Archaeoastronomy in India

7/30/2019 Archaeoastronomy in India

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Archaeoastronomy in India Subhash Kak 1

ArchaeoastronomyinIndia

SubhashKak

OklahomaStateUniversity,Stillwater

Our understanding of archaeoastronomical sites in India isbasednot only on a rich archaeological

recordandtextsthatgobackthousandsofyears,butalsoonalivingtraditionthatisconnectedtothe

past. Conversely, India has much cultural diversity and a tangled history of interactions with

neighboringregionsthatmakethestorycomplex.Thetextsrevealtousthecosmologicalideasthatlay

behindastronomicalsites in thehistoricalperiodand it isgenerallyaccepted that thesame ideaalso

applytotheHarappaneraofthethirdmillenniumBCE(Kenoyer,1998:5253).

Inthehistoricalperiod,astronomicalobservatorieswerepartoftemplecomplexeswherethekingwas

consecrated.Suchconsecrationservedtoconfirmthekingasforemostdevoteeofthechosendeity,who

wastakentobetheembodimentoftimeandtheuniverse(Kak,2002a:58).Forexample,Udayagiriisan

astronomicalsiteconnectedwiththeClassicalageoftheGuptadynasty(320500CE),whichislocatedafewkilometersfromVidishaincentralIndia(Willis,2001;DassandWillis,2002).TheimperialGuptas

enlarged the site, an ancient hilly observatory goingback at least to the 2nd century BCE atwhich

observationswerefacilitatedby thegeographical featuresofthehill, intoasacred landscapetodraw

royalauthority.

Indianastronomy is characterizedby the conceptofagesofsuccessive largerdurations,which isan

exampleofthepervasive ideaofrecursion,orrepetitionofpatternsacrossspace,scaleandtime. An

exampleofthisisthedivisionoftheeclipticinto27starsegments(nakshatras),withwhichthemoonis

conjoined in itsmonthly circuit, each of which is further subdivided into 27 subsegments (upa

nakshatras), and the successive divisions of the day into smallermeasures of 30 units. The idea of

recursionunderliestheconceptofthesacredlandscapeanditisembodiedinIndianart,providingan

archaeoastronomicalwindowonsacredandmonumentalarchitecture.Itappearsthatthiswasanold

idea because intricate spiral patterns, indicating recursion, are also found in the paintings of the

Mesolithicperiod.Tyagi(1992)hasclaimedthattheyareuniquetoIndianrockart.

AccordingtotheVstuShstra,thestructureofthebuildingmirrorstheemergenceofcosmicorderout

of primordial chaos through the act ofmeasurement. The universe is symbolicallymapped into a

squarethatemphasizesthefourcardinaldirections.Itisrepresentedbythesquarevstumandala,which

initsvariousformsisthebasicplanforthehouseandthecity. Thereexistfurtherelaborationsofthis

plan,someofwhicharerectangular.

It is significant that yantric buildings in the form of mandalas have been discovered in North

AfghanistanthatbelongtoaperiodthatcorrespondstothelatestageoftheHarappantradition(Kak,

2000a;Kak,2005b) providingarchitecturalevidence in supportof the ideaof recursionat this time.

Although thesebuilding are a part of the BactriaMargianaArchaeologicalComplex (BMAC), theiraffinitywith ideas thatarealsopresent in theHarappansystemshows that these ideaswerewidely

spread.


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Contents

1. ChronologyandOverview2. PrehistoricalandHarappanPeriod3. NeolithicandMegalithicSites4. ThePlanoftheTemple5. ObservatoryinUdayagiri6. PilgrimageComplexes7. SacredCities8. Conclusions

1. ChronologyandOverviewIndiasarchaeologicalrecordinthenorthwesthasunbrokencontinuitygoingbacktoabout7500BCEat

Mehrgarh(Kenoyer,1998;Lal,2002),andithasanrockarttradition,nextonlytothatofAustraliaand

Africa in abundance, that is much older (Pandey, 1993; Bednarik, 2000). Some rock art has been

assignedtotheUpperPaleolithicperiod.There issurprisinguniformity,both instyleandcontent, in

therockartpaintingsoftheMesolithicperiod(10,0002500BCE)(Tyagi,1992;Wakankar,1992).

ThearchaeologicalphasesoftheIndus(orSindhuSarasvati)traditionhavebeendividedintofoureras:

earlyfoodproducingera(c.6500 5000BCE),regionalizationera(50002600BCE), integrationera(2600

1900BCE),and localizationera (19001300BCE) (Shaffer,1992).Theearly foodproducingera lacked

elaborateceramictechnology.Theregionalizationerawascharacterizedbystylesinceramics,lapidary

arts,glazedfaienceandsealmakingthatvariedacrossregions.Intheintegrationera,thereissignificant

homogeneityinmaterialcultureoveralargegeographicalareaandtheuseofthesocalledIndusscript,

which isnotyetdeciphered. In the localizationera,patternsof the integrationeraareblendedwith

regionalceramicstyles, indicatingdecentralizationandrestructuringof the interactionnetworks.The

localization era of the SindhuSarasvati tradition is the regionalization era of the GangaYamuna

traditionwhichtransformsintotheintegrationeraoftheMagadhaandtheMauryandynasties.Thereis

alsocontinuityinthesystemofweightsandlengthsbetweentheHarappanperiodandthelaterhistoric

period(Mainkar,1984).

