Architectural Thesis Research | Interactive, Protective Coastal Infrastructure

Colleen Loughlin | Prof. Roser-Gray | 11.25.14Resisting the Waves

Resisting the Waves:A Case Study for Interactive, Protective Coastal Infrastructure in Massachusetts

3TABLE OF CONTENTSThesis Statement and Abstract 5 Thesis Essay 6Annotated Bibliography 28 Bibliography 32Case Studies 38

Kent Pier Marina

St. Joseph North Pier Lighthouse 41

Millenium Bridge 42

Mediatheque 43

The Lens 44

Lady Landfill Skyscraper 46

The BIG U 48

Living Breakwaters 50

Program 52 Maritime Youth House 54

Fruit Salad 55

Fish Market 56

Kastrup Sea Bath 57

Program Analysis 58

Interviews 64Reflection 69

Site Analysis 70Design 88

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4Colleen Loughlin | Roser-GrayResisting the Waves Thesis Statement + Abstract

5Colleen Loughlin | Roser-GrayResisting the Waves

5

Statement

Coastal erosion, rising sea-levels and man-made development on barrier islands pose high levels of risk to coastal communities, environments and ecosystems. Taking advantage of existing coastal protective breakwater systems, a newly adapted architectural breakwater typology will benefit local marine industries and protect the coastline while catalyzing awareness of the coastal situation through its design.

Abstract

Climate change and rising sea levels render coastal living less viable. Extreme winter noreasters, global rising sea levels, and over development are drastically changing the landscape of barrier islands defending the Atlantic Coast. Natural erosion is exacerbated by man-made interventions such as jetties, seawalls, sand dredging, and groin fields meant to keep flooding and erosion at bay. The beaches along the Atlantic are receding at a rate of two to three feet per year2. As a result of the diminishing natural defense, homeowners, business owners, and fishermen face irreparable losses. It is necessary to address the risks to the population and detrimental effects to ecosystems and the economy as retreating from the consequences of nature is not a feasible option due to its tremendous economic, social, and cultural repercussions. The maritime businesses account for approximately 82,000 jobs vital to the states revenue and economy. Despite the coastline of Massachusetts being small relative to its overall size, one-third of the states population resides in coastal communities. With development and population growth along the coast predicted to continue, proposing to relocate thousands of residents inland is not practical.

An architectural infrastructure that defends the developed coast while simultaneously restoring the natural ecosystem and furthering the marine economy is essential in the wake of recent storms on Massachusetts North Shore. This thesis aims to approach the concern of coastal development by introducing a catalyst to the local marine-based cultures, educating the public about their local environment, and regenerating the ecosystem affected by development and storm impact. Using Plum Island as a case study for defensive coastal design, an architectural intervention coupled with breakwaters and environmentally responsible, economically profitable commercial programming will be the new typology reestablishing a sustainable relationship between land and water.

Thesis Statement + Abstract

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ESSAY


Introduction

New Englands coast attracts beachgoers, tourists, fishermen and water enthusiasts throughout the year. Over the years, Americas infatuation with the seashore has led to increased development along the coast and on barrier islands. These islands no longer effectively serve as barriers between mainland and the sea because they have been heavily developed and landscaped. The property values of waterfront lots entice continued development of residential and commercial structures. Vicinity to the ocean is at a premium; the states beaches amass thousands of visitors each year and one-third of Massachusetts residents are on the coast.

The landforms of barrier islands and beaches are not static or permanent and their landscapes are always changing. As part of a natural cycle, tidal flow and wind reshape and move beaches. Unfortunately, recent super storms on New Englands coast have revealed a plethora of negative repercussions from built interventions. Architectural approaches to coastal protection and coastal development must mediate the needs of many stakeholders while acknowledging the natural ecological cycles.

