98 percent for 15 years; most of

its stock was shipped to Russia.41

Iran also planned to operate a new nuclear energy facility, whose waste products consisted of

weapons-grade plutonium. As part of the deal, the plants would have to be modified so its waste was

not suitable for weapons development, a provision of the deal to which Iran agreed.42 One of the

finals key facets of the deal was addressing Iran’s “breakout time,” which is the amount of time it

would take the country to create enough weapons grade plutonium to make a nuclear warhead.

Before the deal, Iran’s breakout time stood at two to three months; post-deal, that time extended

past a year, and Iran agreed to halt research and development of nuclear weapons tech. In return for

its compliance, the United States, United Nations, and European Union lifted sanctions that had

cost Iran $160 US dollars and freed approximately $100 billion in frozen overseas assets.43

Despite political opposition within some of the nations who pioneered the Iran Nuclear

Deal, the deal set a precedent for dealing with issues of nuclear proliferation via peaceful

negotiations and policy changes designed to benefit all involved. The current political dilemma

surrounding North Korea, however, has not been effectively managed by the same means. 39 “Iran Nuclear Deal: Key Details.” BBC News, BBC, 13 Oct. 2017, www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-33521655. 40 Ibid. 41 Ibid. 42 Ibid. 43 Ibid.

13


Growing Fears Surrounding Nuclear Escalation

The North Korean government is highly oppressive and has pushed propaganda nationwide

to create a powerful anti-American, anti-Western political climate. While Americans may see the

Korean War, which never actually ended (a ceasefire was signed in 1953), as the “Forgotten War,”

North Koreans continue to perpetuate pro-war sentiments over 50 years later.44 Some argue that

North Korea inculcate children into their anti-Western politics at a young age, citing how children

are required to visit a Korean war museum that depicts Americans as markedly malicious to Korean

independence.45 Kim Jong Un, the president of North Korea, seems obsessed with developing an

intercontinental ballistic missile in the eyes of foreign governments, but it remains part of his

political flex of strength to show his people the country could strike and kills millions of Americans

if it wanted.

North Korean nuclear escalation with the United States has heightened global fears around

the prospect of another international nuclear scare. In a report published on 1 January 2018, North

Korea’s Hwasong-15 ICBM had the ability to strike any major political target on earth, with the

exception of those in Latin America; every major American and European city is in range of a strike

from this missile, which analysts say can likely fly up to 13,000km.46 While a viable defense against a

strike could be to shoot the missile down mid-flight, missile interception systems have been shown

to miss their targets.47 The North Korean government is estimated to possess 60 nuclear warheads,

according to American officials, and these claims came to light as the North Korean government

44 “How North Korean Children Are Taught to Hate Americans.” Newsweek, 6 July 2017. http://www.newsweek.com/how-north-korean-children-are-taught-hate-americans-632334 45 Ibid. 46 Jazeera, Al. “North Korea's Nuclear Weapons: Here Is What We Know.” News | Al Jazeera, Al Jazeera, 1 Jan. 2018, www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/05/north-korea-testing-nuclear-weapons-170504072226461.html. 47 Ibid.

14


began teasing out the idea of attacking the US territory of Guam with missile strikes.48 American

President Trump responded to these threats, stating the United States would respond with “fire and

fury” if Kim Jong Un continued to threaten the United States and its territory.49 The Korean state

has no intentions of backing down, despite Trump’s rhetoric. Trump went on record stating, "If the

North Koreans were to strike Guam and kill a lot of Americans it would lead to a war which would

destroy North Korea, so my guess is this is bluffing on both sides.”50 North Korea and United States

tensions continue to spiral towards armed conflict, and attempts at diplomacy have been ineffective.

The Energy Industry and Its Impact

From the late 1970s to about 2000 the nuclear power industry suffered some decline and

stagnation all over the world. There were few new reactors that were ordered, and many reactor

orders from the 1970s were cancelled. The number coming on line from mid 1980s little more than

matched retirements. Oil companies which had entered the uranium field bailed out, and there was a

consolidation of uranium producers.51 The nuclear power industry had no signs that indicated any

possibility for revival.