The culturalmosaic in the thirdmillennium BCE is characterizedby the integration phase of the

HarappancivilizationofnorthwestIndia,copperandcopper/bronzeageculturesorcentralandnorth

India,andNeolithicculturesofsouthandeastIndia(Lal,1997).Fivelargecitiesoftheintegrationphase

areMohenjoDaro,Harappa,Ganweriwala,Rakhigarhi, andDholavira.Other important sitesof this

periodareKalibangan,RehmanDheri,Nausharo,KotDiji,andLothal.

Amajorityof the townsandsettlementsof theHarappanperiodwere in theSarasvativalley region.

Hydrologicalchanges,extendedperiodofdrought,andthedryingupoftheSarasvatiRiverduetoits

majortributariesbeingcapturedbytheSindhandGangaRiversafteranearthquakein1900BCEledto

theabandonmentoflargeareasoftheSarasvativalley(Kak,1992).TheHarappanphasewentthrough

various stages of decline during the secondmillennium BCE.A second urbanizationbegan in theGangaandYamunavalleysaround900BCE.TheearliestsurvivingrecordsofthiscultureareinBrahmi

script.Thissecondurbanization isgenerallyseenat theendof thePaintedGrayWare (PGW)phase

(1200 800BCE)andwiththeuseoftheNorthernBlackPolishedWare(NBP)pottery.LateHarappan

was partially contemporary with the PGW phase. In otherwords, a continuous series of cultural

developmentslinkthetwoearlyurbanizationsofIndia.

ThesettingforthehymnsoftheRigveda,whichisIndiasmostancientliterarytext,istheareaofSapta

Saindhava, the region ofnorth Indiaboundedby the Sindh and theGanga rivers although regions


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aroundthisheartlandarealsomentioned.TheRigvedadescribestheSarasvatiRivertobethegreatestof

theriversandgoingfromthemountainstothesea.Thearchaeologicalrecord,suggestingthatthisriver

hadturneddryby1900BCE,indicatesthattheRigvedaispriortothisepoch.TheRigvedaandotherearly

Vedic literaturehaveastronomical references related to the shiftingastronomical frame that indicate

epochsofthefourthandthirdmillenniumBCEwhichisconsistentwiththehydrologicalevidence.The

nakshatralistsarefoundintheVedas,eitherdirectlyorlistedundertheirpresidingdeities,anditone

mayconcludethattheirnameshavenotchanged.Vedicastronomyusedalunisolaryearinwhichanintercalarymonthwasemployedasadjustmentwithsolaryear.

Theshiftingofseasonsthroughtheyearandtheshiftingofthenorthernaxisallowustodateseveral

statementsintheVedicbooks(Sastry,1985).ThustheShatapathaBrhmana(2.1.2.3)hasastatementthat

pointstoanearlierepochwhereitisstatedthattheKrittik (Pleiades)neverswervefromtheeast.This

correspondsto2950BCE.TheMaitryanyaBrhmanaUpanishad(6.14)referstothewintersolsticebeing

atthemidpointoftheShravishth segmentandthesummersolsticeatthebeginningofMagh.This

indicates 1660 BCE. The Vednga Jyotisha mentions that winter solstice was at the beginning of

Shravishth andthesummersolsticeatthemidpointofAshlesh.Thiscorrespondstoabout1300BCE.

ThenakshatrasintheVedngaJyotishaaredefinedtobe27equalpartsoftheecliptic. Thenakshatra

listofthelateVedicperiodbeginwithKrittik (Pleiades)whereasthatoftheastronomytextsafter200

CEbeginwithAshvini( and Arietis),indicatingatransitionthrough2nakshatras,oratimespanof

about2,000years.

ThefoundationofVediccosmologyisthenotionsofbandhu(homologiesorbindingbetweentheouter

and the inner). In theAyurveda,medicalsystemassociatedwith theVedas, the360daysof theyear

weretakentobemappedtothe360bonesofthedevelopingfetus,whichlaterfuseintothe206bonesof

theperson.Itwasestimatedcorrectly thatthesunand themoonwereapproximately108timestheir

respectivediametersfromtheearth(perhapsfromthediscoverythattheangularsizeofapoleremoved

108timesitsheightisthesameasthatofthesunandthemoon),andthisnumberwasusedinsacred

architecture.Thedistancetothesanctumsanctorumofthetemplefromthegateandtheperimeterof

the templewere taken tobe54and 180units,whichareonehalf eachof 108 and 360 (Kak, 2005a).

