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ARCHAEOLOGICAL POTENTIAL

Evidence of the People

DIET

Questions which might be answered by the archaeology of the site, based on the present study:

*Was their diet adequate and did this change over the years (quality and quantity)? *Was there a difference between the diet of the convicts, overseers and superintendent? *Did the diet reflect the locality (crops and native resources)? *What did the convicts, overseers and superintendent use to eat with and drink out of? *What vessels for food and liquid storage did they have? *What was used for the preparation of food? *What was used for boiling, roasting and baking? *Did they use wooden vessels and such like which leave no archaeological trace? *Where did they throw their food scraps, the daily ash and charcoal from their fireplaces (used for cooking and heat)? *What was the source of water: creek or well? *Did the salted provisions include bones (no officially obtainable local beef till the late 1790s)? *To what extent was local fauna used to supplement diet? *To what extent was local fauna traded with the Aborigines? *What wheat, corn and Barley types were available (carbonized remains)?

The answers to these questions will have important implications on determining the health of the population.

Documentary and Physical Evidence to Date

The documentary evidence suggests starvation conditions during the early years was most comparable with World War II Japanese prisoner of war conditions. People died from overwork and starvation during the early 1790s. The documentary evidence suggests that there was a gradual improvement of diet from 1792.

Diet was supplemented on occasions by hunting and trading native fauna - in one case the flesh of a Dingo was eaten.

On Norfolk Island archaeological evidence uncovered thousands of native bird bones and the bones of the Polynesian Rat in early 1790s contexts at a time when there was a threat of starvation.

Remains of carbonized corn cobs (maize, indian corn) were recovered at Kingston and Phillips burgh on Norfolk Island in 1790s contexts.

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Documentary evidence reveals that Caffre Corn (Indian Millet) was grown at Toongabbie by April 1793, after the Maize crops began to fail.

A number of sources suggest that convicts had no ceramic vessels or eating implements such as spoons, forks and knives for the early 1790s at least. Plates and containers were made or improvised from unseasoned local timber.

Ceramic surface finds of a 1790s to very early 1800s character were recently found at the township site representing a minimum of 17 whole items, such as plates, platters and bowls. Similar finds have been recovered at Parramatta and Norfolk Island but it is suspected that in this case the items belonged to an overseer household rather than a convict household. As there was no depositional context, it couldn't be established if the artefacts belonged to the early or late Toongabbie township period, though a mid to late date is suspected.

A rare account (perhaps not entirely local to Toongabbie) records how an iron pot without a base was improvised to function as a cooking pot by inserting a wooden base and digging the pot into the ground and lighting a fire around it.

At other early sites wells were often dug near a creek or river so that water contaminated by stock could be avoided. At Toongabbie stock was not introduced until about late in 1795.

With the exception of First Sydney Government House site, no unambiguous 1790s rubbish or privy pits have yet been excavated.

HEALTH

Can health be determined through archaeological remains reflecting: diet, drainage, sewerage and rubbish disposal, water sources (wells near privy pits can be interpreted as evidence of potential disease sources), housing and human remains such as teeth?

Documentary and Physical Evidence to Date

One unofficial documentary source suggests that there may have been a mass burial pit to bury those dying of hunger-related causes, circa 1792. If such a site were uncovered, it would provide spectacular forensic proof of the state of health of the founding period at Toongabbie.

An 'Assistant to the Surgeon at Toongabbie' was mentioned in 1792, suggesting two medical officers were present. One of the most common finds suggesting a medical presence are ceramic or glass suction cups (1790 Sirius wreck and sites up to the 1850s at least).

Vegetables were raised to improve the health of the convicts but these may never be detectable from the archaeological record unless by pollen analysis. There was no 'garden ground' in 1792.

Unambiguous evidence of early drainage and sewerage disposal is yet to be found.

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HOUSING

Were the houses built on stilts or on slabs of timber? Were there adequate fireplaces? What were the houses built of - thatch? Do the plaster remains indicate lath and plaster or wattle and daub construction? What do the nails tell us (boarded or log construction, shingles)? The answers to these questions will indicate the degree of comfort and health the occupants lived under.

Documentary and Physical Evidence to Date

The construction materials of 1790s huts or houses are not detailed although incidental accounts suggest that the roofs were thatched (objects and food hidden therein).

It is assumed that the construction techniques and materials were the same as that for early Parramatta, which were detailed, namely wattle and daub over a timber frame, earth floor, brick chimney and a thatch roof. Lath and plaster were used for the best houses (the 1790 Government House at Parramatta). Later weatherboards became common for cladding walls, especially for barns. Brick structures are not recorded for Toongabbie.