In the new century several factors combined to revive the prospects for nuclear power.

According to the World Nuclear Association, the first factor was, “the realization of the scale of

projected increased electricity demand worldwide… Secondly is the awareness of the importance of

energy security – the prime importance of each country having assured access to affordable 48 Jazeera, Al. “N Korea Threatens Missile Attack on US Territory Guam.” North Korea News | Al Jazeera, Al Jazeera, 8 Aug. 2017, www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/08/korea-threatens-missile-strike-territory-guam-170808230004855.html. 49 Baker, Peter, and Choe Sang-hun. "Trump Threatens 'Fire and Fury' Against North Korea If It Endangers U.S." The New York Times. August 08, 2017. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/08/world/asia/north-korea-un-sanctions-nuclear-missile-united-nations.html. 50 Jazeera, Al. “N Korea Threatens Missile Attack on US Territory Guam.” North Korea News | Al Jazeera, Al Jazeera, 8 Aug. 2017, www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/08/korea-threatens-missile-strike-territory-guam-170808230004855.html. 51 World Nuclear Association. "History of Nuclear Energy." Last modified March 2014. http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/outline-history-of-nuclear-energy.aspx.

15


energy… that is able to meet demand at all times. Thirdly is the need to limit carbon emissions due

to concerns about climate change.”52

According to the Nuclear Energy Institute, 30 countries worldwide are operating 449 nuclear

reactors for electricity generation and 60 new nuclear plants are under construction in 15 countries

as of April 2017.53 Nuclear power plants provided 11 percent of the world's electricity production in

2014, and 13 countries relied on nuclear energy to supply at least one-quarter of their total electricity

in 2016.54

The worldwide trend toward acceptance of nuclear is improving slightly, but many political

and societal issues need to be resolved. The National Center for Biotechnology Information issued a

statement regarding the concerns many individuals have with the exploitation of nuclear energy:

“Whereas recent polls indicate that a majority of the people realize nuclear energy must be a major

contributor to the energy mix of the future, many are reluctant to support the technology until the

issue of waste disposal has been resolved.”55 Fears of nuclear meltdown, major lack of capital, and

new anti-nuclear campaigns by nonprofit environmental groups will keep the nuclear debate alive in

many countries. An example of one of these nonprofit organizations is the Washington D.C.-based

group known as Greenpeace. Greenpeace got its start protesting nuclear weapons testing back in

1971, and it has been fighting against nuclear weapons and nuclear power ever since.56 According to

Greenpeace’s argument against nuclear energy, “high profile disasters in Chernobyl, Ukraine in 1986

and Fukushima, Japan in 2011 have raised public awareness of the dangers of nuclear power. The

catastrophic risks of nuclear energy far outweigh the potential benefits.” In terms of a humanitarian

52 Ibid. 53 Nuclear Energy Institute. "Nuclear Energy Around the World." World Statistics. Accessed January 22, 2018. https://www.nei.org/Knowledge-Center/Nuclear-Statistics/World-Statistics. 54 Ibid. 55 McKlveen, J. W. "Current status of nuclear power in the United States and around the world." Ncbi.nlm.nih. September 1990. Accessed January 22, 2018. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2241635. 56 Greenpeace Nonprofit Organization. "Nuclear Energy." Greenpeace USA. Accessed January 22, 2018. http://www.greenpeace.org/usa/global-warming/issues/nuclear/.

16


crisis, meltdowns like the ones in Chernobyl or Fukushima released enormous amounts of radiation

into the surrounding communities, forcing hundreds of thousands of people to evacuate. If the

industry’s current track record is any indication, we can expect a major meltdown about once per

decade.57 Along with nuclear meltdown, Greenpeace argues that new nuclear plants are more

expensive and take longer to build than renewable energy sources, there is still no safe and reliable

solutions for dealing with the radioactive waste produced by nuclear plants, and every waste dump in

the U.S. leaks radiation into the environment.58 Greenpeace, along with many other environmental

organizations, are spearheading the problems associated with modern nuclear energy plants and are

one of many reasons why the nuclear energy debate persists today.