Coastal Erosion and Barrier Islands

Mean global sea levels are increasing and compromising coastal inhabitation. For centuries, people have lived along the coasts, steadily building on and developing the buffer defending the mainland from storms and wave action. Global warming is also taking effect; the seasons are changing and under the high emissions scenarios there are projections of 10-24 inch sea level increases by 2100. In the case of Massachusetts, the average temperature has increased since 1970 by more than 1.5 F. Atlantic beaches are receding at rates of two to three feet per year1. Located along much of these coasts are barrier islands; crucial to the survival of salt marshes, estuaries, and island species. Barrier island footprints are shrinking at remarkable rates as a result of natural and artificial causes. The estuaries and salt marshes are especially vulnerable to rising sea levels. Recognized as nurseries of the sea, their place in the marine food chain is intrinsic to fish, other creatures and migratory birds in search of feeding grounds.

Barrier Island Attributes

Narrow strips of land extending roughly parallel to the coast, barrier islands consist mostly of dune systems and coastal beaches separating the1. Healey, Jane A. Regulating Residential Development on Massachusetts Barrier Islands: Inadequacies, Opportunities, and the Case of Plum Island. Masters thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2003. Cambridge: Department of Urban Studies + Planning, 2003.

Essay

photograph by Cheryl Loughlin of Plum Island Beach, MA

Southern End of Plum Island, MA

Harlow, Michaela M. Digital image. The

Gardeners Eden. September 22, 2014.

Accessed October 12, 2014.

http://www.thegardenersedencom/?p=31681.

33.3%

diagram by author

photograph by Cheryl Loughlin of Plum Island Salt Marsh

MA Population Living on the Coast


the mainland by brackish water (salt and fresh water) and marshes. These islands are the first line of defense for an array of plants, animals, and developed communities from high winds and seas. The formation of these narrow barrier islands occurred thousands of years ago as large ice sheets melted and retreated; depressing the earths crust2. Once equilibrium between the rising crust and sea levels was reached, the present-day coast took shape, leaving 120 miles of Massachusetts 192 mile coastline as barrier islands1.

Salt Marshes

While erosion and rising sea levels are affecting barrier islands, the salt marshs composition offsets flooding caused by tidal and wave energy. The accretion of tidally-borne sediment and its natural defenses can keep pace with sea level rise3. A nutrient pumping station2, the salt marsh filters minerals and salts on incoming tides and releases organic material into the estuarine system on outgoing tides, which provide breeding and developing habitats for fish species intrinsic to the regional economy. However, this efficient system is heavily dependent on particular plants found only in these conditions. Salt marsh grasses are critical to the continuation of the ecosystems cycle, yet are being compromised by human foot traffic, development, and erosion exacerbated by artificial protective measures. Studies have proven that all levels of human traffic are detrimental to the vegetation species in the dune systems on barrier islands. The fore dune and inter dune are the most affected by this trend and have resulted in the horizontal shift of the vegetation pattern4.

Marine Ecology and Global Warmings Impact

As previously mentioned, the plants of the barrier islands and salt marshes are exceptional in their ability to adapt to a range of harsh conditions. In the dunes, particularly, plants have developed intricate root systems in order to capture as much rainwater as possible before it moves through the sand. Additionally, as strong winds push sand further inland on the island, vegetation traps sand particles which then start the process of dune formation. Once beach grass or poison ivy has established itself, dunes stabilize. Despite the hot temperatures on the surface of the sand, beach grass and other vegetation create cooler micro-climates which facilitate the growth of other life forms.

Dealing with salt water inundation poses another problem for the sustainability of these plants. New Englands coast receives an average1. Healey, Jane A.2. Hoel, Michael L. Lands Edge: A Natural History and Field Guide to Barrier Beaches from Maine

to North Carolina. Newbury, MA: Little Book Pub., 1986.3. Institution of Civil Engineers. Facing Up to Rising Sea Levels. Building Futures. Accessed

August 28, 2014. http://www.buildingfutures.org.uk/projects/building-futures/facing-up.4. McDonnell, M. J. Trampling Effects on Coastal Dune Vegetation in the Parker River National

Wildlife Refuge, Massachusetts, USA. Biological Conservation 21 (1989): 289+.