CLOTHING

Usually reflected in buttons but is more useful in pin-pointing the habitations of members of the military or navy (or ex-members).

Documentary and Physical Evidence to Date

There are a number of direct references to clothing in the documentary record; clothing stolen by convicts or Aborigines, and what visitors observed (often the state of partial undress). A comment around 1800 assumed yellow/ brown 'nankeen' jackets worn by the labouring convicts from a distance but turned out to be well tanned naked tops. This does tell us what some convicts could be expected to have been wearing.

Cloth can survive underground under the right conditions but the most common find is buttons. The most common convict buttons (though not exclusively convict perhaps) are bone buttons with a single hole. Officer class buttons were commonly of metal with a single loop on the underside (sometimes merely decorative but sometimes with anchors - reflecting naval connections).

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GENDER

Toongabbie was overwhelmingly the domain of males, though women were there at various times in small numbers. Distinguishing households where women resided may be difficult.

Documentary and Physical Evidence to Date

Beads were found at Kingston and Phillips burgh, Norfolk Island, also at Parramatta but not in any great concentration. The great profusion of pins and buttons found at the Dairy Cottage, Parramatta Park, concentrated near the fireplace and windows confirmed the presence of women known from the documentary evidence.

The documentary accounts conflict on the role of women at Toongabbie. We know that Daveny's wife lived there and perhaps there were overseers with wives. One account stated that two women tended each communal hut another account stated that two disabled or old men tended the needs of a communal hut. The general evidence seems to favour the latter.

One or two women worked at the Government dairy at Toongabbie between 1799 and 1806. Most of the convict staff had been transferred to Castle Hill by August 1801.

RELIGION

The presence of nothing at all of a religious nature may reflect protestant households or it could indicate that the people were too poor to own rosary beads, crosses or holy medals or perhaps there might have been no interest in religion at all. The known presence of many Irish may yet be reflected in the archaeological record.

Documentary and Physical Evidence to Date

Though there may have been many people of Irish descent on site at an early stage, an influx of Irish convicts arrived on site in November 1797. By the end of the follOwing year Toongabbie was said to be dominated by the Irish. (Not all the Irish were of the Catholic religion of course).

NATIONALITY

Nationality is notoriously difficult to determine from archaeological remains, especially in the case of convicts who would have had few if any material possessions that would proclaim their place of origin after years of imprisonment. If an item is found that appears to be related to Catholicism there is a greater than likely chance that it may have belonged to an Irishman.

Documentary and Physical Evidence to Date

See under the heading 'Religion' .

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ENTERTAINMENT

These might be ret1ected by smoking pipe fragments, wine and gin bottle fragments and gaming pieces. The presence of native animal and bird bones (non-government issue) may indicate foraging/ hunting and having a little feast.

Documentary and Physical Evidence to Date

Fragments of wine bottle glass were found recently on site. Smoking pipes will almost certainly be found when more comprehensive surveys take place. Tokens or gaming pieces were often improvised from pieces of slate and pottery: quite a number of these were found at the site of Sydney's First Government House.

IMPLICATIONS OF POPULATION DENSITY

This is dealt with in Michael Flynn's report.

There are mechanisms for estimating the size of a population but that would require the entire site to be laid bare (house count after detailed research into the number of people occupying in each hut).

Documentary and Physical Evidence to Date

In the case of Toongabbie it would be important to keep in mind that by August 1801 the majority of the convicts were shifted to Castle Hill and an account of 1808 stated that only one man (from Ireland) was to be found among the dozen or so abandoned huts.

The above would indicate that the bulk of the cultural material was deposited between the years 1791 and 1801.

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RECOMMENDATIONS

The following recommendations are in regard to the archaeological potential and natural features of the site*, as covered in this report. The site has no clear statutory protection or infrastructure to ensure systematic protection and maintenance of its significant features.

Maintenance of the Site

1. All areas of the site should be conserved initially as existing; controlling weeds in favour of the continuing process of bush regeneration, except over areas of suspected high archaeological potential.

2. Unstable areas such as eroding creek banks should be stabilized according to WhaT Bushcare principles.

Protection of the Site

3. Prepare a detailed archaeological and flora and fauna zoning plan after the site has been surveyed in detail. Encourage co-operation with all local government authorities and private property owners to ensure the protection of areas of high significance.

4. Initiate a process of consultation with local government authorities to ensure the protection of all areas of archaeological and flora and fauna significance.

5. Initiate a process of consultation with private property owners in areas of known high, or core, significance, particularly the township area on both sides of the creek.