There has been, however, recent success with nuclear power plants around the world.

According to the Nuclear Energy Institute, “nuclear power plants have achieved increasingly higher

capacity factor with the same or greater levels of safety over the past two decades: The average

capacity factor for U.S. plants in operation in 1980 was 56.3 percent; in 1990, 66 percent; and in

2014, 91.7 percent.”59 Globally capacity factors for nuclear plants are higher than they have ever

been, averaging around 85% and with the best stations achieving well over 90%.60 That the

economics of such stations compete well with other energy-providing technologies is well-founded

and easily verifiable—especially in the face of rising fossil fuel prices and the pricing in of costs for

CO2 emissions—both of which stand to improve the economics of nuclear energy still further.

Another benefit to modern technology is that waste volumes arising from modern plants are just a

fraction of those of some earlier stations, and the technologies are in place to deal with them safely

57 Ibid. 58 Ibid. 59 Nuclear Energy Institute. "Nuclear Energy Around the World." World Statistics. Accessed January 22, 2018. https://www.nei.org/Knowledge-Center/Nuclear-Statistics/World-Statistics. 60 Ion, Sue. "Nuclear energy: current situation and prospects to 2020." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. April 15, 2007. Accessed January 22, 2018. http://rsta.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/365/1853/935.

17


and effectively.61 All of these innovations to technology has allowed nuclear energy to surpass

several other main forms of energy in many aspects it could not have competed with before, in

terms of the environmental costs and the ability to effectively produce large amount of energy.

Elsewhere in the world, many countries such as Canada, Hungary, Turkey, Finland, France,

and those that comprise the United Kingdom are building new stations. Other countries such as the

USA, South Africa, and some nations that currently do not have nuclear stations (such as Indonesia

and Poland) are making preparations for future nuclear stations.62 But plans in Europe and North

America are overshadowed by those in Asia, particularly China and India. China alone plans and is

building towards a huge increase in nuclear power capacity by 2030, and has more than one hundred

further large units proposed and backed by credible political determination and popular support.63

These nations’ investments are what is causing the rebirth of nuclear energy in the twenty-first

century.

Following recent reports and international developments, there is growing confidence that

there will be a “nuclear renaissance” and that the new international presence of nuclear power plants

will provide part of the solution to the world’s long-term energy needs. According to a report posted

by the World Nuclear Association that shows the production of nuclear energy (billion kilowatt-

hours) for every country in the last decade, there has been an increase in the overall production of

nuclear energy. In 2015 the total production reached 2441 kWh; in 2016 the total production

reached 2490 kWh.64 These figures are a reflection of the international trend for countries to

gradually further invest in nuclear energy.

61 Ibid. 62 Ibid. 63 World Nuclear Association. "History of Nuclear Energy." Last modified March 2014. http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/outline-history-of-nuclear-energy.aspx. 64 Ibid.

18


Bloc Positions

The topic to be addressed in this session is one of incredible nuance and urgency, in which

the political and economic interests of a select few global powers dominate the geopolitical

policymaking around nuclear proliferation. No bloc is fully unified in all ways; there may be

agreement on policy regarding weaponry but not towards energy regulation. Blocs must work to find

internal compromise to seek a global solution. Blocs must also address policies around both nuclear

weaponry and energy and how to address both with a globally unified policy.

The United States

The United States of America possesses and maintains the world’s second largest arsenal of

nuclear weapons. It is also the only country to ever use its nuclear arsenal – in the bombings of

Japanese cities in World War II – so it is well-established as one of the world’s strongest nuclear

superpowers. In July of 2017, when the UN voted on the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear

Weapons, 30 countries voted against the Treaty, citing that “US nuclear weapons are essential for

[their] security.”65 A majority of these countries are American trade partners, members of the EU, or

members of NATO who still face the threat of ever-increasingly-powerful Russia, China, and

(recently) North Korea. The United States maintains its nuclear arsenal as a form of “big stick

diplomacy,” to keep its enemies and those of its allies in check. The United States also maintains 99

active nuclear reactors nationwide and relies heavily on nuclear power to maintain the nation’s heavy

demand for energy.66

65 "Positions on the Treaty." ICAN. http://www.icanw.org/why-a-ban/positions/. 66 "Environment: Emissions Prevented." Environment: Emissions Prevented - Nuclear Energy Institute. https://www.nei.org/Knowledge-Center/Nuclear-Statistics/Environment-Emissions-Prevented.

