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v t e [1]

Archaeology, or archeology, is the study of human activity in the past, primarily through the recovery and analysisof the material culture and environmental data that they have left behind, which includes artifacts, architecture,biofacts (also known as eco-facts) and cultural landscapes (the archaeological record). Because archaeology employsa wide range of different procedures, it can be considered to be both a science and a humanity, and in the UnitedStates it is thought of as a branch of anthropology, although in Europe it is viewed as a separate discipline.Archaeology studies human prehistory and history from the development of the first stone tools in eastern Africa 4million years ago up until recent decades. (Archaeology does not include the discipline of paleontology.) It is ofmost importance for learning about prehistoric societies, when there are no written records for historians to study,making up over 99% of total human history, from the Paleolithic until the advent of literacy in any given society.Archaeology has various goals, which range from studying human evolution to cultural evolution and understandingculture history.The discipline involves surveying, excavation and eventually analysis of data collected to learn more about the past.In broad scope, archaeology relies on cross-disciplinary research. It draws upon anthropology, history, art history,classics, ethnology, geography, geology, linguistics, semiology, physics, information sciences, chemistry, statistics,paleoecology, paleontology, paleozoology, paleoethnobotany, and paleobotany.Archaeology developed out of antiquarianism in Europe during the 19th century, and has since become a disciplinepracticed across the world. Since its early development, various specific sub-disciplines of archaeology havedeveloped, including maritime archaeology, feminist archaeology and archaeoastronomy, and numerous differentscientific techniques have been developed to aid archaeological investigation. Nonetheless, today, archaeologistsface many problems, such as dealing with pseudoarchaeology, the looting of artifacts, a lack of public interest, andopposition to the excavation of human remains.

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History

AntiquariansThe science of archaeology (from Greek , archaiologia from , arkhaios, "ancient" and -,-logia, "-logy") grew out of the older multi-disciplinary study known as antiquarianism. Antiquarians studied historywith particular attention to ancient artefacts and manuscripts, as well as historical sites. Antiquarianism focused onthe empirical evidence that existed for the understanding of the past, encapsulated in the motto of the 18th-centuryantiquary, Sir Richard Colt Hoare, "We speak from facts not theory". Tentative steps towards the systematization ofarchaeology as a science took place during the Enlightenment era in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries.[2]

In Europe, interest in the remains of Greco-Roman civilisation and the rediscovery of classical culture began in thelate Middle Age. Flavio Biondo an Italian Renaissance humanist historian created a systematic guide to the ruins andtopography of ancient Rome in the early 15th century for which he has been called an early founder of archaeology.Antiquarians, including John Leland and William Camden, conducted surveys of the English countryside, drawing,describing and interpreting the monuments that they encountered.

First excavations

An early photograph of Stonehenge taken July 1877

One of the first sites to undergo archeologicalexcavation, was Stonehenge and other megalithicmonuments in England. John Aubrey was a pioneerarchaeologist who recorded numerous megalithic andother field monuments in southern England. He wasalso ahead of his time in the analysis of his findings. Heattempted to chart the chronological stylistic evolutionof handwriting, medieval architecture, costume, andshield-shapes.

Excavations were also carried out in the ancient townsof Pompeii and Herculaneum, both of which had been

covered by ashes during the Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79. These excavations began in 1748 in Pompeii,while in Herculaneum they began in 1738. The discovery of entire towns, complete with utensils and even humanshapes, as well the unearthing of ancient frescos, had a big impact throughout Europe.

However, prior to the development of modern techniques, excavations tended to be haphazard; the importance ofconcepts such as stratification and context were completely overlooked.[3]

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Development of archaeological method

Artefacts discovered at the 1808 Bush Barrowexcavation by Sir Richard Colt Hoare and William

Cunnington.

The father of archaeological excavation was William Cunnington(17541810). He undertook excavations in Wiltshire from around1798,[4] funded by Sir Richard Colt Hoare. Cunnington mademeticulous recordings of neolithic and Bronze Age barrows, andthe terms he used to categorise and describe them are still used byarchaeologists today.[5]

One of the major achievements of 19th century archaeology wasthe development of stratigraphy. The idea of overlapping stratatracing back to successive periods was borrowed from the newgeological and palaeontological work of scholars like WilliamSmith, James Hutton and Charles Lyell. The application ofstratigraphy to archaeology first took place with the excavations ofprehistorical and Bronze Age sites. In the third and fourth decadeof the 19th century, archaeologists like Jacques Boucher dePerthes and Christian Jrgensen Thomsen began to put theartifacts they had found in chronological order.

A major figure in the development of archaeology into a rigorous science was the army officer and ethnologist,Augustus Pitt Rivers,[6] who began excavations on his land in England in the 1880s. His approach was highlymethodical by the standards of the time, and he is widely regarded as the first scientific archaeologist. He arrangedhis artefacts typologically and (within types) chronologically. This style of arrangement, designed to highlight theevolutionary trends in human artefacts, was of enormous significance for the accurate dating of the objects. His mostimportant methodological innovation was his insistence that all artefacts, not just beautiful or unique ones, becollected and catalogued.

William Flinders Petrie is another man who may legitimately be called the Father of Archaeology. Petrie was thefirst to scientifically investigate the Great Pyramid in Egypt during the 1880s. His painstaking recording and study ofartefacts, both in Egypt and later in Palestine, laid down many of the ideas behind modern archaeological recording;he remarked that "I believe the true line of research lies in the noting and comparison of the smallest details." Petriedeveloped the system of dating layers based on pottery and ceramic findings, which revolutionized the chronologicalbasis of Egyptology. He was also responsible for mentoring and training a whole generation of Egyptologists,including Howard Carter who went on to achieve fame with the discovery of the tomb of 14th-century BC pharaohTutankhamun.

Mortimer Wheeler pioneered a systematic systemof excavation in the early 20th century. Pictured,are his excavations at Maiden Castle, Dorset, in

October 1937.