Essay

62.5%

diagram by author

diagram by author

Percentage of Barrier Islands On MA Coastline

Drumlin: defined as dome-shaped hills caused by large amounts of debris rolled under passingglaciers. Three drumlins are located on the barrier island of Plum Island3dd and barrier beaches along Massachusetts coastline are formed from drumlins

Shoreline Changes from 1844 through 2009

2007-2009

1844-1897

1994

1909-1938

2000

1943-1969

2001

1970-1982

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Colleen Loughlin | Roser-GrayResisting the Waves

annual rainfall of 39 inches2. Not at a shortage of either fresh or salt water, dune ecology has similar attributes to desert environments. A two root system enables dune grass to root itself firmly into the sand via the taproots which can be as long as 40 feet, and water is absorbed through their rhizomes spread close to the surface of the sand. Setting the framework for various life forms on the island, in the salt marshes, and the ocean barrier island ecologies are distinctive in their construction.

Accompanying sea level rise is the increase in water temperatures. Rising water temperatures affect where sea creatures live, and as a result change the way that marine economies function in addition to the natural processes of the ocean. Lobsters, scallops, and cod are all vital resources to the Massachusetts marine economy and are susceptible to changes in water temperature5. Not only will these fish be eliminated as viable industries, but they will catalyze a disruption in the food chain. Climate change is unavoidable and must be addressed as its effects are exacerbated by human impact.

Plum Islands First Settlers

First recorded in the early 17th century on European charts, Plum Island, MA has consistently been inhabited for the past four centuries and patterns of inhabitation have changed as the nation industrialized increasing accessibility to isolated islands. For the first hundred and fifty years, the towns of Newbury, Rowley, and Ipswich utilized Plum Island purely as a resource for livestock and farming. Its copious open land suited farmers needs to graze horses and cattle; the salt marsh hay was farmed and harvested for use as mulch, bedding, and insulation in the foundation of homes.

Erosion has been of concern to coastal communities since colonial times. Settlement was initially made only on the southern end of the island because of its rich topsoil and higher elevation on the drumlins. Ipswich residents complained that horses from Newbury residents foraging during the winter were destroying the vegetation and would be the ruin and utter destruction of the whole island6. There was an attempt to mediate the noticeable change in the islands character through regulations aiming to protect the dunes and salt marsh system. The isolation of the island kept large numbers of visitors and settlers at bay through the 18th century, but lighthouses and keepers quarters were erected on the northern end of the island in response to increasing amounts of shipwrecks occurring in the mouth of the river. Upon the erection of a bridge connecting to the

Essay

2.Hoel, Michael L.5.American Security Project. Pay Now, Pay Later: Massachsuetts. FACTS Massachusetts: 1-5. Accessed September 08, 2014. http://americansecurityproject.org/resources/pnpl/Massachusetts%20FINAL.pdf.6. Weare, Nancy V. Plum Island: The Way It Was. Second ed. Newbury, MA: Newburyport Press, 1993.

Captains, Clams, and Cobblestones, HistoricalSociety of Old Newbury, Newbury. Plum. Seconded. Newbury, MA: Newburyport Press, 1996.Beachgoers in Plum Islands Basin circa 1920

Captains, Clams, and Cobblestones, HistoricalSociety of Old Newbury, Newbury. Plum. Seconded. Newbury, MA: Newburyport Press, 1996.Early settlers harvested salt marsh hay for bedding, foundation insulation, and mulching. Skill wasrequired to successfully farm the hay and thetechniques were passed down through families.

Barrier Island zone composition and organizationHoel, Michael L. Barrier Beach Migration. InLands Edge: A Natural History and Field Guide to Barrier Beaches from Maine to North Carolina, 44-45. Newbury, MA: Little Book Pub., 1986.with overlay diagram by author

beach

foredune

interdune

saltmarsh

sound

surf

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the mainland and a toll road from the islands center, visitation grew. Not long after this construction project, a hotel was built in 1806 to attract summer visitors to the island.