19


Russian Federation

The Russian Federation maintains the world’s largest stockpile of nuclear weapons – an

inventory of approximately 4300 warheads.67 While Russia no longer maintains as large an arsenal as

it did during the Cold War, it has chosen to keep a stop of weapons it to maintain its superpower

status and to protect its realm of political influence from undue pressure from the United States.

While the United States and Russia no longer operate as Cold War enemies, the two nations are a far

cry from being considered allies, and therefore maintain military hegemony in their respective

spheres of influence with their nuclear arsenals as a form of “big stick diplomacy.” Russia is the

world’s largest exporter of nuclear power technology as well, and has plans to construct new plants

in three other countries; no other country has engaged in such ambitious global nuclear power

development.68

Other Armed Nations

While 93 percent of all nuclear missiles are controlled by Russia and the United States, seven

other countries maintain nuclear arsenals: France, the United Kingdom, China, Israel, Pakistan,

India, and the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea. These nations continue to maintain

their arsenals illegally, in violation of the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons, against

which all of these nations voted (with the clear exception of North Korea).69 China, Pakistan, India

and North Korea are actively seeking to grow their nuclear arsenals as well, as each seeks greater

67 "Status of World Nuclear Forces." Federation Of American Scientists. https://fas.org/issues/nuclear-weapons/status-world-nuclear-forces/. 68 "Nuclear Power in the World Today.” Nuclear Power Today | Nuclear Energy - World Nuclear Association. http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/nuclear-power-in-the-world-today.aspx. 69 "Positions on the Treaty." ICAN. http://www.icanw.org/why-a-ban/positions/.

20


political agency on the global stage.70 Nuclear development in the Democratic People’s Republic of

Korea continues to directly spite the United States government, and tension continues to grow as

the American President Donald Trump makes more inflammatory remarks against the Korean

leader Kim Jong Un.71 This group of seven nations also all plan to grow their nuclear power

operations, despite global pressure to turn to alternative and arguably safer methods of producing

electricity. Of these nations, France relies most heavily on nuclear energy to power its grid and has

partnered with the Chinese government to build a reactor in China.72

Allies of the United States of America

In the vote on the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons, the following thirty

nations voted against the treaty, citing they rely on US nuclear weapons to defend their national

security: Albania, Australia, Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia,

Finland, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Italy, Japan, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg,

Montenegro, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Korea,

Spain, and Turkey.73 While all these nations support the maintenance of the American nuclear

arsenal, they are not unified in their view of the continued development and growth in prevalence of

nuclear energy use. Germany, Greece, Iceland, Italy, Portugal, and Spain all have plans to phase out

their curren nuclear energy reactors and, if they don’t have any reactors, prevent the construction of

any. Germany has one of the most ambitious phase-out plans, as the country plans to end its nuclear

70 "Status of World Nuclear Forces." Federation Of American Scientists. https://fas.org/issues/nuclear-weapons/status-world-nuclear-forces/. 71 Trump, Donald J. "North Korean Leader Kim Jong Un Just Stated That the "Nuclear Button Is on His Desk at All Times." Will Someone from His Depleted and Food Starved Regime Please Inform Him That I Too Have a Nuclear Button, but It Is a Much Bigger & More Powerful One than His, and My Button Works!" Twitter. January 03, 2018. https://twitter.com/realdonaldtrump/status/948355557022420992. 72 "Nucléaire." Nucléaire - La France En Chine. https://cn.ambafrance.org/-Nucleaire-1256-. 73 "Positions on the Treaty." ICAN. http://www.icanw.org/why-a-ban/positions/.

21


energy program as soon as 2022.74 The other nations that rely on the protection of the US have

plans to maintain or expand their current nuclear energy programs.