Homologiesatmanylevelsareatthebasisoftheideaofrecursion,orrepetitioninscaleandtime.The

astronomicalbasisof theVedicritualwas thereconciliationof the lunarandsolaryears (Kak,2000a;Kak,2000b).

TextsoftheVedicandsucceedingperiodsprovideuscrucialunderstandingoftheastronomyandthe

archaeoastronomyofthehistoricalperiodthroughoutIndia.Themedievalperiodwascharacterizedby

pilgrimage centers that created sacred space mirroring conceptions of the cosmos. Sacred temple

architectureservedreligiousandpoliticalends.

The instruments thatwereused in Indianastronomy include thewater clock (ghatiyantra),gnomon

(shanku),crossstaff(yastiyantra),armillarysphere(golayantra),boardforsunsaltitude(phalakayantra),

sundial(kaplayantra),andastrolabe(Gangooly,1880).Inearly18thcentury,MaharajaSawaiJaiSinghII

ofJaipur (r.16991743)built fivemasonryobservatoriescalledJantarMantar inDelhi,Jaipur,Ujjain,

Mathura,andVaranasi.TheJantarMantarconsistsoftheRamYantra(acylindricalstructurewithan

opentopandapillarinitscentertomeasurethealtitudeofthesun),theRashivalayaYantra(agroupoftwelve instruments to determine celestial latitude and longitude), the Jai Prakash (a concave

hemisphere),theLaghuSamratYantra(smallsundial),theSamratYantra(ahugeequinoctialdial),the

Chakra Yantra (uprightmetal circles to find the right ascension and declination of a planet), the

Digamsha Yantra (a pillar surrounded by two circular walls), the Kapali Yantra (two sunken

hemispheres to determine the position of the sun relative to the planets and the zodiac), and the

NarivalayaYantra(acylindricaldial).


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2. PrehistoricalandHarappanPeriodThecityofMohenjoDaro(2500BCE),likemostotherHarappancities(withtheexceptionofDholavira

as far aswe know at this time)was divided into two parts: the acropolis and the lower city. The

MohenjoDaroacropolis,a culturalandadministrative centre,hadas its foundation a12meterhigh

platformof400m200m.Thelowercityhadstreetsorientedaccordingtothecardinaldirectionsandprovidedwithanetworkof covereddrains. Itshouseshadbathrooms.Thecityswellsweresowell

constructedwithtaperingbricksthattheyhavenotcollapsedin5000years.TheGreatBath(12m7

m)wasbuiltusingfinelyfittedbrickslaidonwithgypsumplasterandmadewatertightwithbitumen.

Ahighcorbelledoutletallowedittobeemptiedeasily.Massivewallsprotectedthecityagainstflood

water.

TheabsenceofmonumentalbuildingssuchaspalacesandtemplesmakestheHarappancitystrikingly

differentfromitscounterpartsofMesopotamiaandEgypt,suggestingthatthepolityoftheHarappan

statewasdecentralizedandbasedonabalancebetweenthepolitical,themercantile,andthereligious

elites.Thepresenceofcivicamenitiessuchaswellsanddrainsatteststoconsiderablesocialequality.

The power of themercantile guilds is clear in the standardization ofweights of carefully cut and

polishedchartcubesthatformacombinedbinaryanddecimalsystem.

MohenjoDaroandothersitesshowslightdivergenceof1to2clockwiseoftheaxesfromthecardinal

directions(Wanzke,1984).ItisthoughtthatthismighthavebeenduetotheorientationofAldebaran

(RohininSanskrit)andthePleiades(KrtikkinSanskrit)thatroseintheeastduring3000BCEto2000

BCEatthespringequinox;thewordrohinliterallymeansrising.Furthermore,theslightdifference

in the orientations amongst thebuildings inMohenjoDaro indicates different construction periods

usingthesametraditionalsightingpointsthathadshiftedinthisinterval(Kenoyer,1998).

MohenjoDaros astronomy usedboth themotions of themoon and the sun (Maula, 1984). This is

attestedbytheuseofgreatcalendarstones,intheshapeofring,whichservedtomarkthebeginning

andendofthesolaryear.

DholaviraDholavira is located on an island just north of the large island of Kutch in Gujarat. Its strategic

importance lay in its control of shippingbetweenGujarat and the delta of the Sindh and Sarasvati

rivers.

ThelayoutofDholaviraisuniqueinthatitcomprisesofthreetowns,whichisinaccordwithVedic

ideas(Bisht,1997;Bisht,1999a;Bisht,1999b).Thefeatureofrecursioninthethreetowns,orrepeating

ratiosatdifferentscales,issignificant.Specifically,thedesignischaracterizedbythenestingproportion

of9:4acrossthelowerandthemiddletownsandthecastle.Theproportionsof5/4,7/6,and5/4forthe

lower town, themiddle town, and the castlemay reflect themeasures related to the royal city, the

commandersquarter,andthekingsquarter,respectively,whichwasalsotrueofClassicalIndia(Bhat,

1995).