The first stratigraphic excavation to reach wide popularity with publicwas that of Hissarlik, on the site of ancient Troy, carried out byHeinrich Schliemann, Frank Calvert, Wilhelm Drpfeld and CarlBlegen in the 1870s. These scholars individuated nine different citiesthat had overlapped with one another, from prehistory to theHellenistic period. Meanwhile, the work of Sir Arthur Evans atKnossos in Crete revealed the ancient existence of an advancedcivilisation.

The next major figure in the development of archaeology was SirMortimer Wheeler, whose highly disciplined approach to excavationand systematic coverage in the 1920s and 1930s brought the science onswiftly. Wheeler developed the grid system of excavation, which wasfurther improved by his student Kathleen Kenyon.

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Archaeology became a professional activity in the first half of the 20th century, and it became possible to studyarchaeology as a subject in universities and even schools. By the end of the 20th century nearly all professionalarchaeologists, at least in developed countries, were graduates. Further adaptation and innovation in archaeologycontinued in this period, when maritime archaeology and urban archaeology became more prevalent and rescuearchaeology was developed as a result of increasing commercial development.[7]

Purpose

Cast of the skull of the Taung child, uncovered inSouth Africa. The Child was an infant of the

Australopithecus africanus species, an early formof hominin

The purpose of archaeology is to learn more about past societies andthe development of the human race. Over 99% of the history ofhumanity has occurred within prehistoric cultures, who did not makeuse of writing, thereby not leaving written records about themselvesthat we can study today. Without such written sources, the only way tolearn about prehistoric societies is to use archaeology. Many importantdevelopments in human history occurred during prehistory, includingthe evolution of humanity during the Paleolithic period, when thehominins developed from the australopithecines through to the earlymembers of the genus Homo in Africa and finally into modern Homosapiens. Archaeology also sheds light on many of humanity'stechnological advances, for instance the ability to use fire, thedevelopment of stone tools, the discovery of metallurgy, thebeginnings of religion and the creation of agriculture. Withoutarchaeology, we would know little or nothing about the use of material culture by humanity that pre-dates writing.

However, it is not only prehistoric, pre-literate cultures that can be studied using archaeology but historic, literatecultures as well, through the sub-discipline of historical archaeology. For many literate cultures, such as AncientGreece and Mesopotamia, their surviving records are often incomplete and biased to some extent. In many societies,literacy was restricted to the elite classes, such as the clergy or the bureaucracy of court or temple. The literacy evenof aristocrats has sometimes been restricted to deeds and contracts. The interests and world-view of elites are oftenquite different from the lives and interests of the populace. Writings that were produced by people morerepresentative of the general population were unlikely to find their way into libraries and be preserved there forposterity. Thus, written records tend to reflect the biases, assumptions, cultural values and possibly deceptions of alimited range of individuals, usually a small fraction of the larger population. Hence, written records cannot betrusted as a sole source. The material record may be closer to a fair representation of society, though it is subject toits own biases, such as sampling bias and differential preservation.

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Theory

Sign at Lubbock Lake Landmark in Lubbock, Texas

There is no one singular approach to archaeological theory that hasbeen adhered to by all archaeologists. When archaeologydeveloped in the late 19th century, the first approach toarchaeological theory to be practiced was that of cultural-historyarchaeology, which held the goal of explaining why cultureschanged and adapted rather than just highlighting the fact that theydid, therefore emphasizing historical particularism. In the early20th century, many archaeologists who studied past societies withdirect continuing links to existing ones (such as those of NativeAmericans, Siberians, Mesoamericans etc.) followed the directhistorical approach, compared the continuity between the past andcontemporary ethnic and cultural groups. In the 1960s, anarchaeological movement largely led by American archaeologists like Lewis Binford and Kent Flannery arose thatrebelled against the established cultural-history archaeology. They proposed a "New Archaeology", which would bemore "scientific" and "anthropological", with hypothesis testing and the scientific method very important parts ofwhat became known as processual archaeology.

In the 1980s, a new postmodern movement arose led by the British archaeologists Michael Shanks, ChristopherTilley, Daniel Miller, and Ian Hodder, which has become known as post-processual archaeology. It questionedprocessualism's appeals to scientific positivism and impartiality, and emphasized the importance of a moreself-critical theoretical reflexivity.[citation needed] However, this approach has been criticized by processualists aslacking scientific rigor, and the validity of both processualism and post-processualism is still under debate.Meanwhile, another theory, known as historical processualism has emerged seeking to incorporate a focus onprocess and post-processual archaeology's emphasis of reflexivity and history.Archaeological theory now borrows from a wide range of influences, including neo-Darwinian evolutionary thought,phenomenology, postmodernism, agency theory, cognitive science, Structural functionalism, gender-based andFeminist archaeology, and Systems theory.

MethodsAn archaeological investigation usually involves several distinct phases, each of which employs its own variety ofmethods. Before any practical work can begin, however, a clear objective as to what the archaeologists are looking toachieve must be agreed upon. This done, a site is surveyed to find out as much as possible about it and thesurrounding area. Second, an excavation may take place to uncover any archaeological features buried under theground. And, third, the data collected from the excavation is studied and evaluated in an attempt to achieve theoriginal research objectives of the archaeologists. It is then considered good practice for the information to bepublished so that it is available to other archaeologists and historians, although this is sometimes neglected.

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Remote sensingBefore actually starting to dig in a location, satellite imagery can be used to look where sites are located within alarge area.

Field survey

Monte Alban archaeological site

The archaeological project then continues (or alternatively, begins)with a field survey. Regional survey is the attempt to systematicallylocate previously unknown sites in a region. Site survey is the attemptto systematically locate features of interest, such as houses andmiddens, within a site. Each of these two goals may be accomplishedwith largely the same methods.

Survey was not widely practiced in the early days of archaeology.Cultural historians and prior researchers were usually content withdiscovering the locations of monumental sites from the local populace,and excavating only the plainly visible features there. Gordon Willeypioneered the technique of regional settlement pattern survey in 1949 in the Viru Valley of coastal Peru, and surveyof all levels became prominent with the rise of processual archaeology some years later.

