Archaeology of North America

The Late Archaic ofthe Eastern Woodlands

The Eastern Woodlands: Late ArchaicIntroduction By the end of the Mid Holocene, 4000 BC,

most of the Laurentide ice sheet was gone Deciduous trees spread north, including the nut

bearing trees (especially hickory) Sea levels rose and opened up fishing areas

along the northeast coast The Great Lakes rose and warmed, and fish

populations increased The rising sea levels, lake levels and water

tables created many swamps in the southeast, and the main rivers slowed, which was great for fishing and game

The Eastern Woodlands: Late Archaic Introduction All of these changes are likely the reasons

behind the population increase As was the case in the Middle Archaic, the

building of trade alliances was very important and continued to be

The Early & Middle Archaic date to: c. 10 500 – 6000 BC (Early) 6000 – c. 3600 BC (Middle)

The Late Archaic dates to: c. 3600 – 1000 BC (as early as 6000 BC)

The Eastern Woodlands: Late Archaic Population Growth and Sedentism The beginnings of sedentism were seen in

the Middle Archaic (increased temp and aridity)

Base camps were set up as storage facilities to survive through poorer seasons or years

Along with the storage pits, baskets and organic containers, ceramics begin to appear

The Eastern Woodlands: Late Archaic Population Growth and Sedentism The first ceramics appear in Southern

Carolina around 2500 BC These were created in the same forms as

the organic baskets, trays etc. They were simple and functional Ceramics were somewhat slow to be

adopted at first, but then took off due to the fact they could also be used to store water and cook with

However, ceramics are not very transportable and therefore were common only in the sedentary sites

The Eastern Woodlands: Late Archaic Population Growth and Sedentism As populations increased and sedentary

sites appear, 5 distinct Late Archaic cultures are seen in the Eastern Woodlands

The Shield Late Archaic, Mast Forest Late Archaic The Maritime Tradition, Central Riverine Archaic Lake Forest Late Archaic

They are differentiated on the basis of their projectile points and other artefacts

These cultures grow over the next 3000 years

The Eastern Woodlands: Late Archaic Shield Late Archaic c. 5000 BC - Contact The Shield area includes the Great Lakes

and northwards to the Hudson Bay and eastward into Quebec

The environment is full of lakes, rivers, and boreal forest, with sparse game and vegetal resources Caribou and fish were the main staples, but

bear, beaver, moose and muskrat were also eaten

During the spring and summer a variety of plants were collected

The Eastern Woodlands: Late Archaic Shield Late Archaic c. 5000 BC - Contact The earliest points are Plano like in form,

and change to stemmed points later on Heavy scarpers and knives are common Many of these tools are made with exotic

cherts These groups continue for 1000s of years

in almost complete isolation from the groups to the south

The Eastern Woodlands: Late Archaic The Northeast The northeast region is subdivided into 3 zones:

Maritime, Lake Forest and Mast Forest The vegetation is dominated by pine, hemlock

and spruce forests with lots if lichen that the caribou feed on

The large number of rivers would have also attracted these animals, and many sites are strategically positioned in these areas

Along the coasts, the sea mammals include: seals, whales, porpoises, black fish, swordfish and cod

The Eastern Woodlands: Late Archaic Maritime Tradition c. 6000 – 1000 BC James Tuck introduced the name Maritime

Archaic based on a cemetery of 99 people at the site of Port aux Choix, Newfoundland Dated to 2350 BC All the dead (equal males and females, infants

and elderly) were sprinkled with red ocher and were buried with artefacts (spearheads and ground points)

Other artefacts at the site include axes and adzes to work wood, harpoons, bone needles, bone combs, pendants and carved bird and whale effigies

The Eastern Woodlands: Late Archaic Maritime Tradition c. 6000 – 1000 BC It is suggested that the Maritime groups

hunted caribou and sea mammals, as these remains are found at sites throughout the region