Anti-Nuclear Coalition

The following nations voted in favor of the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons

and have national policies against the creation of a nuclear program, or they have no interest or need

to have one: Antigua and Barbuda, Austria, Bahamas, Benin, Bhutan, Bosnia and Herzegovina,

Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cabo Verde, Cameroon, Comoros, Costa Rica, Côte d'Ivoire, Cyprus,

Djibouti, Dominica, Eritrea, Gambia, Georgia, Grenada, Honduras, Ireland, Kiribati, Liberia,

Liechtenstein, Madagascar, Maldives, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Monaco, Nauru, New Zealand,

Nicaragua, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Qatar, Rwanda, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint

Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Samoa, San Marino, Sao Tome and Principe, Seychelles,

Singapore, Solomon Islands, Sweden, Switzerland, Tuvalu, Uruguay, Vanuatu, Venezuela.

Pro-Energy Coalition

The following nations voted in favor of the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons,

but have plans to maintain or expand their existing nuclear energy programs or those in other

countries: Algeria, Afghanistan, Andorra, Angola, Argentina, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bahrain,

Bangladesh, Barbados, Belarus, Belize, Bolivia, Botswana, Brazil, Brunei, Cambodia, Central African

Republic, Chad, Chile, Colombia, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo,

Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Ethiopia, Equatorial Guinea, Fiji, Gabon, Ghana, Guatemala, Guinea,

Guinea-Bissau, Guyana, Haiti, Indonesia, Iraq, Jamaica, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kenya, Kuwait,

74 Dempsey, Judy, and Jack Ewing. "Germany, in Reversal, Will Close Nuclear Plants by 2022." The New York Times. May 30, 2011. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/31/world/europe/31germany.html.

22


Kyrgyzstan, Laos, Lebanon, Lesotho, Libya, Macedonia, Malawi, Malaysia, Mali, Malta, Mauritania,

Mauritius, Mexico, Moldova, Mongolia, Morocco, Mozambique, Myanmar, Namibia, Nepal, Niger,

Nigeria, Oman, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Saudi Arabia, Serbia, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South

Africa, South Sudan, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Suriname, Swaziland, Syrian Arab Republic, Tajikistan,

Tanzania, Thailand, Togo, Tonga, Trinidad and Tobago, Tunisia, Turkmenistan, Uganda, United

Arab Emirates, Uzbekistan, Vietnam, Yemen, Zambia, Zimbabwe.

Pro-Nuclear Outliers

While they are not unified as allies, the nations of Iran and Ukraine both stand against a

global nuclear weapons ban and both operate nuclear power plants within their borders. Iran faces

vast pressure from the United States to prevent it from producing nuclear weapons.75

75 "Positions on the Treaty." ICAN. http://www.icanw.org/why-a-ban/positions/.

23


Questions to Consider

1. While a majority of the world is staunchly against the proliferation of nuclear technology, those

nations who possess this technology are arguably some of the most economically and politically

powerful nations in the world with substantial influence in the United Nations General

Assembly and Security Council. How can the United Nations curtail the technology’s spread

without eclipsing the national sovereignty of the few nations who possess nuclear weapons? Can

the United Nations develop a plan for the technology’s ultimate removal from the global war

stage?

2. A majority of states oppose the maintenance or growth of nuclear weapon arsenals while

supporting the proliferation of nuclear energy. How can the United Nation guide global

development away from weapons development and toward energy creation?

3. Thirty nations, many of which are Eastern European nations previously controlled by the Union

of Soviet Socialist Republics, rely heavily on the United States for military protection from other

global powers, such as Russia, and they state that American nuclear force is key to their national

security. How can the United Nations create a geopolitical climate in which nations feel less

reliant upon other country’s military power to feel secure?

4. Nations that maintain nuclear arsenals are technically in violation of the Treaty on the

Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons. Should these nations be punished? If so, how can the United

Nations do so effectively without causing undue political tumult?

5. The development of nuclear energy has always come with international fear of weaponization of

the uranium and plutonium used in reactors. Can the development nuclear energy exist without

the creation of nuclear weapons? Can one exist without the other? Does a realistic path to this

goal exist?