Survey work has many benefits if performed as a preliminary exercise to, or even in place of, excavation. It requiresrelatively little time and expense, because it does not require processing large volumes of soil to search out artifacts.(Nevertheless, surveying a large region or site can be expensive, so archaeologists often employ sampling methods.)As with other forms of non-destructive archaeology, survey avoids ethical issues (of particular concern to descendantpeoples) associated with destroying a site through excavation. It is the only way to gather some forms ofinformation, such as settlement patterns and settlement structure. Survey data are commonly assembled into maps,which may show surface features and/or artifact distribution.

Inverted kite aerial photo of an excavation of aRoman building at Nesley near Tetbury in

Gloucestershire.

The simplest survey technique is surface survey. It involves combingan area, usually on foot but sometimes with the use of mechanizedtransport, to search for features or artifacts visible on the surface.Surface survey cannot detect sites or features that are completelyburied under earth, or overgrown with vegetation. Surface survey mayalso include mini-excavation techniques such as augers, corers, andshovel test pits. If no materials are found, the area surveyed is deemedsterile.

Aerial survey is conducted using cameras attached to airplanes,balloons, or even Kites. A bird's-eye view is useful for quick mappingof large or complex sites. Aerial photographs are used to document thestatus of the archaeological dig. Aerial imaging can also detect manythings not visible from the surface. Plants growing above a buried manmade structure, such as a stone wall, will develop more slowly, whilethose above other types of features (such as middens) may developmore rapidly. Photographs of ripening grain, which changes colour rapidly at maturation, have revealed buriedstructures with great precision. Aerial photographs taken at different times of day will help show the outlines ofstructures by changes in shadows. Aerial survey also employs ultraviolet, infrared, ground-penetrating radarwavelengths, LiDAR and thermography.[8]

Geophysical survey can be the most effective way to see beneath the ground. Magnetometers detect minute deviations in the Earth's magnetic field caused by iron artifacts, kilns, some types of stone structures, and even

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ditches and middens. Devices that measure the electrical resistivity of the soil are also widely used. Archaeologicalfeatures whose electrical resistivity contrasts with that of surrounding soils can be detected and mapped. Somearchaeological features (such as those composed of stone or brick) have higher resistivity than typical soils, whileothers (such as organic deposits or unfired clay) tend to have lower resistivity.Although some archaeologists consider the use of metal detectors to be tantamount to treasure hunting, others deemthem an effective tool in archaeological surveying. Examples of formal archaeological use of metal detectors includemusketball distribution analysis on English Civil War battlefields, metal distribution analysis prior to excavation of a19th-century ship wreck, and service cable location during evaluation. Metal detectorists have also contributed toarchaeology where they have made detailed records of their results and refrained from raising artifacts from theirarchaeological context. In the UK, metal detectorists have been solicited for involvement in the Portable AntiquitiesScheme.Regional survey in underwater archaeology uses geophysical or remote sensing devices such as marinemagnetometer, side-scan sonar, or sub-bottom sonar.[9]

Excavation

Excavations at the 3800-year-old Edgewater ParkSite, Iowa

Archaeological excavation thatdiscovered prehistoric caves in Vill

(Innsbruck), Austria

Archaeological excavation existed even when the field was still thedomain of amateurs, and it remains the source of the majority of datarecovered in most field projects. It can reveal several types ofinformation usually not accessible to survey, such as stratigraphy,three-dimensional structure, and verifiably primary context.

Modern excavation techniques require that the precise locations ofobjects and features, known as their provenance or provenience, berecorded. This always involves determining their horizontal locations,and sometimes vertical position as well (also see Primary Laws ofArchaeology). Likewise, their association, or relationship with nearbyobjects and features, needs to be recorded for later analysis. Thisallows the archaeologist to deduce which artifacts and features werelikely used together and which may be from different phases ofactivity. For example, excavation of a site reveals its stratigraphy; if asite was occupied by a succession of distinct cultures, artifacts frommore recent cultures will lie above those from more ancient cultures.

Excavation is the most expensive phase of archaeological research, inrelative terms. Also, as a destructive process, it carries ethicalconcerns. As a result, very few sites are excavated in their entirety.Again the percentage of a site excavated depends greatly on thecountry and "method statement" issued. In places 90% excavation iscommon. Sampling is even more important in excavation than insurvey. It is common for large mechanical equipment, such asbackhoes (JCBs), to be used in excavation, especially to remove thetopsoil (overburden), though this method is increasingly used withgreat caution. Following this rather dramatic step, the exposed area isusually hand-cleaned with trowels or hoes to ensure that all features are apparent.

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An archaeologist sifting for POW remains onWake Island.

The next task is to form a site plan and then use it to help decide themethod of excavation. Features dug into the natural subsoil arenormally excavated in portions to produce a visible archaeologicalsection for recording. A feature, for example a pit or a ditch, consistsof two parts: the cut and the fill. The cut describes the edge of thefeature, where the feature meets the natural soil. It is the feature'sboundary. The fill is what the feature is filled with, and will oftenappear quite distinct from the natural soil. The cut and fill are givenconsecutive numbers for recording purposes. Scaled plans and sectionsof individual features are all drawn on site, black and white and colourphotographs of them are taken, and recording sheets are filled indescribing the context of each. All this information serves as a permanent record of the now-destroyed archaeologyand is used in describing and interpreting the site.

Analysis

Once artifacts and structures have been excavated, or collected from surface surveys, it is necessary to properly studythem, to gain as much data as possible. This process is known as post-excavation analysis, and is usually the mosttime-consuming part of the archaeological investigation. It is not uncommon for the final excavation reports onmajor sites to take years to be published.At its most basic, the artifacts found are cleaned, cataloged and compared to published collections, to classify themtypologically and to identify other sites with similar artifact assemblages. However, a much more comprehensiverange of analytical techniques are available through archaeological science, meaning that artifacts can be dated andtheir compositions examined. The bones, plants and pollen collected from a site can all be analyzed (using thetechniques of zooarchaeology, paleoethnobotany, and palynology), while any texts can usually be deciphered.These techniques frequently provide information that would not otherwise be known and therefore contribute greatlyto the understanding of a site.