There is more local diversity in this region than in the Shield Region however Along the coast different fish and mammals

were hunted, while inland the caribou and some fishing were common

The Eastern Woodlands: Late Archaic Maritime Tradition c. 6000 – 1000 BC To hunt swordfish (which swim offshore)

the people used dugout canoes and harpoons

It is likely that the groups hunted sea mammals and fish during the summer months and then moved inland to hunt caribou and take advantage of the spanning fish (like salmon) in the spring

Many of the sites contained cemeteries, meaning they were organized groups that had a connection with their lands and ancestors

The Eastern Woodlands: Late Archaic Lake Forest Archaic c. 3200 – 1000 BC This area is north and inland from the

Maritime region, and is dominated with pine and hardwood forests

The many rivers are full of fish and in the spring and fall seals could be hunted in Lake Ontario, coming in from the St. Lawrence

Other animals include: deer, shellfish, waterfowl, reptiles, birds and other medium and small animals

A variety of plant foods could be collected

The Eastern Woodlands: Late Archaic Lake Forest Archaic c. 3200 – 1000 BC Population in this region was generally low

except isolated site in rich areas Base camps were common but seasonal

mobility was maintained There is diversity in the region, which

makes it confusing to link the sites together at times, but for broad relations the Laurentian and Old Copper Cultures are used

The Eastern Woodlands: Late Archaic Lake Forest Archaic c. 3200 – 1000 BC Laurentian Culture (3200 – 1400 BC) A number of diverse sites in the Lake

Forest region are groups together based on their woodland adaptation, variety of mammal, fish and vegetal subsistence, and seasonal exploitation of these resources

A subdivision is also seen in the Laurentian, in relation to more local diversity

The Eastern Woodlands: Late Archaic Lake Forest Archaic c. 3200 – 1000 BC The Laurentian Culture has characteristic

artefact forms including: Broad-bladed and side-notched Otter Creek

points, polished atlatl weights, ulu knives (to skin fish and treat sea mammal hides), adzes (woodworking), and a wide variety of antler and bone points, ornaments and small tools

There is some difference in the quantities of these artefacts from the east to the west. Copper artefacts for example are much more common in the west (were copper is found), but is also traded to the east

Side Notched Otter Creek points

Ground-slate ulu

Goundstone bannerstones (atlatl weights)

The Eastern Woodlands: Late Archaic Lake Forest Archaic c. 3200 – 1000 BC Old Copper Culture (c. 3000 – 2500 BC) Most information on this loosely defined

culture comes from three disturbed cemeteries, but seems to connect to a large number of small diverse groups that share the copper technology

In the Lake Superior Basin copper outcrops were mined and used as raw material for tools and ornaments, hence the classification of this culture

The Eastern Woodlands: Late Archaic Lake Forest Archaic c. 3200 – 1000 BC Old Copper Culture tools include:

Projectile points, axes, adzes, fish hooks and gorges, ulus, and awls

Ornaments include: beads, bracelets and headdress pieces

These objects were traded throughout the northeast and eventually into the Midwest and southeast, where their value increased In the far sites, copper objects were held with

great prestige and often buried with the dead as grave ornaments

Old Copper Culture

Two copper spearheads

Raw Material from Lake Superior

The Eastern Woodlands: Late Archaic Mast Forest Archaic c. 2700 – 1200 BC This is the southern most region of the NE It is a forested area with high numbers of

oaks Deer were the main game hunted, but fish

were hunted with harpoons and nets along the rivers and lakes. Other animals include: shellfish, turkey, pigeons and other small mammals

Nuts (especially hickory) and acorns were very important plant food

The Eastern Woodlands: Late Archaic Mast Forest Archaic c. 2700 – 1200 BC The main difference between this region

and the others is the presence of grinding stones connected to the preparation of vegetal foods

Most sites were small camps, but a few contained dwellings and were slightly larger in size. The larger groups seem to concentrate near the Atlantic coast

Like the other areas this area is also subdivided based on the projectile points, including the Susquehanna tradition, and the Lamoka tradition