ADholavira length,D, hasbeendeterminedby finding the largestmeasurewhich leads to integer

dimensionsforthevariouspartsofthecity.ThismeasureturnsoutbethesameastheArthastra(300

BCE)measureofdhanus(arrow)thatequals108angulas(fingers).Thisscaleisconfirmedbyaterracotta

scale from Kalibangan and the ivory scale found in Lothal. The Kalibangan scale (Joshi, 2007;

BalasubramaniamandJoshi,2008)correspondstounitsof17.5cm,which issubstantiallythesameas

theLothalscaleandthesmalldiscrepancymaybeaconsequenceofshrinkageuponfiring.


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The analysis of theunitof length atDholavira is in accordwith theunit from thehistoricalperiod

(Danino,2005;Danino,2008).TheunitthatbestfitstheDholaviradimensionsis190.4cm,whichwhen

dividedby108gives theDholaviraangulaof1.763cm.Thesubunitofangula isconfirmedwhenone

considersthatthebricksinHarappafollowratiosof1:2:4withthedominatingsizebeing71428

cm(Kenoyer,1998).Thesedimensionscanbeelegantlyexpressedas4816angulas,withtheunitof

angulatakenas1.763cm.ItissignificantthattheivoryscaleatLothalhas27graduationsin46mm,or

eachgraduationis1.76mm.

Figure1.MapofDholavira(Bisht,1997)

WiththenewDhloaviraunitofD,thedimensionsofMohenjoDarosacropolisturnouttobe210105

D;Kalibangansacropolisturnouttobe12663D.ThedimensionsofthelowertownofDholaviraare

405324D;thewidthofthemiddletownis180D;andtheinnerdimensionsofthecastleare6048

D.Thesumofthewidthandlengthofthelowertowncomesto729whichisastronomicallysignificant

sinceitis2727,andthewidth324equalsthenakshatrayear2712.

ContinuityhasbeenfoundbetweenthegridandmodularmeasuresinthetownplanningofHarappa

andhistorical India, including thatofKathmanduValley (PantandFuno,2005).Themeasureof19.2

metersistheunit inquarterblocksofKathmandu;thisisnearlythesameastheunitcharacteristicof

thedimensionsofDholavira.Itshowsthatthetraditionalarchitectsandtownplannershavecontinued

theuseofthesameunitsoverthislongtimespan.

Figure2.AstronomicalsealfromRehmanDheri


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RehmanDheriA3rdmillenniumsealfromRehmanDheri,showingapairofscorpionsononesideandtwoantelopes

ontheother,thatsuggestsknowledgeofVedicthemes.Ithasbeensuggestedthatthissealrepresents

theoppositionof theOrion (Mrigashiras,orantelopehead)and theScorpio (Rohiniof the southern

hemispherewhichis14nakshatrasfromtheRohiniofthenorthernhemisphere)nakshatras.Thearrow

neartheheadofoneoftheantelopescouldrepresentthedecapitationofOrion.Itisgenerallyacceptedthat themythofPrajapatibeingkilledbyRudra represents the shiftingof thebeginningof theyear

awayfromOrionanditplacestheastronomicaleventinthefourthmillenniumBCE(Kak,2000a).

3. NeolithicandMegalithicSitesInterestingsitesofarchaeoastronomicalinterestincludetheNeolithicsiteofBurzahomfromKashmirin

NorthIndia,andmegalithicsitesfromBrahmagiriandHanamsagarfromKarnatakainSouthIndia.

Burzahom,KashmirThisNeolithicsite is locatedabout10kmnortheastofSrinagar in theKashmirValleyonaterraceof

Late PleistoceneHolocene deposits. Dated to around 3000 1500 BCE, its deep pit dwellings are

associatedwithgroundstoneaxes,bonetools,andgrayburnishedpottery.Astoneslabof48cm27

cm,obtainedfromaphasedatedto2125BCEshowstwobrightobjectsintheskywithahuntingscene

intheforeground.Thesehavebeenassumedtobeadepictionofadoublestarsystem(KameshwarRao,

2005).

Figure3.Burzahomskyscene

Brahmagiri,KarnatakaThemegalithicstonecirclesofBrahmagiri (latitude14o73, longitude76o77),Chitradurgadistrictof

Karnataka in South India, that have been dated to 900 BCE, show astronomical orientations.

KameswaraRao (1993) has argued that site lines from the centre of a circle to an outer tangent of

anothercirclepointtothedirectionsofthesunriseandfullmoonriseatthetimeofthesolarandlunar

solsticesandequinox.


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Figure4.MegalithicstonecirclesofBrahmagiri

Hanamsagar,Karnataka.Hanamsagarisamegalithicsitewithstonealignmentspointingtocardinaldirections.Itislocatedonaflatareabetweenhillsabout6kmnorthoftheKrishnariveratlatitude16o1918andlongitude76o27

10. Thestones,whicharesmoothgranite,arearranged inasquareof side that isabout600meters

with50rowsand50column(foratotalof2,500stones),withaseparationbetweenstonesofabout12

m.Thestonesarebetween1 to2.5m inheightwithamaximumdiameterof2 to3m.The linesare

orientedincardinaldirections.Thereisasquarishcentralstructureknownaschakrikatti.