Virtual archaeologySome time around 1995 archaeologists started using computer graphics to build virtual 3D models of sites such asthe throne room of an ancient Assyrian palace or ancient Rome. This is done by collecting normal photographs andusing computer graphics to build the virtual 3D model. In more general terms, computers can be used to recreate theenvironment and conditions of the past, such as objects, buildings, landscapes and even ancient battles. Computersimulation can be used to simulate the living conditions of an ancient community and to see how it would havereacted to various scenarios (such as how much food to grow, how many animals to slaughter, etc.) Computer-builttopographical models have been combined with astronomical calculations to verify whether or not certain structures(such as pillars) were aligned with astronomical events such as the sun's position at a solstice.

Academic sub-disciplinesAs with most academic disciplines, there are a very large number of archaeological sub-disciplines characterised bya specific method or type of material (e.g., lithic analysis, music, archaeobotany), geographical or chronologicalfocus (e.g. Near Eastern archaeology, Islamic archaeology, Medieval archaeology), other thematic concern (e.g.maritime archaeology, landscape archaeology, battlefield archaeology), or a specific archaeological culture orcivilization (e.g. Egyptology, Indology, Sinology).

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Historical archaeologyHistorical archaeology is the study of cultures with some form of writing.In England, archaeologists have uncovered the long-lost layouts of medieval villages abandoned after the crises ofthe 14th century and the equally lost layouts of 17th century parterre gardens swept away by a change infashion.[citation needed] In downtown New York City archaeologists have exhumed the 18th century remains of theAfrican burial ground.

EthnoarchaeologyEthnoarchaeology is the archaeological study of living people. The approach gained notoriety during the emphasison middle range theory that was a feature of the processual movement of the 1960s. Early ethnoarchaeologicalresearch focused on hunting and gathering or foraging societies. Ethnoarchaeology continues to be a vibrantcomponent of post-processual and other current archaeological approaches. Ethnoarchaeology is the use ofethnography to increase and improve analogs, which are then used as analogies to interpret the archaeological record.In short, ethnoarchaeology is the application of ethnography to archaeology.

Experimental archaeologyExperimental archaeology represents the application of the experimental method to develop more highly controlledobservations of processes that create and impact the archaeological record. In the context of the logical positivism ofprocessualism with its goals of improving the scientific rigor of archaeological epistemologies the experimentalmethod gained importance. Experimental techniques remain a crucial component to improving the inferentialframeworks for interpreting the archaeological record.

ArchaeometryArchaeometry is a field of study that aims to systematize archaeological measurement. It emphasizes the applicationof analytical techniques from physics, chemistry, and engineering. It is a field of research that frequently focuses onthe definition of the chemical composition of archaeological remains for source analysis. Archaeometry alsoinvestigates different spatial characteristics of features, employing methods such as space syntax techniques andgeodesy as well as computer-based tools such as geographic information system technology. Rare earth elementspatterns may also be used. A relatively nascent subfield is that of archaeological materials, designed to enhanceunderstanding of prehistoric and non-industrial culture through scientific analysis of the structure and properties ofmaterials associated with human activity.

Cultural resources managementWhile archaeology can be done as a pure science, it can also be an applied science, namely the study ofarchaeological sites that are threatened by development. In such cases, archaeology is a subsidiary activity withinCultural resources management (CRM), also called heritage management in the United Kingdom. Today, CRMaccounts for most of the archaeological research done in the United States and much of that in western Europe aswell. In the US, CRM archaeology has been a growing concern since the passage of the National HistoricPreservation Act (NHPA) of 1966, and most taxpayers, scholars, and politicians believe that CRM has helpedpreserve much of that nation's history and prehistory that would have otherwise been lost in the expansion of cities,dams, and highways. Along with other statutes, the NHPA mandates that projects on federal land or involvingfederal funds or permits consider the effects of the project on each archaeological site.The application of CRM in the United Kingdom is not limited to government-funded projects. Since 1990 PPG 16 has required planners to consider archaeology as a material consideration in determining applications for new development. As a result, numerous archaeological organisations undertake mitigation work in advance of (or

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during) construction work in archaeologically sensitive areas, at the developer's expense.In England, ultimate responsibility of care for the historic environment rests with the Department for Culture, Mediaand Sport in association with English Heritage. In Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, the same responsibilities liewith Historic Scotland, Cadw and the Northern Ireland Environment Agency respectively.Among the goals of CRM are the identification, preservation, and maintenance of cultural sites on public and privatelands, and the removal of culturally valuable materials from areas where they would otherwise be destroyed byhuman activity, such as proposed construction. This study involves at least a cursory examination to determinewhether or not any significant archaeological sites are present in the area affected by the proposed construction. Ifthese do exist, time and money must be allotted for their excavation. If initial survey and/or test excavation indicatesthe presence of an extraordinarily valuable site, the construction may be prohibited entirely. CRM is a thrivingentity, especially in the United States and Europe where archaeologists from private companies and all levels ofgovernment engage in the practice of their discipline.Cultural resources management has, however, been criticized. CRM is conducted by private companies that bid forprojects by submitting proposals outlining the work to be done and an expected budget. It is not unheard-of for theagency responsible for the construction to simply choose the proposal that asks for the least funding. CRMarchaeologists face considerable time pressure, often being forced to complete their work in a fraction of the timethat might be allotted for a purely scholarly endeavor. Compounding the time pressure is the vetting process of sitereports that are required (in the US) to be submitted by CRM firms to the appropriate State Historic PreservationOffice (SHPO). From the SHPO's perspective there is to be no difference between a report submitted by a CRM firmoperating under a deadline, and a multi-year academic project. The end result is that for a Cultural ResourceManagement archaeologist to be successful, they must be able to produce academic quality documents at a corporateworld pace.The annual ratio of open academic archaeology positions (inclusive of Post-Doc, temporary, and non tenure trackappointments) to the annual number of archaeology MA/MSc and PhD students is grossly disproportionate. Thisdearth of academic positions causes a predictable excess of well educated individuals who join the ranks of thefollowing year's crop of non-academically employed archaeologists. Cultural Resource Management, onceconsidered an intellectual backwater for individuals with "strong backs and weak minds" has reaped the benefit ofthis massive pool of well educated professionals. This results in CRM offices increasingly staffed by advancedegreed individuals with a track record of producing scholarly articles but who have the notches on their trowels toshow they have been in the trenches as a shovelbum.