Industrialization: New Access to Barrier Islands

A major turning point in the development and inhabitation of Plum Island coincided with the creation of the steam boat. Prior, the only way to reach the island was by private boat or canoe. As the majority of people were not boat-owners, this limited the number of visitors to fishermen and those with means of access. By 1876 as many as 10 steamers were on the Merrimack River and hordes of visitors accessed the island at the northern end6. Subsequent development of private residences on the island ensued as transportation to and from the island became readily available. By the 1880s road traffic on the toll road had increased significantly and the horse car railway line of 1887 made the island accessible to everyone6. Transportation industrialization catalyzed the growth of the island amid a flurry of housing development. At this time, 1920, three hundred fifteen homes were on the island. These residents did not all take kindly to the introduction of neighbors; eliminating their swaths of land and beach-front property. Unable to hinder continued residential construction, these early residents became part of the tightly-knit community created on the northern end of the island. Overtime, the lure of the waterfront and accessibility to fishing culture superseded the desire for the privacy of large plots.

Ironically, the southern end of the island saw slower development than the northern end despite its advantageous location on the island. Its proximity to the mouth of the Parker River prompted farmers and sportsmen to take advantage of its farmable land, abundant wildlife and waterfowl. Modest hunting camps and shelters were constructed for farmers harvesting salt hay and their cattle. Just as the steam boat introduced visitors to north end, the southern end attracted sportsmen and vacationers due to new accessibility. Hotels were constructed for both the Ipswich Bluffs and Grape Island, but were removed when the Audubon Society and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service purchased the land as part of the national refuge6. Currently, Plum Island is heavily developed on its northern end, and the southern two thirds are converting back to their initial natural state as the Annie H. Brown Wildlife Sanctuary seeks to maintain it as a wildlife preserve for migratory birds, waterfowl, and the salt marsh.

Essay

6. Weare, Nancy V.

Developed | Conservation Area | Wetlandsdiagram by author

developed

refuge

wetlands

jetty

groin

sea wall

sand bags

dredgingd dCurrent Coastal Protection Systems

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Early Coastal Protection Measures

Attempts to prevent beach erosion on Plum Island date back to the first settlers. Regulations meant to deter farmers from having their cattle over-graze the dunes were non-infrastructural methods of beach protection. Unfortunately, the continued influx of development and inhabitants negated the positive effects these measures would have had. Physical measures replaced early non-invasive attempts to relocate homes away from the dunes because the persistent growth rendered more substantial interventions viable. In 1952 funds were appropriated to pump sand located in the Basin onto the ocean-front beach. Providing temporary relief, this project was supplemented by a series of groins perpendicular to the oceanfront after another onslaught of destructive storms. These existing protective measures proved impermanent solutions and led to yet further attempts to strengthen the engineered jetties. While raising the southern jetty provided additional fishing platforms, its smooth top no longer broke the waves and allowed water to pass unimpeded over its surface6.

Over the years these hard-constructed infrastructural attempts to control tidal action and storms have significantly exacerbated coastal erosion. Aggressive seawalls cause more disruption to the sand than typical erosion, and sand dredging and replenishment have the potential to encourage more development along endangered shorelines with the allusion of protection7. Incredible effort and economic funds are required to undergo engineering projects such as seawalls, revetments, jetties and dams. For years these hard structures, often referred to as shoreline armor, were envisioned as permanent resolutions. Nevertheless, this assumption is fundamentally flawed because barrier islands themselves are constantly changing form. Even though stone-engineered rock walls, jetties and dams provide immediate relief from the tidal energy, wave energy undermines the structure and leads to collapse. New Orleans flood walls are prime examples of how engineered systems can fail when natural forces overpower structure. The inevitable forces of the rising sea levels paired with storms trump mans attempted interventions.

Seawalls create false senses of security because while they provide protection from the brunt of wave action, the homes are mere feet from the edge of the sea and the walls imminent failure7. Federal and state funds are necessary to implement these infrastructural protective systems, but the appropriation of money must go towards the right kind of structure.

Essay

6. Weare, Nancy V.7. Carini, Frank. Erosion Happens: Can We Deal With It? - Climate Change -. Erosion Happens: Can We Deal With It? - Climate Change -. January 14, 2014. Accessed August 31, 2014. http://www.ecori.org/climate-change/2014/1/14/erosion-happens-can-we-deal-with-it.html.