24


Bilbliography

"Chernobyl Accident," Chernobyl Disaster - World Nuclear Association, http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/safety-and-security/safety-of-plants/chernobyl-accident.aspx.

"Environment: Emissions Prevented." Environment: Emissions Prevented - Nuclear Energy Institute. https://www.nei.org/Knowledge-Center/Nuclear-Statistics/Environment-Emissions-Prevented.

"Fact Sheets & Briefs." Nuclear Weapons: Who Has What at a Glance | Arms Control Association. "IAEA Overview," IAEA, June 08, 2016, https://www.iaea.org/about/overview/. "Nucléaire." Nucléaire - La France En Chine. https://cn.ambafrance.org/-Nucleaire-1256-. "Nuclear Power in the World Today." Nuclear Power Today | Nuclear Energy - World Nuclear

Association. http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/nuclear-power-in-the-world-today.aspx.

"Nuclear Weapons - UNODA." United Nations. https://www.un.org/disarmament/wmd/nuclear/.

"Positions on the Treaty." ICAN. http://www.icanw.org/why-a-ban/positions/. "Pros and Cons of Nuclear Energy," Conserve Energy Future, December 24, 2016,

https://www.conserve-energy-future.com/pros-and-cons-of-nuclear-energy.php. "Soviet Atomic Program - 1946," Atomic Heritage Foundation, June 05, 2014, , accessed October

30, 2017, https://www.atomicheritage.org/history/soviet-atomic-program-1946. "Status of World Nuclear Forces." Federation Of American Scientists.

https://fas.org/issues/nuclear-weapons/status-world-nuclear-forces/. "THE TREATY: 1945-54," 1945-54: Early efforts to restrain nuclear testing: CTBTO Preparatory

Commission, https://www.ctbto.org/the-treaty/history-1945-1993/1945-54-early-efforts-to-restrain-nuclear-testing/.

"Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) - UNODA," United Nations, https://www.un.org/disarmament/wmd/nuclear/npt/.

"Truman announces development of H-bomb," History.com, http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/truman-announces-development-of-h-bomb.

"Current Issues and Challenges." Nuclear Threat Initiative, tutorials.nti.org/npt-tutorial/current-issues-and-challenges/.

"Energy, Electricity and Nuclear Power Estimates for the Period up to 2050." International Atomic Energy Agency, 2013 Edition, http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/Publications/PDF/RDS-1-33_web.pdf.

"Fact Sheets & Briefs." Nuclear Weapons: Who Has What at a Glance | Arms Control Association, https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/Nuclearweaponswhohaswhat

"How North Korean Children Are Taught to Hate Americans." Newsweek, 6 July 2017.http://www.newsweek.com/how-north-korean-children-are-taught-hate-americans-632334

"Industry Meltdown: Is the Era of Nuclear Power Coming to an End?" Yale E360,

25


https://e360.yale.edu/features/industry-meltdown-is-era-of-nuclear-power-coming-to-an-end.

"Iran Nuclear Deal: Key Details." BBC News, BBC, 13 Oct. 2017, www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-33521655.

"Nuclear Power in Egypt" Nuclear Energy in Egypt: Egyptian Nuclear Electricity - World Nuclear Association, http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-a-f/egypt.aspx.

"Outline History of Nuclear Energy," www.world-nuclear.org, March 2014, http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/outline-history-of-nuclear-energy.aspx.

"Pearl Harbour," www.history.com, http://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/pearl-harbor. "Plans For New Reactors Worldwide" Plans for New Nuclear Reactors Worldwide - World Nuclear

Association, http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/plans-for-new-reactors-worldwide.aspx

"Positions on the Treaty." ICAN, www.icanw.org/why-a-ban/positions/. "Safeguards to Prevent Nuclear Proliferation." Nuclear Proliferation Safeguards - World Nuclear

Association, http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/safety-and-security/non-proliferation/safeguards-to-prevent-nuclear-proliferation.aspx

"Switzerland Votes to Phase out Nuclear Power." BBC News, BBC, 21 May 2017, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-39994599.