Popular views of archaeology

Extensive excavations at Beit She'an, Israel

Early archaeology was largely an attempt to uncover spectacularartifacts and features, or to explore vast and mysterious abandonedcities. Early archaeology was mostly done by upper class, scholarlymen. This generalization laid the foundation for the modern popularview of archaeology and archaeologists. This generalization had beenwith our culture for a long time, before silent movies in popular fictionnovels. Another popular thought that dates back to this era is thatarchaeology is monetarily lucrative. A large majority of the generalpublic is under the impression that excavations are undertaken formoney and not historical data. It is easy for the general public to hold this notion for that is what is presented to themthrough general media, and has been for many decades.The majority of the public view archaeology as being something only available to a narrow demographic. The job of archaeologist is depicted as a romantic adventurist occupation. To generalize, the public views archaeology as a fantasized hobby more than a job in the scientific community. Perpetuating the stereotype in modern cinema does

Archaeology 13

nothing to help the scientific community. The audience may not take away scientific methods from popular cinemabut they do form a notion of who archaeologists are, why they do what they do, and how relationships to the pastare constituted. Major motion picture companies are more worried about the marketability of the film and thegeneral dramatic interest of the public.Almost all popular portrayals of archaeologists fall into a few categoriesWikipedia:Disputed statement. Mcgeoughlabels them as British thinkers, American fighters, and repressed librarians. These labels mostly pertain to malearchaeologists. Female archaeologists fall into the categories of privileged women with a love of adventure whoare overly sexualized and junior scholars who are like the repressed librarians but are sexualized when their glassescome off and their hair is let down. The modern depiction is sensationalized so much that it has incorrectly formedthe publics perception of what archaeology is. The public is often under the impression that all archaeology takesplace in a distant and foreign land, only to collect monetarily or spiritually priceless artifacts. Many times theseartifacts are pursued for power and/or wealth. Alfred Hitchcock referred to such items in his films as theMacGuffin: an object of pursuit, protected, and rescue by both hero and villain."[citation needed]

Such pursuits continue to fascinate the public. Books, films, and video games, such as Indiana Jones, KingSolomon's Mines, The City of Brass, Relic Hunter, The Mummy, Stargate, and Tomb Raider all testify to the public'sinterest in the discovery aspect of archaeology.Much thorough and productive research has indeed been conducted in dramatic locales such as Copn and the Valleyof the Kings, but the bulk of activities and finds of modern archaeology are not so sensational. Archaeologicaladventure stories tend to ignore the painstaking work involved in carrying out modern surveys, excavations, and dataprocessing. Some archaeologists refer to such off-the-mark portrayals as "pseudoarchaeology".Archaeology has been portrayed in the mainstream media in sensational ways. This has its advantages anddisadvantages. Many practitioners point to the childhood excitement of Indiana Jones films as their inspiration toenter the field. Archaeologists are also very much reliant on public support, the question of exactly who they aredoing their work for is often discussed.

Current issues and controversy

Public archaeology

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Excavations at the site of GranDolina, in the Atapuerca Mountains,

Spain, 2008

Motivated by a desire to halt looting, curb pseudoarchaeology, and to helppreserve archaeological sites through education and fostering public appreciationfor the importance of archaeological heritage, archaeologists are mountingpublic-outreach campaigns. They seek to stop looting by combatting people whoillegally take artifacts from protected sites, and by alerting people who live neararchaeological sites of the threat of looting. Common methods of public outreachinclude press releases, and the encouragement of school field trips to sites underexcavation by professional archaeologists.[citation needed] Public appreciation ofthe significance of archaeology and archaeological sites often leads to improvedprotection from encroaching development or other threats.

One audience for archaeologists' work is the public. They increasingly realizethat their work can benefit non-academic and non-archaeological audiences, andthat they have a responsibility to educate and inform the public aboutarchaeology. Local heritage awareness is aimed at increasing civic and individualpride through projects such as community excavation projects, and better publicpresentations of archaeological sites and knowledge.[citation needed] The U.S.Dept.of Agriculture, Forest Service(USFS) operates a volunteer archaeology andhistoric preservation program called the Passport in Time (PIT). Volunteers workwith professional USFS archaeologists and historians on national forests throughout the U.S. Volunteers areinvolved in all aspects of professional archaeology under expert supervision.

In the UK, popular archaeology programs such as Time Team and Meet the Ancestors have resulted in a hugeupsurge in public interest.[citation needed] Where possible, archaeologists now make more provisions for publicinvolvement and outreach in larger projects than they once did, and many local archaeological organizations operatewithin the Community archaeology framework to expand public involvement in smaller-scale, more local projects.Archaeological excavation, however, is best undertaken by well-trained staff that can work quickly and accurately.Often this requires observing the necessary health and safety and indemnity insurance issues involved in working ona modern building site with tight deadlines. Certain charities and local government bodies sometimes offer places onresearch projects either as part of academic work or as a defined community project.[citation needed] There is also aflourishing industry selling places on commercial training excavations and archaeological holiday tours.[citationneeded]

Archaeologists prize local knowledge and often liaise with local historical and archaeological societies, which is onereason why Community archaeology projects are starting to become more common. Often archaeologists are assistedby the public in the locating of archaeological sites, which professional archaeologists have neither the funding, northe time to do.The Archaeological Legacy Institute (ALI), self-described as "an independent, nonprofit, tax-exempt (501[c][3])", isa research and education corporation registered in Oregon in 1999. The ALI founded an online Archaeology Channel[10] to support the organization's mission "to develop ways to make archaeology more effective both in gatheringimportant information about past human lifeways and in delivering that information to the public and theprofession."