Onshore vs. Offshore Structural Typologiesdiagram by author

oil rig lighthouse marina

typical residential construction

elevate sea wall

groin: in coastal engineering, a long, narrow structure built out into the water from a beach in order to prevent beach erosion or to trap and accumulate sand that would otherwisedrift along the beach face and nearshore zone under the influence of waves approaching thebeach at an angle. A groin can be successful in stabilizing a beach on the updrift side,but erosion tends to be aggravated on the downdrift side, which is deprived by the groin structure of replenishment by drifting sand.Partly to counteract this tendency, often multiple groins are built in so-called groin fields, which can stabilize a larger beach area.

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Offshore Structure TypologiesLighthouses

Offshore structures have served in different capacities ever since travel and trade over water has existed. A set of marine architectural typologies has resulted from the need to provide protection to ships from wrecking along coasts, containment for boats, and assistance in the dredging of oil. Among the first of these recognizable structures were lighthouses. Their invention sought to provide ships with safe navigation markers in response to local concerns of dangerous navigation in harbors and waterways. In 1716 the first lighthouse in the United States was built in the Boston Harbor8. Blanketed by some of the most scenic backdrops in the country, lighthouses are attractions that are intensifying over time. Presently, their primary functions no longer serve the maritime community because of advancements in boating and navigational technology, but lighthouses are prominent and sought after landmarks.

Oil Rigs

On the other end of marine architecture are oil rigs; widely contested by the public for being eyesores and detrimental to the ecosystems and habitats they are imposed upon. While the function of these oil rigs is controversial and the abandonment of the mega-structures in the Gulf of Mexico and the Celebes Sea validates concern over their environmental impact, it is critical to evaluate the efficient compartmental construction for its potential benefits to future structures.

The essence of the publics feelings towards rigs is captured in describing the myth of offshore exploration generally casts the rig as the embodiment of corporate greed and environmental irresponsibility9. The negative connotations of the oil rigs overshadow their enormous potential for autonomous use and functionality. Architectural typologies have changed over the years, and what is commonly appreciated by the public does not always align with what is most appropriate for a sites location and function. Removed from its environmental and economic role, oil rigs may instead be regarded as the realization of some of the most revolutionary and visionary architectural ideas of the past sixty years9. Its structure bears close relationship to the drawings and visions of architects from the Metabolist movement and Italian Futurists. Approached from a utopian view, Ralph Wilcoxon described the oil rig beautifully as:

Not only a structure of great size, but also a structure

Essay

8. Holland, F. Ross. Lighting Americas Shores. In Great American Lighthouses, 9-27. Washington, D.C.: Preservation Press, 1989. 9.Kronenburg, Robert, Joseph Lim, and Wong Yunn. Chii. Oil and Water: Offshore Architecture. In Transportable Environments 3:, 30-38. London: Taylor & Francis, 2006.

Gill, Tom. Frigid Waters. September 11, 2013. Frozen World, Flickr. Accessed September 20,

2014. http://twistedsifter.com/2013/09/lake-michigan-frozen-pier-and-lighthouse/.

St. Joseph North Pier Lighthouse

Seaventures Dive Resort. August 30, 2013. The Luxurious Afterlives of Abandoned Sea Forts andRigs. Accessed October 8, 2014. http://io9.com/the-luxurious-afterlives-of-abandoned-sea-forts-and-oil-1227566417.Seaventures Dive Resort

North Cormorant Platform. 2012. Edited by OilJob Review. Accessed October 14, 2014. http://oiljobreview.com/popular/offshore_platform.html.North Cormorant platform, located in the UK sector of the North Sea

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which is frequently: 1 constructed of modular units; 2 capable of great or even unlimited extension; 3 a structural framework into which smaller structural units (for example, rooms, houses, or small buildings of other sorts) can be built or even plugged-in or clipped-on after having been prefabricated elsewhere; 4 a structural framework expected to have a useful life much longer than that of the smaller units which it might support.(Wilcoxon, 1968,p.2)9

Capable of withstanding 80 foot waves and icebergs twice its size, rigs are tremendously equipped to survive in the ocean. An interesting architectural inversion, however, is its siting. Typically an architectural notion of site dictates static location housing dynamic function. This interplay is reversed when considering oil rigs because of its static figure interacting with a highly dynamic ground or sea plane. At the same time that the structure itself is static once placed in the site, it is mobile in that additional components can easily be added onto the structure, changing the overall function and interaction on the rig. The oil rig has the potential as an architectural typology to influence the way that future offshore design develops.