Susquehanna point

Lamoka antler pendant with geometric design, bone awl/dagger, adze (above)

Lamoka points (2 stemmed and 1 side-notched (left))

The Eastern Woodlands: Late Archaic Mast Forest Archaic c. 2700 – 1200 BC The Lamoka tradition has evidence of

rectangular dwellings and acorn roasting pits and fish and meat drying racks

As well, heavy woodworking tools, perhaps to make canoes, and pendants with geometric designs were common

These groups buried their dead in the village middens, very carefully in the flexed position. Most graves contained red ocher and some grave goods

The Eastern Woodlands: Late Archaic Mast Forest Archaic c. 2700 – 1200 BC Interesting is that several people have

been found with Lamoka projectile points embedded in them, beheaded or with appendages chopped off, so there were times of fighting in the area

Unlike the other regions there seems to be little trade between the groups in this region, and the result is a more singly diverse set of groups when compared to other areas

The Eastern Woodlands: Late Archaic Central Riverine Archaic c. 4000–1000 BC In the Midwest and Southeast the

populations also tended to concentrate along the river valleys

The area is dominated with rich deciduous forests and floodplains that provided an abundance of aquatic, game and plant foods

The Central Riverine Archaic was the most well developed of all the Late Archaic cultures

The Eastern Woodlands: Late Archaic Central Riverine Archaic c. 4000–1000 BC The Helton Phase at Koster (Horizon 6)

between 3900 – 2800 BC marks a time when people were living there year round 100-150 people Houses were constructed Catching the shallow water fish was common

(even poisoning them) Hickory and other nuts were very important

resources As were waterfowl (caught with nets), deer and

other small animals

The Eastern Woodlands: Late Archaic Central Riverine Archaic c. 4000–1000 BC

The Helton phase points to an increased variety of resources being collected and also stored, which is directly connected with the sedentary occupation and restricted territorial mobility

Population likely increased with this change The site was abandoned around 2800 BC,

perhaps due to population pressures exceeding the resources and storages

It was only occupied 800 years later by a deer hunting group (The Titterington Phase)

The Eastern Woodlands: Late Archaic Central Riverine Archaic c. 4000–1000 BC Other cultures including the Green River

(3000 – 2000 BC), known for their shell middens, and the Riverton Culture (1500 – 1000 BC), concentrating on upland and floodplain resources, show the variety in the region

All groups showed degrees of sedentism and cemeteries (in many of which were relatively young individuals that died violently)

These cultures are connected with concentrations of people and slightly higher population densities

The Eastern Woodlands: Late Archaic Poverty Point Culture 2200 – 700 BC Along the Lower Mississippi Valley and

Gulf coast are more than 100 Poverty Point sites from 10 discrete clusters, each with its own centre

The earliest site dates to 2200 BC, and the culture will last for 1500 years

Poverty Point is the largest of these centres

The Eastern Woodlands: Late Archaic Poverty Point Culture 2200 – 700 BC

Poverty Point is situated overlooking the Mississippi floodplain near the confluences of 6 rivers

This was a strategic point for trade The site has great horseshoe earthworks made

up of 6 concentric semi-circular earthen ridges divided into segments about 25m wide and 3m high. They are about 40m apart. They may have been used to elevate the houses about the floodplain

The Eastern Woodlands: Late Archaic Poverty Point Culture 2200 – 700 BC

To the west lies an artificial mound more than 20m high and 200m long, possibly connect with the equinoxes

In terms of the habitation area, Poverty point covered 200ha between 1000 – 700 BC and took more than 35 000 cubic m of basket-loaded soil to build

Poverty Point served as a well positioned trading centre (which peaked 1400-1100 BC).