Archaeology 15

PseudoarchaeologyPseudoarchaeology is an umbrella term for all activities that claim to be archaeological but in fact violate commonlyaccepted and scientific archaeological practices. It includes much fictional archaeological work (discussed above), aswell as some actual activity. Many non-fiction authors have ignored the scientific methods of processualarchaeology, or the specific critiques of it contained in post-processualism.An example of this type is the writing of Erich von Dniken. His 1968 book, Chariots of the Gods?, together withmany subsequent lesser-known works, expounds a theory of ancient contacts between human civilisation on Earthand more technologically advanced extraterrestrial civilisations. This theory, known as palaeocontact theory, orAncient astronaut theory, is not exclusively Dniken's, nor did the idea originate with him. Works of this nature areusually marked by the renunciation of well-established theories on the basis of limited evidence and theinterpretation of evidence with a preconceived theory in mind.

Looting

A looter's pit on the morning following itsexcavation, taken at Rontoy, Huaura Valley, Peruin June 2007. Several small holes left by looters'prospecting probes can be seen, as well as their

footprints.

Looting of archaeological sites is an ancient problem. For instance,many of the tombs of the Egyptian pharaohs were looted duringantiquity. Archaeology stimulates interest in ancient objects, andpeople in search of artifacts or treasure cause damage to archaeologicalsites. The commercial and academic demand for artifacts unfortunatelycontributes directly to the illicit antiquities trade. Smuggling ofantiquities abroad to private collectors has caused great cultural andeconomic damage in many countries whose governments lack theresources and or the will to deter it. Looters damage and destroyarchaeological sites, denying future generations information about theirethnic and cultural heritage. Indigenous peoples especially lose accessto and control over their 'cultural resources', ultimately denying themthe opportunity to know their past.

In 1937 W. F. Hodge the Director of the Southwest Museum in LosAngeles CA, released a statement that the museum would no longer purchase or accept collections from lootedcontexts. The first conviction of the transport of artifacts illegally removed from private property under theArchaeological Resources Protection Act (ARPA; Public Law 96-95; 93 Statute 721; [11] 16 U.S.C.470aamm [12])was in 1992 in the State of Indiana.

Descendant peoples

In the United States, examples such as the case of Kennewick Man have illustrated the tensions between NativeAmericans and archaeologists, which can be summarized as a conflict between a need to remain respectful towardsacred burial sites and the academic benefit from studying them. For years, American archaeologists dug on Indianburial grounds and other places considered sacred, removing artifacts and human remains to storage facilities forfurther study. In some cases human remains were not even thoroughly studied but

Archaeology 16

Stela of a king named Adad-Nirari.Object stolen from the Iraq NationalMuseum in the looting in connection

with the Iraq war of 2003.

instead archived rather than reburied. Furthermore, Western archaeologists'views of the past often differ from those of tribal peoples. The West views timeas linear; for many natives, it is cyclic. From a Western perspective, the past islong-gone; from a native perspective, disturbing the past can have direconsequences in the present.

As a consequence of this, American Indians attempted to prevent archaeologicalexcavation of sites inhabited by their ancestors, while American archaeologistsbelieved that the advancement of scientific knowledge was a valid reason tocontinue their studies. This contradictory situation was addressed by the NativeAmerican Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA, 1990), whichsought to reach a compromise by limiting the right of research institutions topossess human remains. Due in part to the spirit of postprocessualism, somearchaeologists have begun to actively enlist the assistance of indigenous peopleslikely to be descended from those under study.

Archaeologists have also been obliged to re-examine what constitutes an archaeological site in view of what nativepeoples believe to constitute sacred space. To many native peoples, natural features such as lakes, mountains or evenindividual trees have cultural significance. Australian archaeologists especially have explored this issue andattempted to survey these sites to give them some protection from being developed. Such work requires close linksand trust between archaeologists and the people they are trying to help and at the same time study.While this cooperation presents a new set of challenges and hurdles to fieldwork, it has benefits for all partiesinvolved. Tribal elders cooperating with archaeologists can prevent the excavation of areas of sites that they considersacred, while the archaeologists gain the elders' aid in interpreting their finds. There have also been active efforts torecruit aboriginal peoples directly into the archaeological profession.

Repatriation

See Repatriation and reburial of human remains

A new trend in the heated controversy between First Nations groups and scientists is the repatriation of nativeartifacts to the original descendants. An example of this occurred June 21, 2005, when community members andelders from a number of the 10 Algonquian nations in the Ottawa area convened on the Kitigan Zibi reservation nearManiwaki, Quebec, to inter ancestral human remains and burial goods some dating back 6,000 years. It was notdetermined, however, if the remains were directly related to the Algonquin people who now inhabit the region. Theremains may be of Iroquoian ancestry, since Iroquoian people inhabited the area before the Algonquin. Moreover,the oldest of these remains might have no relation at all to the Algonquin or Iroquois, and belong to an earlier culturewho previously inhabited the area.The remains and artifacts, including jewelry, tools and weapons, were originally excavated from various sites in theOttawa Valley, including Morrison and the Allumette Islands. They had been part of the Canadian Museum ofCivilization's research collection for decades, some since the late 19th century. Elders from various Algonquincommunities conferred on an appropriate reburial, eventually deciding on traditional redcedar and birchbark boxeslined with redcedar chips, muskrat and beaver pelts.

Archaeology 17

Now, an inconspicuous rock mound marks the reburial site where close to 80 boxes of various sizes are buried, nofurther scientific study is possible. Although negotiations were at times tense between the Kitigan Zibi communityand museum, they were able to reach agreement.Kennewick Man is another repatriation candidate that has been the source of heated debate.