Ithasbeenarguedthatthedirectionsofsummerandwintersolsticecanbefixedinrelationtotheouter

and the innersquares.KameswaraRao(2005)suggeststhat itcouldhavebeenused forseveralother

kindofastronomicalobservationssuchasuseofshadowstotellthetimeoftheday,thepredictionof

months,seasonsandpassageoftheyear.

Figure5.AlignmentsatHanamsagar


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4. ThePlanoftheTempleThe sacred ground for Vedic ritual is the precursor to the temple. The Vedic observances were

connectedwiththecircuitsofthesunandthemoon(Kak,1993;Kak,1995;Kak,1996).Thealtarritual

wasassociatedwiththeeastwestaxisandwecantraceitsoriginstopriestswhomaintaineddifferent

day countswith respect to the solstices and the equinoxes. Specificdaysweremarkedwith ritual

observancesthatweredoneatdifferenttimesoftheday.

Figure6.ThethreealtarsoftheVedichouse:circular

(earth,body),halfmoon(atmosphere,prna),square(sky,consciousness)

In the ritual at home, the householder employed three altars that are circular (earth), halfmoon

(atmosphere),andsquare (sky),whichare like thehead, theheart,and thebodyof theCosmicMan

(Purusha). In theAgnichayana, the great ritual of theVedic times that forms amajorportion of the

narrativeoftheYajurveda,theatmosphereandtheskyaltarsarebuiltafreshinagreatceremonytothe

east.ThisritualisbasedupontheVedicdivisionoftheuniverseintothreepartsofearth,atmosphere,

andskythatareassignednumbers21,78,and261,respectively.Thenumericalmappingismaintained

byplacementof21pebblesaround theearthaltar, setsof 13pebblesaroundeachof6 intermediate

(136=78)altars,and261pebblesaroundthegreatnewskyaltarcalledtheUttaravedi,whichisbuilt

intheshapeofafalcon;thesenumbersaddupto360,whichissymbolicrepresentationoftheyear.The

proportionsrelatedtothesethreenumbers,andothersrelatedtothemotionsoftheplanets,andanglesrelatedtothesightingsofspecificstarsarereflectedintheplansofthetemplesofthehistoricalperiod

(Kak,2002b;Kak,2006a;Kak,2009;Kaulcara,1966).

Figure7.ThefalconaltaroftheAgnichayanaaltar

TheAgnichayanaaltaristheprototypeofthetempleandofthetraditionofarchitecture(Vstu). The

altarisfirstbuiltof1,000bricksinfivelayers(thatsymbolicallyrepresentthefivedivisionsoftheyear,

the five physical elements, aswell as five senses) to specific designs. The altar is constructed in a

sequenceof95years,whosedetailsarematched to thereconciliationof the lunarandsolaryearsby

meansofintercalarymonths.


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IntheritualgroundrelatedtotheAgnichayanaceremony,theUttaravediis54unitsfromtheentrance

in the west and the perimeter of the ritual ground is 180 units (Kak, 2005a). These proportions

characterizemanylatertemples.

TheTempleComplexatKhajurahoThetownofKhajurahoextendsbetween795430to795630Eastand245020to245140North, inChhatarpurdistrict, inMadhyaPradesh.The templesofKhajurahowerebuilt in9th 12th

centuryCEbytheChandelakings.Originallytherewere84temples,ofwhich23havesurvived.Ofthe

survivingtemples,6areassociatedwithShiva,8withVishnu,and5withthegoddess(Singh,2009b).

1

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Apabh

Krttika

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Mrga

Ardra

Punarvasu

Pusya

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P. Phal

U. Phal

Hasta

Citra

Svati

Visakha

Anuradha

Rohini

Mula

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Srona

Sravishtha

Satabhisaj

Prosthap.

U. Prosth.

Revati

Asvini

Vaisakha

Jyaistha

Asadha

Sravana

Bhadrapada

Asvayuja Kartika

Margasirsa

Pausa

Magha

Phalguna

Caitra

Figure8.Mappingofthenakshatrastothesolarmonths

AttheeasternedgeofthetemplecomplexaretheDantlahills,withapeakof390matwhichislocated

a shrine toShiva,which isa referencepoint for the templeentrances.All the temples excepting the

Chaturbhujafacetheeast.ThesoutheasternedgehastheLavanyahillthatisseparatedfromtheDantla

hillsbytheeastwardflowingriverKhudar.AtthefoothillsoftheLavanyahillataheightof244misthe

shrineofgoddessDurgaasMahishasurmardini.

TheshrinestoShivaandDurgaontheDantlaandLavanyahillsspanthepolaritiesofspirit(Purusha)

andmatter (Prakriti),whicharebridgedbytheriverbetween thehills.The templesofKhajurahoare

popular pilgrimage centers during two spring festivals: Shivaratri that falls on the newmoon of

Phalguna(February/March),andHoli,whichfallsonthefullmoonofChaitra(March/April).