Oil Rigs Repurposed

Abandoned oil rigs have been rehabilitated for use as dive resorts, living hubs, and luxury resorts. As the world is looking to claim responsibility for these large abandoned structures, competitions have emerged challenging architects and designers to repurpose these rigs to suit contemporary culture and society. An entry into the 2011 eVolo Skyscraper competition, Ku Yee Kee and Hor Sue-Wern proposed rehabilitating oil rigs off of Malaysia into housing structures with underwater research labs10. The expense of taking these structures down can be avoided by incorporatingnew uses into the already existing built forms. Similarly in the Gulf of Mexico, Texas-based architectural firm Morris Architects designed a luxury resort out of one of the 4,000 decommissioned oil rigs. Taking top honors in the Radical Innovation in Hospitality competition, this resort and spa project takes advantage of the rig structure to create an entirely self-sufficient energy generator11. Morris Architects utilizes the compartmental capabilities of the oil rig structure and proposes a design that makes its reuse commercially viable. An existing example of how oil rigs have been reused after their abandonment is seen in the Seaventures Dive Resort

Essay

9. Kronenburg, Robert, et. al.10. Abandoned Oil Rigs Shaped up as Living Hub with Underwater Research Labs. Designbuzz Design Ideas and Concepts Abandoned Oil Rigs Shaped up as Living Hub with Underwater Research Labs Comments. April 6, 2011. Accessed October 14, 2014. http://ww.designbuzz. com/abandoned-oil-rigs-shaped-up-as-living-hub-with-underwater-research-labs/.

11. Meinhold, Bridgette. Reclaiming Oil Rigs as Oceanic Eco-Resorts. Inhabitat Sustainable Design Innovation Eco Architecture Green Building Reclaiming Oil Rigs as Oceanic EcoResorts Comments. February 19, 2009. Accessed October 14, 2014. http://inhabitat.com/oil-rig-eco-resort-by-morris-architects/.

www.ucsusa.org/encroachingtidesTotal Number of Flooding Events Experienced in Boston by decade over the past 40 years. Most recently there has been a spike inflooding events compared to the historical trend.

www.ucsusa.org/encroachingtidesTotal Number of Flooding Events Per Year by City with Projected Increases. Coastal citiesalong the Atlantic seaboard are projected toexperience a large increase in the number of flooding events per year in the near future;prompting many state agencies to call for immediate changes regarding coastal protection and living situations.

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near Sipadan, Malaysia. The renovated rig is now a 25-room hotel that caters to the aquatically adventurous. This area of the Celebes Sea is a national park and has extensive coral reefs and diving at the base of the hotel. Its industrial form is complemented by luxurious hotel rooms and diving accommodations12.

Sub-surface marine accommodation is fostered by the Seaventures resorts structure. Bolstered by the diving features that attract tourists, the marine life thrives underneath the oil rig. Its situation in the coral triangle, the Seaventures resort is near one of the best diving locations in the world Sipadan Island- and is host to varieties of tropical reef fish, pelagic fish, and larger reef life. The presence of the diving structure allows for the marine life to grow and accumulate around the oil rig, increasing the extents of the already flourishing coral reef triangle located there. The opportunity to see this range of marine and reef life is capitalized by the Seaventures resort, as the structure is kept up by dive teams knowledgeable in the marine conditions in the local area. Adaptive re-use of oil rigs for wholly different productive spaces affirms that demolition is not economically or ecologically practical. These autonomous mega-structures could be the future for commercial offshore architectural design and open up new niche job markets, just as the Seaventures resort has done in Malaysia.