"The Accidental Century: Prominent Energy Accidents in the Last 100 Years." Scribd, www.scribd.com/doc/51178589/The-accidental-century-prominent-energy-accidents-in-the-last-100-years.; "The Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki." Total Casualties | The Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki | Historical Documents, http://www.atomicarchive.com/Docs/MED/med_chp10.shtml

"The Manhattan Project," www.ushistory.org, http://www.ushistory.org/us/51f.asp. "The Promise of a Nuclear Power Plant in Ghana,"

http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2017/ph241/gambrah1/ "What is Nuclear Fission? - Definition and Process," study.com,

http://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-nuclear-fission-definition-process-quiz.html. Andrew Buncombe New York. "North Korea's Nuclear Threat Now at 'critical and Imminent

Level', Says Japan." The Independent. October 23, 2017. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/us-politics/north-korea-latest-us-threat-trump-kim-jong-un-japan-critical-imminent-level-a8015511.html.

Baker, Peter, and Choe Sang-hun. "Trump Threatens 'Fire and Fury' Against North Korea If It Endangers U.S." The New York Times. August 08, 2017. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/08/world/asia/north-korea-un-sanctions-nuclear-missile-united-nations.html.

Dempsey, Judy, and Jack Ewing. "Germany, in Reversal, Will Close Nuclear Plants by 2022." The New York Times. May 30, 2011. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/31/world/europe/31germany.html.

26


Greenpeace Nonprofit Organization. "Nuclear Energy." Greenpeace USA. Accessed January 22, 2018. http://www.greenpeace.org/usa/global-warming/issues/nuclear/.

History.com Staff, "Cuban Missile Crisis," History.com, 2010, http://www.history.com/topics/cold-war/cuban-missile-crisis.

Ion, Sue. "Nuclear energy: current situation and prospects to 2020." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. April 15, 2007. Accessed January 22, 2018. http://rsta.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/365/1853/935.

Jazeera, Al. "N Korea Threatens Missile Attack on US Territory Guam." North Korea News | Al Jazeera, Al Jazeera, 8 Aug. 2017, www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/08/korea-threatens-missile-strike-territory-guam-170808230004855.html.

Jazeera, Al. "North Korea's Nuclear Weapons: Here Is What We Know." News | Al Jazeera, Al Jazeera, 1 Jan. 2018, www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/05/north-korea-testing-nuclear-weapons-170504072226461.html.

McKlveen, J. W. "Current status of nuclear power in the United States and around the world." Ncbi.nlm.nih. September 1990. Accessed January 22, 2018. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2241635.

Nuclear Energy Institute. "Nuclear Energy Around the World." World Statistics. Accessed January 22, 2018. https://www.nei.org/Knowledge-Center/Nuclear-Statistics/World-Statistics.

Outline History of Nuclear Energy," www.word-nuclear.org, March 2014, http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/outline-history-of-nuclear-energy.aspx.

Stephanie, Pappas "Hydrogen Bomb vs Atomic Bomb: What's the Difference?," www.livescience.com 22 September 2014, https://www.livescience.com/53280-hydrogen-bomb-vs-atomic-bomb.html.

Trump, Donald J. "North Korean Leader Kim Jong Un Just Stated That the "Nuclear Button Is on His Desk at All Times." Will Someone from His Depleted and Food Starved Regime Please Inform Him That I Too Have a Nuclear Button, but It Is a Much Bigger & More Powerful One than His, and My Button Works!" Twitter. January 03, 2018. https://twitter.com/realdonaldtrump/status/948355557022420992.

U.S. Department of Energy, "History of Nuclear Energy", energy.gov, https://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/The%20History%20of%20Nuclear%20Energy_0.pdf.

United Nations, "Treaty on the Non-proliferation of Nuclear Weapons," Disarmament Treaties Database. United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs, 2013, http://disarmament.un.org/treaties/t/npt.

United Nations. "Disarmament and International Security (First Committee)." General Assembly of the United Nations. http://www.un.org/en/ga/first/ (accessed October 23, 2017).

World Nuclear Association. "History of Nuclear Energy." Last modified March 2014. http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/outline-history-of-nuclear-energy.aspx.