TheLakshmanatemple,oneoftheoldestofthecomplex,isconsideredtheaxismundiofthesite.Itwas

builtbythekingYashovarman(925950)assymboloftheChandelavictoryoverthePratiharasanda

recordofsupremacyoftheirpower.ThistempleisorientedtothesunriseonHoli.


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Thegroupsoftemplesformthreeoverlappingmandalas,withcentersattheLakshmana(Vishnu),the

Javeri(Shiva),andtheDuladeva(Shiva)temples.Theirdeviationfromtruecardinalityisbelievedtobe

duetothedirectionofsunriseonthedayofconsecration(Singh,2009).

Thetemple,asarepresentationofthecosmosanditsorder,balancestheasuras(demons)andthedevas

(gods),aswellas inheres in itselfotherpolaritiesof existence. In theLakshmanaTemple,Vishnu is

depicted ina composite formwith theusual calm facebracketedby the facesof lion andboar.Theconceptionofthesanctumisasamandala(Desai,2004).

Theplanetarydeities,thegrahas,encirclethetempleinthefollowingarrangement:

Surya(Sun)

Soma(Moon) Mangala(Mars)

Brhaspati(Jupiter) Budha(Mercury)

Shani(Saturn) Shukra(Venus)

Ganesha Durga

Ganesha and Durga are the deities of the ascending and the descending nodes of the moon,

respectively.ThetempleisenvisionedlikeMountMeru,theaxisoftheuniverse,andtheplanetsmove

aroundit.

5. TheUdayagiriObservatoryUdayagiri(hillof[sun]rise]isoneoftheprincipalancientastronomicalobservatoriesofIndia.Itis

located at 23o31N latitude on the Tropic ofCancer inMadhyaPradesh, about 50 kilometers from

Bhopal,nearVidisha,BesnagarandSanchi.Anancientsitethatgoesbacktoatleastthesecondcentury

BCE, it was substantially enlarged during the reign of the Gupta Emperor Chandragupta II

Vikramaditya (r. 375414).This site is associatedwith 20 cave temples thathavebeen cut into rock;

nineteenofthesetemplesarefromtheperiodofChandraguptasreign(DassandWillis,2002).

Figure9.Udayagirilayout(Balasubramaniam,2008)

It appears that the ancient name ofUdayagiriwasVishnupadagiri, or the hill of the footprint ofVishnu,andthenameUdayagiriisaftertheParamararulerUdayaditya(c.107093).Thehillisshaped

likeafoot.Asaddleconnectsthenorthernandsouthernhills,andapassagewayislocatedattheplace

wherethenorthernhillmeetsthesaddle.TheGuptaperiodadditionsandembellishmentsatUdayagiri

wereconcentratedaroundthispassage.Mostofthecavetemplesarelocatedaroundthepassageway.

Onthesummersolsticeday,therewasanalignmentofthesunsmovementwiththepassageway.The

daymentioned in the dated Chandragupta II Vikramaditya period inscription in cave 6 hasbeen

calculatedtobeveryclosetothesummersolsticeoftheyear402CE.Onthisday,theshadowofthe


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IronPillarofDelhi,whichwasoriginallylocatedattheentranceofthepassageway,fellinthedirection

oftherecliningVishnupanel(Balasubramaniam,2008).

On thenorthernhilltop, thereexistsa flatplatformcommandingamajesticviewof the sky.Several

astronomicalmarkshavebeenidentifiedatthisplatform,indicatingthatthiswasthesiteoftheancient

astronomicalobservatory.

6. MedievalPilgrimageComplexesMedievalpilgrimagecentersfulfilledmanyfunctions includingthatoftradeandbusiness.Theywere

important to thejyotishi (astrologer)whowouldmakeand read thepilgrimshoroscope. Thebetter

astrologerswerealso interested inastronomyand thisknowledgewasessential for thealignmentof

templesandpalaces.

Every regionof Indiahas importantpilgrimagecenters,someofwhichare regionalandotherspan

Indic. The most famous of the panIndic centers are associated with Shiva (Varanasi), Krishna

(Mathura,Dwarka),Rama (Ayodhya),Vishnu (Tirupati), and the 12yearly rotation of theKumbha

Mela at Prayag, Haridwar, Ujjain, and Nashik. For pilgrimage centers such as Chitrakut, Gaya,

Madurai,Varanasi,Vindhyachal, andKhajuraho, the question of alignments of temples to cardinal

directionsortodirectionofthesunonmajorfestivalshasbeenstudiedbyscholars(Singh,2009b).Here

wewillconsiderthesuntemplesofVaranasi(Malville,1985;Singh,2009aand2009b).

Figure10.Khajuraho:LandscapeGeometryandTopography(Singh,2009b).