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Archaeology 20

Further reading Archaeology (magazine) Lewis Binford - New Perspectives in Archaeology (1968) ISBN 0-202-33022-2 Glyn Daniel - A Short History of Archaeology (1991) Kevin Greene - Introduction to Archaeology (1983) Thomas Hester, Harry Shafer, and Kenneth L. Feder - Field Methods in Archaeology 7th edition (1997) Ian Hodder & Scott Hutson - "Reading the Past" 3rd. edition (2003) International Journal of South American Archaeology - IJSA (magazine) Internet Archaeology, e-journal C. U. Larsen - Sites and Monuments (1992) Adrian Praetzellis - Death by Theory, AltaMira Press (2000). ISBN 0-7425-0359-3 / 9780742503595 Colin Renfrew & Paul Bahn - Archaeology: theories, methods and practice, 2nd edition (1996) Smekalova, T. N.; Voss O.; & Smekalov S. L. (2008). "Magnetic Surveying in Archaeology. More than 10 years

of using the Overhauser GSM-19 gradiometer". Wormianum. David Hurst Thomas - Archaeology, 3rd. edition (1998) Robert J. Sharer & Wendy Ashmore - Archaeology: Discovering our Past 2nd edition (1993) Bruce Trigger - "A History of Archaeological Thought" 2nd. edition (2007) Alison Wylie - Thinking From Things: Essays in the Philosophy of Archaeology, University of California Press,

Berkeley CA, 2002

External links 400,000 records of archaeological sites and architecture in England (http:/ / pastscape. org. uk/ ) Archaeolog.org (http:/ / archaeolog. org/ ) Archaeological news updated daily (http:/ / www. archaeologynews. org/ ) Archaeology Daily News (http:/ / www. archaeologydaily. com/ ) Archaeology Times | The top archaeology news from around the world (http:/ / www. archaeologytimes. com/ ) Council for British Archaeology (http:/ / www. britarch. ac. uk/ ) Estudio de Museologa Rosario (https:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20091024171735/ http:/ / geocities. com/

emuseoros) Fasti Online - an online database of archaeological sites (http:/ / www. fastionline. org/ ) Great Archaeology (http:/ / www. greatarchaeology. com/ ) Kite Aerial Photographers - Archaeology (http:/ / www. armadale. org. uk/ kite03. htm) NPS Archeology Program: Visit Archeology (Archeology travel guides) (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ history/

archeology/ visit/ index. htm) Sri Lanka Archaeology - New Knowledge in Archaeology in Sri Lanka (http:/ / www. archaeology. lk/ ) The Archaeological Institute of America (http:/ / www. archaeological. org/ ) The Archaeology Channel (http:/ / www. archaeologychannel. org/ ) The Archaeology Data Service - Open access online archive for UK and global archaeology (http:/ /

archaeologydataservice. ac. uk/ ) The Archaeology Division of the American Anthropological Association (http:/ / www. aaanet. org/ ) The Canadian Museum of Civilization - Archaeology (http:/ / www. civilization. ca/ cmc/ exhibitions/

online-exhibitions/ archaeology) The Society for American Archaeology (http:/ / www. saa. org/ ) The World Archaeological Congress (http:/ / www. worldarchaeologicalcongress. org/ site/ about. php) US Forest Service Volunteer program Passport in Time (http:/ / www. passportintime. com/ )

Archaeology 21

World Archaeology News - weekly update from BBC Radio archaeologist, Win Scutt (http:/ / www. archaeology.ws/ worldarchnews. html)