6. Prepare a Conservation Plan to ensure the protection of the site.

7. Apply for a Permanent Conservation Order for areas of core significance.

8. Apply for funding to ensure on-going protection, study and public interpretation of the site.

*The word 'site' in this section is meant to indicate the site of the township on both sides of the creek, the creek along the township, and farmland as existed during the 1790s.

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36

Appendix I TOONGABBIE SETILEMENT SITE

Late Eighteenth Century Surface Finds INVENTORY

Dr Robert V J P Varman November 4, 1998

A preliminary survey of exposed surfaces at the Toongabbie settlement township site on November 3, 1998, resulted in the following inventory of finds made near the exterior side of Baxter's boundary fence, north side, east end.

The date of the finds centres on the 1790s and is typical of assemblages recovered from early settlement sites at Parramatta and Norfolk Island which have not been extensively developed since the first few years of the 1800s.

To my knowledge this is the first undoubted physical evidence confirming the settlement site at Toongabbie, apart from documentary evidence.

INVENTORY

1 Chinese Export Porcelain. Platter shard, base of platter (flat and thick). Blue hand-painted design under glaze.

2 Chinese Export Porcelain. Plate shard, base or rim of plate (flat and thick). Blue hand-painted design under glaze.

3 Chinese Export Porcelain. Platter shard, curve leading up to rim (curved and thick). Blue hand-painted design under glaze.

4 Chinese Export Porcelain. Platter shard, base of platter (flat and thick). Blue hand-painted design under glaze.

5 Chinese Export Porcelain. Medium bowl side (curved mainly in two directions and thick). Blue hand-painted design under glaze.

6 Chinese Export Porcelain. Small plate, fragment next to base ring (fragment of the curve up to the base ring, and flatness). Specimen unpainted.

7 Chinese Export Porcelain. Small bowl or cup (curved and thin). Hand-painted OVER glaze (faded colour).

8 English transfer printed ware. Bowl (thin, showing the rounded edge of the rim). Print under glaze.

9 English transfer printed ware. Plate edge (curve typical of a plate rim).

10 English hand painted ware. Bowl or possibly plate edge (thin, showing the rounded edge of the rim). Hand painted in green, orange and blue OVER glaze.

11 English ware, possibly part of a painted item. Cup (strong curves mainly in two directions). Glazed as No 10.

12 English ware possibly part of a painted item. Bowl or cup? (curved but the shard is too small). Glazed as No 10.

13 English Creamware. Plate (curve typical of the bend toward the plate rim). Good quality glaze and body. Glazed - light yellow cream hue.

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14 English Creamware. Plate (curve typical of the bend toward the plate rim). Quality not as good as No 13; crazed glaze. Glazed - light yellow cream hue.

15 English Creamware. Pie dish (typical short and thick rim). Quality not as good as No 13; crazed glaze. Glazed - light yellow cream hue.

16 English Basaltware. Decorative bowl (fine black body with impressed fluted design on the outside and evidence of 'turning' on the inside). Black surface and body.

17 Stoneware. Jar or bottle (typical shoulder fragment with two impressed decorative bands). Warm greyish, dark brownish, mottled glaze.

18 Earthenware. Bowl (curved and thickish). Very thick orangy glaze on the inside, tan and pinkish body (pinkish just under the glaze).

19 Brick fragment? (orangy terracotta). Possibly a terracotta bowl/jar fragment.

20 Porcelain? Shows evidence of intense burning (flattish but warped).

21 -24 Fragments of wine bottle glass. Olive-green glass.

25 Lead shot. Exterior worn and slightly warped - signs of a casting mould. May not necessarily belong to the settlement period.

25 items were recovered 20 items are composed of ceramics

4 items are of glass 1 item is of lead

STATISTICS

The 20 ceramic items represent the following whole items:

-One platter (three pieces but could represent more than one platter). -Four plates. -six bowls (two could be cups). -one mixing bowl (only inside glazed). -one pie dish. -one cup (two listed as bowls could be cups). -one stoneware jar or bottle. -one unknown. -one brick (or unglazed terracotta bowl or jar).

Total representing 17 whole plates or vessels.

What the assemblage indicates:

* Confirms the documentary evidence regarding the identification of the Toongabbie settlement township. * Indicates the site of a habitation close by (because found in a concentrated scatter). This is important because the more 1790s fixed features that can be plotted, the more features that can be predicted. * Suggests that the inhabitant(s) of the house were not convict (because of the Basaltware at least). Further survey and excavation mayor may not bear this out. * Begs the question, what would be the cultural remains of a typical convict household? (For example, did they eat off wooden plates?).