Following this however, the exchange system and political forces forced it to collapse

The Eastern Woodlands: Late Archaic Summary By 4000 BC the populations of the Eastern

Woodlands were starting to socially rank themselves

Each group was becoming more restricted in their territory. This territory closure is marked by 2000 BC with the local artefacts and styles

As a result, relations with their neighbours needed to be defined. Groups needed to trade artefacts and come together for communal hunts and ceremonies

The Eastern Woodlands: Late Archaic Summary The change in social organization was

slow, as populations remained relatively low (a few 100 people a most), and most remained egalitarian for years

Over the 3000 years the trade of valued items increased, and the distances reached increased as well

As trade became more intense and controlled a modest degree of social of social differentiation based on reciprocity may have emerged

The Eastern Woodlands: Late Archaic Summary By 1000 BC social ranking is seen in the

burials in the Central Riverine Archaic After 1000 BC the individuals that became

the leaders of the groups would lead even more complex societies, which lead into the Woodland Period

Archaeology of North America

Early Woodland and the Adena Complex of the Eastern Woodlands

The Eastern Woodlands: Woodland Introduction After 1000 BC the Eastern Woodland

societies become much more complex, culminating in the Mississippian culture in the closing centuries of ancient times

During these 2500 years the Woodland people grew from their Archaic roots, becoming permanently settled, with established territorial boundaries, defined exchange networks and complex social orders

The Eastern Woodlands: Woodland Introduction The beginning of the Woodland period is

marked with 3 things: pottery deliberate cultivation of native plants interment under funerary mounds

Pottery: Utilitarian pottery was being made throughout the Eastern Woodlands 2000 – 500 BC This is termed the Container Revolution

Middle Woodland vessel

Woodland (Mississippian) vessel

Late Woodland storage vessel

The Eastern Woodlands: Woodland Introduction Cultivation: Small scale plant cultivation

began around 2000 BC to aid in times of shortages Cultivated were gourds and squashes Sunflowers, Sumpweed or marsh elder Goosefoot and knotweed Tobacco lastly around AD 250 It wasn’t until AD 800 that maize agriculture

was adopted in some areas

The Eastern Woodlands: Woodland Introduction Burial mounds:

Burials are seen throughout the Eastern Woodlands, and other areas of NA for that matter, long before 1000 BC

But in the Woodland period burial mounds become an important part of mortuary ceremonialism

This is most marked with the Adena Complex in the central Ohio Valley

The Eastern Woodlands: Woodland The Adena Complex Adena is connected with a ceremonial

complex marking the climax of the Early Woodland Period

Most Adena sites are burial mounds They began as simple, single person

burials (cremated or interred) in a shallow elliptical lit lined and covered with bark

As more burials were added the tumulus grew reaching huge sizes

The Eastern Woodlands: Woodland The Adena Complex Later Adena burials changed to very

elaborate interments often with large burial chambers or enclosures that contained more than 1 body

The structures lay on or beneath house floors and remained open for a time, which is different than the continual build up of mound deposits in the earlier types

Many bodies were painted with pigments, and even some of the bones

Grave goods became more and more elaborate

Adena burial from the Wright mound, Kentucky

Reconstruction of an Adena structure that likely has a mortuary function

The Eastern Woodlands: Woodland Summary It is important to remember that the

distinctive, elaborate and varied Adena complex and Early woodland culture had its roots in the Archaic period of the Eastern Woodlands

Throughout the Early Woodland period populations began to rise and local groups defined their territories

As a result the projectile points and other artefacts show more variation after 1000 BC

The Eastern Woodlands: Woodland Summary Throughout the Woodland period

exchange networks continued and became more defined as did social systems and organization

The latter became well-integrated replacing the more flexible ones of the Archaic period

The Eastern WoodlandsConclusion The Paleo-Indian cultures evolve into the

Archaic populations spread across the Eastern Woodlands

The appearance of ceramics, domesticates and burial mounds around 1000 BC mark the appearance of the Woodland, which continues to develop until around 1600 AD

The Mississippian marks the climax Eastern Woodlands (AD 1000 – 1500) Known for the large chiefdoms and their socio-

religious organization (cults, cemeteries and earthworks)

Great Serpent Mound, Ohio