Marinas

Boating marinas are more accessible today than they were in earlier years, but often lack the architectural design which would enhance their function and foster a civic or commercial component. The planning of a boating marina involves transportation analysis, necessary amenities studies, land-to-water relationships of components, and economy in layout. In all marina construction the same general set of principles are used to determine how to best economically serve the watercrafts in their harbor. Not all marinas serve the same purpose, however, and the deviation in marina development often is determined by the end user13. Marinas can be visual amenities to the community, acts of urban renewal and historic preservation, economic stimulants, or any combination of the aforementioned. Initially coined by the United States, marinas began as a recreational outlet. Today they are inundated by boats and serve as storage units when the boats are not in use. Just as there is a discrepancy between car ownership and available parking in urban environments, the sale of boats and availability of moorings is a legitimate issue13. Design competitions to revive downtown waterfronts creating larger points of economic, social, and cultural interest

Essay

12. Meinhold, Bridgette. Former Oil Rig Transformed Into Diving Resort. Inhabitat Sustainable Design Innovation Eco Architecture Green Building Former Oil Rig Transformed Into Diving Resort Comments. September 22, 2010. Accessed October 09, 2014. http://inhabitat.com/former-oil-rig-transformed-into-diving-resort/.13. Adie, Donald W. General Design Principles. In Marinas, a Working Guide to Their Development and Design, 95-162. London: Architectural Press, 1984.

Maltzan Architecture, Michel. The Lens: The St. Petersburg Pier. PDF. St. Petersburg, 2012.The Lens

neighborhoods

resilient U

water forces

BIG TEAM. BIG U Stage III Report. PDF. New York: Rebuild By Design, 2014.The BIG U Rebuild By Design CompetitionProposal

diagram by author The BIG U neighborhood resiliency

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and activity revolve around marinas as vehicles for change and improvement.

Marinas as Catalysts

Domestic marina projects in Florida are garnering widespread public approval as downtown waterfronts are revitalized with an energetic architecture that actively engages the public with the water and the multiplicity of functions that occur there. Through a sequence of unconventional infrastructures, the bay, downtown, and waterfront are woven into one piece of public space in Michael Maltzans The Lens project14. Water sports, fishing, restaurants, cafes and reefs are all incorporated in the new design proposal for St. Petersburgs waterfront. In acknowledgement of the urban skyline, the Lens creates its own identifiable waterfront icon that in turn highlights the connection between shoreline and offshore.

New York and New Jersey are currently facing issues of how to defend their coasts from future coastal erosion and disasters as well. Designs that blur the boundary between nature and man are being proposed along Manhattans waterfront property by the BIG Team. In the BIG U, Manhattans diverse neighborhoods are each individually addressed by architectural protective measures that seamlessly blend into their cultural environment during periods of calm weather. The creative integration of civic and environmental concerns into the architectural coastal defensive measure sets a precedent for responsible architecture that addresses needs beyond infrastructural protection15. In this way, the public starts to see how architecture has the potential to positively impact community culture while also providing necessary protection from nature without imposing itself in a detrimental way.

Massachusetts Marine Culture

By the year 2000, a third of Massachusetts population resided on the coast. This number has remained consistent over the past three decades, and trends indicate that coastal inhabitation will likely continue this upward growth. Essex County has experienced the majority of their coastal growth in the last twenty years, with an increase of 5.95%16. These population trends are crucial to understanding the importance of the coast to the essence of Massachusetts as a state as well as the impact governmental measures, depleted fishing stocks, and storms have on these major coastal communities.

Essay

14. Maltzan Architecture, Michel. The Lens: The St. Petersburg Pier. PDF. St. Petersburg, 2012.15 THE BIG TEAM. The BIG U: Rebuild by Design. PDF. New York: Rebuild By Design, April 3, 2014.16. Massachusetts Office Of Coastal Zone Management (Czm). Trends in the Demographics of Human Population& the Massachusetts Marine Economy. Trends in the Demographics of Human Population and the Massachusetts Marine Economy: 1-9. Accessed September 01, 2014. http://www.mass.gov/eea/docs/ czm/oceans/waves-of-change/tech-demogecon.pdf.