TheSunTemplesofVaranasiVaranasiisanancientcitydatingfromthebeginningofthefirstmillenniumBCE,whoseVedicnameis

Kashi (Sanskritforradiance),aname thatcontinues tobeusedtogetherwithBanaras.Of itsmany

temples, themost important is KashiVishvanath Temple, or Golden Temple, dedicated to Lord


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Shiva, the presiding deity of the city. Because of repeated destructionby the sultans and laterby

Aurangzeb, thecurrentVishvanath isarelativelymodernbuilding. Itwasbuilt in1777byMaharani

AhilyabaiofIndore,anditsshikhara(spire)andceilingswereplatedwithofgoldin1839,whichwasa

giftfromMaharajaRanjitSingh(Singh,2009aand2009b).

Figure11.SunShrines:CosmicOrderandCyclicorientationofTime(Singh,2009a).


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Shiva representsboth the axisof theuniverse aswell as thatofones innerbeing.Oneof thegreat

festivalscelebratedinVaranasiisShivaratriwhichiscelebratedonthe13thdayofthedarkfortnightof

thePhalgunamonth(FebruaryMarch).Onthatdayyoucanseethesunriseintheeastwiththenew

moonjustabove it,whichisrepresentediconographicallybyShiva(asthesun)wearingthemoonon

hishead.

There are several pilgrimage circuits in Varanasi for circumambulating the city. The Panchakroshi

circuithas108shrinesonit,andthefourinnercircuitshaveatotalof324shrines.Itisalsoknownfor

the circuitof theAditya shrines.TheAdityasare the7or8 celestialgods,although theirnumber is

counted to 12 in laterbooks. In Puranic India, they are taken tobe the deities of the twelve solar

months. TheAditya templeswerealsorazedduring thecenturiesofMuslimrule,buthavebeenre

establishedatthesamesitesandarenowpartoftheactiveritualscapes(Singh,2009a).

Several Aditya shrines have been located with the aid of descriptions in the Kashi Khanda and

pilgrimageguides(SinghandMalville,1995;Singh,2009aand2009b).Sixoftheseliealongonesidesof

an isosceles triangle with a base of 2.5km. The triangle surrounds the former temple of

Madhyameshavara,whichwas the original center ofKashi.Pilgrimswalking along the triangle are

symbolicallycircumambulatingthecosmos.

7. SacredCitiesThere arenumerous sacred cities in the Indian subcontinent thatwereeitherbuilt to an archetypal

masterplanorgreworganicallybyvirtueofbeingconnectedtoaspecificcelestialdeity. Someofthe

importantsacredcitiesare:

1. Varanasi2. Vijayanagara3. Ayodhya4. Mathura5. Bhaktapur6. Tirupati7. Kanchipuram8. Dwarka9. Ujjain

Robert Levy viewed the Indian sacred city as a structured mesocosm, situated between the

microcosm of the individual and themacrocosm of the culturally conceived larger universe (Levy,

1991).Suchacity isconstructedofspatialconnectedmandalas,eachofwhich issustainedby itsown

cultureandperformance.Themovementsof the festivalyearand ritesofpassageconstituteacivic

dance,whichdefinestheexperienceofitscitizens.

The lifecyclepassages and festivalsdedicated to thegods affirm thehouseholdersmoral compass,

identitiesandrelationships.Buttherealsoexistotherdeities,representedgenerallybygoddesses,who

point to the forcesofnatureoutsideofmoralorder.Thesearebrought into the largerorder through

tantric invocations and amoral propitiatory offerings. Performances invoking the goddess are the

responsibilityofthekingandthemerchants.

SacralityandRoyalPoweratVijayanagaraThecityofVijayanagara(alsoknownasHampi)wasfoundedinthe14thcenturyandsackedin1565.

ThebestknownkingsassociatedwithVijayanagaraareHariharaIandIIandBukkaRayaI(ca.1336

1404), and Krishnadevaraya and his halfbrother Achyutadevaraya (150942). From the mid14th

century to 1565, the city was the capital of the Vijayanagara Empire. According to the Persian


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ambassadorAbdurRazaaq(1442CE):TheCityofVijayanagara issuchthatthepupiloftheeyehas

neverseensuchaplace like it,and theearof intelligencehasneverbeen informedthatthereexisted

anythingtoequalitintheworld.

Figure12.VijayanagaraCity

Hampihad for centuriesbeen an importantpilgrimage citydue to itsmythic associationwith river

GoddessPamp andherconsortVirupaksha,orPamppati.An inscriptiondated1163CE recordsa

mahdna, a religious offering in the presence ofLordVirupaksha ofHampiby theKalachuriKing

Bijjala.TheregionwaspartofthekingdomofKampiladevauntil1326whenthearmiesofMohammed

BinTughlaqdefeated theking and imprisoned the two sons ofSangama,Hukka andBukka. Some


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yearslatertheSultansentthetwoasgovernorsoftheprovince.In1336theybrokefreefromTughlaq

allegianceandestablishedtheSangamadynastywithitscapitalatVijayanagara.