Article Sources and Contributors 22

Article Sources and ContributorsArchaeology Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=598419209 Contributors: (, 130.94.122.xxx, 1boulder, 1freethinker, 205.138.230.xxx, 209.240.222.xxx, 221btardisisnotonfire,24.190.154.xxx, 62.253.64.xxx, 64.12.102.xxx, 888 terrorist 888, A bit iffy, A. Parrot, A8UDI, ABVR, ADS Archaeology, AEvo, AHands, AKADriver, ARUNKUMAR P.R, ASJ94, Aandjnmr,Abce2, Acather96, Accurizer, Achowat, Acroterion, Adamsan, Adder1, AdjustShift, Aerographer1981, Aesopos, Aetheling, Aeusoes1, Ahoerstemeier, Aidarzver, Aitias, Alanchen3311,Alanscottwalker, Alansohn, Aldie, Alex '05, Alexius08, All Is One, Altenmann, Amire80, Amoruso, Anarkisto, Andre Engels, Andrea20, Andrewm, Andris, Andromeda, Angela, AnnaFrance,Anonymous Dissident, Antandrus, AnthonyQBachler, Anthonycorns, Anthrophilos, Antonrojo, Antreid, Anu826, Anypodetos, Appleboy, Archaeodontosaurus, Archaeologist44,Archaeology-excavations, Archivist, Arjayay, Arkalochori, Arpingstone, Artifact collector101010, Asbestos, Astronautics, Atif.t2, Auric, Avenged Eightfold, Avicennasis, Awickert, BAJR,BD2412, BKalesti, Bachrach44, Bantman, Baronnet, Beetfarm Louie, Ben Bris, Bender235, Benjamin Ducke, Bensin, Benskingtut, Berean Hunter, Bewareofdog, Bhteam, Billposer,Billwhittaker, Billy Hathorn, Black85ball, Blahblahjb123, Blastfromthepast, Blimpguy, BlueBird, Bluemask, Bobblewik, Bobo192, Bolivian Unicyclist, Bookandcoffee, Borislav, Bornhj, Bosea,Brandon1000000, Brian0918, BrianGV, Brion VIBBER, Bristol 06, Bruceanthro, Brunnock, CBAHeadofInfo, CJ, CJLL Wright, Callinthepope, Calmer Waters, Calor, Can't sleep, clown will eatme, CardinalDan, Cast, Causa sui, Cdc, Cenarium, Cff12345, Cgingold, ChargersFan, Charles Matthews, Chaser, Chcknwnm, Cheeseman Muncher, Chenyu, Chombor, Chris Kutler, Chris4682,Chris9086, ChrisGualtieri, Chrislk02, Christian List, Civertan, Clappingsimon, Closedmouth, ClovisPt, Cmdrjameson, Coemgenus, Cohesion, Cometstyles, ComradeAF, Consultant09,Contrebast, Conversion script, Copysan, Cornellrockey, Correogsk, Courcelles, Crazygraham, Crohnie, Crusadeonilliteracy, CsDix, Cychuck123, Cynwolfe, D0762, DBigXray, DHBoggs, DVDR W, Dacosta rafael, Dale.tersey, Dan071, Dancter, Dangerousnerd, Daniel, Dantes1829, Darth Panda, DarwinPeacock, DavidLevinson, Dawynn, Dcoetzee, Deb, Delictuscoeli, Delirium,DeltaQuad, DemocraticLuntz, Denisarona, DerHexer, Desdecado, Dethme0w, Deviator13, Deville, Discospinster, Dithy, Djsasso, Doc Tropics, Docu, Dogofthedesert, Donarreiskoffer, Donner60,Dori, Dougweller, Dputig07, Dr John Wells, Drlinux, Drphilharmonic, Drtimmcguinness, Dudesup, Dune Sherban, Dysprosia, ESkog, Ebe123, Ebricca, Ec5618, Edgar181, Edward,Efficiencyjacky154, Efio, El C, Eliz81, Elrodriguez, Enhed, Enigmaman, Enlil Ninlil, Epbr123, Epolk, Erebus555, Eric, Erik, Erkjhgiushfbnkj.xcvns, Ethically Yours, Euchiasmus, EuroCarGT,Everyking, Evil Monkey, Extramural, Eyeintheskye, FDuffy, FF2010, Faradayplank, Favonian, FelixtheBear, FellowWikipedian, Finell, FisherQueen, Flamma, Flauto Dolce, Fleela, Flint McRae,Fluoronaut, Fred Bauder, Fredbauder, Freedom skies, Froid, Frze, Fullobeans, Furkhaocean, F, Gaff, Gaius Cornelius, Galoubet, Gautier lebon, Gcr114, Geni, Geologyguy, Gfoley4, Gilliam,Glenn, Gobonobo, GoingBatty, Gourami Watcher, GraemeL, Graham87, Gregbard, Greyhood, Grigri, Grumpy444grumpy, Grutter, HADC10, Hagedis, Hairy Dude, HalfShadow, Hall Monitor,HammerHeadHuman, Haploidavey, Harmil, Haroldbethwelsh, Harp, Harryboyles, Hazhk, Headbomb, Heebiejeebieclub, Heironymous Rowe, Heljqfy, Hephaestos, Heritagedailyuk, Heron,Hertz1888, Hires an editor, Hjarvis, Hmains, Hunstiger, Husond, Hws111, Hyugopdrt, Iammargi, Iced Kola, Ik1tzo, Imran, Indon, Infrogmation, Inkburrow, InsaneRoot, Ipatrol, Iridescent,Irishguy, Iwnbap, J. 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Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Da Vinci Vitruve Luc Viatour.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Da_Vinci_Vitruve_Luc_Viatour.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: AguaitantPV, Anaty,Bouncey2k, Bukk, Cecil, Czarnoglowa, DMGualtieri, DenghiComm, Eusebius, Foundling, Husky, Hystrix, Ineuw, Jeff G., Julia W, Juliancolton, Kintetsubuffalo, Korrigan, Lewenstein, Liftarn,LoStrangolatore, Lotje, Lotse, Lviatour, Masterdeis, Mattbuck, Mdd, Mindmatrix, Mutter Erde, Pe-Jo, Ras67, Raymond, Sandycx, Savh, Simonizer, Soerfm, Str4nd, Tony Wills, Trelio, Yarl, , 32 anonymous editsFile:Moai Easter Island InvMH-35-61-1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Moai_Easter_Island_InvMH-35-61-1.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors:User:JastrowFile:stonehenge 1877.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stonehenge_1877.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Philip Rupert AcottFile:Both Lozenges.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Both_Lozenges.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: User:SitehutFile:Aerial photograph of Maiden Castle from the west, 1937.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aerial_photograph_of_Maiden_Castle_from_the_west,_1937.jpgLicense: Public Domain Contributors: Major George Allen (18911940)File:Australopithecus africanus - Cast of taung child.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Australopithecus_africanus_-_Cast_of_taung_child.jpg License: CreativeCommons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Didier DescouensFile:Archeologists sign at Lubbock Lake Monument IMG 1591.JPG Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Archeologists_sign_at_Lubbock_Lake_Monument_IMG_1591.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Billy HathornFile:Monte Albn archeological site, Oaxaca.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Monte_Albn_archeological_site,_Oaxaca.jpg License: Creative CommonsAttribution-ShareAlike 1.0 Generic Contributors: Haylli, PMG, Petrusbarbygere, Ultratomio, 1 anonymous editsFile:Archeoscan excavation site.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Archeoscan_excavation_site.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Dr JohnWellsFile:Iowa archaeology edgewater.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Iowa_archaeology_edgewater.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0Contributors: Billwhittaker (talk). Original uploader was Billwhittaker at en.wikipediaFile:Vill excavation.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vill_excavation.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: ClemensAdolphs, PrometeusFile:Sifting for POW remains, Wake Island.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sifting_for_POW_remains,_Wake_Island.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors:U.S. Air Force photo/Tech. Sgt. Shane A. CuomoFile:Beit shean1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Beit_shean1.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Beny Shlevich, Gveret Tered,Tango7174, 1 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 23

File:Dolina-Pano-3.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dolina-Pano-3.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Mario Modesto MataFile:Looting rontoy2007.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Looting_rontoy2007.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: NathancraigFile:Adad-Nirari stela.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Adad-Nirari_stela.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Dbachmann, Jastrow, Mmcannis, Smerdis ofTln, Sumerophile

LicenseCreative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/

ArchaeologyHistoryAntiquariansFirst excavationsDevelopment of archaeological method

PurposeTheory

Methods Remote sensing Field survey Excavation Analysis Virtual archaeology

Academic sub-disciplines Historical archaeology Ethnoarchaeology Experimental archaeology Archaeometry Cultural resources management

Popular views of archaeology Current issues and controversyPublic archaeologyPseudoarchaeology Looting Descendant peoples Repatriation

References Bibliography Further reading External links

License