ThedestructionofVijayanagara in1565wascapturedvividly in theaccountofRobertSewell (1900):

Theyslaughteredthepeoplewithoutmercy;brokedownthetemplesandpalaces;andwreakedsuch

savagevengeanceontheabodeofthekingsthat,withtheexceptionofafewgreatstonebuilttemples

andwalls,nothingnowremainsbutaheapofruinstomarkthespotwhereoncethestatelybuildingsstood They lit huge fires in the magnificently decorated buildings forming the temple of

Vitthalaswami near the river, and smashed its exquisite stone sculptures. With fire and sword,

crowbarsandaxestheycarriedondayafterdaytheirworkofdestruction.Neverperhapsinthehistory

oftheworldhassuchhavocbeenwroughtsosuddenlyonsosplendidacity;teemingwithawealthy

andindustriouspopulationinthefullplenitudeofprosperityonedayandonthenextseized,pillaged

andreducedtoruinsamidscenesofsavagemassacreandhorrorsbeggaringdescription.

HampihasastrongassociationwiththeRamayanaandthenamesofmanysitesintheareabearnames

mentionedintheepic.TheseincludeRishimukha,MalyavantahillandMatangahillalongwithacave

where Sugriva is said to have kept thejewels of Sita. The site ofAnegundi is associatedwith the

kingdomofAngad, sonofVali.TheAnjaneyaParvata,ahill to thewestofAnegundi, is the fabled

birthplaceofHanuman.

HampiisalsolinkedwiththerivergoddessPamp andthelegendofhermarriagetoLordVirupaksha

orShiva.Eachyear,inthemonthofChaitra(MarchApril),thismarriageisreenacted,withthepriests

ofVirupaksha temple devoutly performing every ritual from Phalapj (betrothal) toKalynotsava

(marriage)inthetemple.

TheSacredCenterof thecity liessouthof theTungabhadraRiver,and it isdominatedby four large

complexes of the Virupaksha, Krishna, Tiruvengalanatha (Achyutaraya) and Vitthala temples. The

major templesareeitherclose tocardinality,departingbyanaverageof10,orareorientedtomajor

featuresofthesacredlandscape.

Further southof theSacredCenter is theRoyalCenter,which isdivided into thepublicandprivate

realms.Thedivisionisachievedbyanorthsouthaxis,whichpassesalmostpreciselybetweenthekings

100columnaudiencehallintheeastandthequeenslargepalaceinthewest.TheRamachandratemple

piercestheaxisbyconnectingtheprivateandthepublicdomains.Inthehomologyofthekingandthe

deity,thekingisabletoinhereinhimtheroyaltyanddivinityofRama.

TheVirabhadratempleisonthesummitofMatangahill,whichisthecenterofthevstumandalaand

thesymbolicsourceofprotectionthatextendedoutwardfromitalongradiallines. Asviewedfroma

pointmidwaybetweentheaudiencehallandthequeenspalace,theshikharaoftheVirabhadraliesonly

4minutesofarc (4) from truenorth.The ceremonialgateway in the corridorwestofRamachandra

templejoinedwith the summit ofMatangahilldeparts from truenorthby 0.6minutesof arc (0.6)

(Malville,2000).

Theorientationsof themajoraxesof thesmall temples,shrines,andpalacesof theurbancoreare inmarked contrast to those. The smaller structures are rotated away from cardinality for the four

directionsby17o,suggestingthattheywereinfluencedbythepositionoftherisingsunonthemorning

whenitcrossesthezenith.

ThebazaarstreetsoftheVirupaksha,VitthalaandKrishnatemplesaresetbetween13and15degrees

southofeast.Malville(2000)speculatesthattheremaybesomelinkbetweentheseorientationsandthe

risingpointofthestarSirius.


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8. ConclusionsInterestinarchaeoastronomyandart,asconnectedtotemplesandancientmonuments,hasincreasedin

Indiaasthecountrysprosperityhasincreased.Thisincreaseisalsoowingtothemajorarchaeological

discoveriesthathavebeenmadeinthepastfewdecadesandtheimportanceoftempletourism.

TheprincipalauthorityoversignificantsitesistheIndianArchaeologicalSurveyofIndia(ASI)andits

sisterinstitutionsthatfunctionatthestatelevelasDepartmentsofArchaeologyandMuseums.In1976,

theIndianGovernmentinitiatedprojectstoexcavatethreegreatmedievalcities:FatehpurSikriinUttar

Pradesh,Champaner inGujarat,andVijayanagara inKarnataka,whichareUNESCOWorldHeritage

sites. Thewealth of discoveriesmade in these cities is strengthening themovement to expose and

preserveothersites in the country.Theeffortsatexcavation, conservation,and research canonlybe

expectedtoincrease.Inparticular,greaterattentionwillbegiventothearchaeoastronomicalaspectsof

themonuments.

Acknowledgements.IamthankfultoR.Balasubramaniam,MichelDanino,McKimMalville,andRana

Singhfortheiradvice.TheessayisdedicatedtothememoryofR.Balasubramaniamwhopassedaway

inDecember2009.

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