graph by author Average Earnings in Thousands of Sectors inthe Marine Industry

diagram by author Cultural | Economical Contributors to MA state

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The marine economy is responsible for approximately 82,000 jobs that add considerable value to the Massachusetts state economy. Of utmost importance to the many coastal communities along Massachusetts waterfront is the preservation of jobs in the maritime industries because of the direct and indirect impacts to local economies. Due to their geographical placement, waterfront communities are attracting high levels of residential and commercial development. Land along the water is becoming scarce, and developers are manipulating zoning and port protection policies with local municipalities to take advantage of the valuable property16. The consequences of climate change, if unchecked, may profoundly affect the culture and economy as the cod and lobster industry rely heavily on ecological conditions heightened by human interference to the natural environment. It is projected that the annual economic loss could be more than twice the losses from the recent flooding caused by heavy spring rains5.

Seafood and fishing are part of the strong Massachusetts identity. Historically, Massachusetts has been a big competitor in the marine fishing industries with coastal communities building their lives around the sea. In recent years, however, the state has moved away from heavy reliance on commercial fishing, instead looking towards tourism for economic growth. The highest wages in the ocean economy are found in tourism and recreational fields, with commercial fishing falling behind as a result of newer governmental regulations. Ironically, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts has:

supported one of the most valuable commercial fishing industries in the nation. In terms of revenue, the most lucrative fisheries in Massachusetts are scallops, lobster and lastly a variety of ground fish. Together, the commercial and recreational marine economies employ more than 80,000 people in Massachusetts, 40,000 from the seafood industry alone, and contribute close to $2 billion to the economy16.(Massachusetts Office of Coastal Zone Management, p. 8)

Lobstermen are symbolic icons of Massachusetts cultural ties to the water. Their jobs as lobstermen often are more of a lifestyle than just an occupation; close vicinity to the ocean is intrinsic to their continued success. Additionally, the American Lobster is the most valuable fishery in all of the northeastern United States. In 2006 alone, the value of lobster landings in New Hampshire, Massachusetts, and Maine came in at $363 million17. The reliance on lobstering has increased as the other fisheries are

Essay

16. Massachusetts Office Of Coastal Zone Management (Czm). Trends in the Demographics of Human Population& the Massachusetts Marine Economy.

5. American Security Project. Pay Now, Pay Later: Massachsuetts. FACTS Massachusetts17. Singer, Laura, and Daniel Holland, eds. Taking the Pulse of the Lobster Community: A Socioeconomic Survey of New England Lobster Fishermen. Report. Gulf of Maine Research Institute, 2008.

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

codblack sea bassbluefin tuna

bluefish

bonito

cusk

false albacore

haddock

mackerel

pollock

scup

smelts

striped basssummer flounder

winter flounder

tautog

best good poor

diagram by author Monthly Fishing Calendar by Species

diagram by author Stakeholders involved in the Coastal Problem

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decreasing in population and being put under heavier regulations. However, this change in fishing trend has placed more strain on lobstermen who previously relied on lobsters for income, as they are competing with more fishermen. Compounding the issues surrounding the more competitive lobstering market and depleting fisheries is the fact that as much as 12% of lobstermen in the Lobster Conservation Management Area did not graduate high school17. Among these lobstermen, another 60% reported planning on lobstering for as long as they could, or for as long as was necessary. It is deduced that the threat to their coastal situation is fundamental in determining the continued viability of their occupation. As homes are threatened and communities face the realities of natural dangers on the coast, workers dependent on proximity to the water face challenges. Relocation inland would add time onto their workdays, distance from their boats and landings, and disconnection from their resources. Finding work in another industry would be difficult due to the low level of education obtained, and median age of 50 doesnt translate into a comparable experienced position in other fields.

Residents of coastal communities are aware of the implications that the fishing restrictions and depleted fisheries bring. Despite the lobster industry witnessing unprecedented highs in their landings17, governmental restrictions are hindering fishermen who make their living by the sea. The pressure to change the economic base of these communities leads to, in some cases, the sale of land for further development which would serve the tourist base16. Acknowledging that the current coastal economy has crossed over to recreation and tourism, it is of concern that with losses on the coast 9% of the states labor force is projected to be directly affected5. In 2008 alone the states cod industry was worth $24 million.

Governmental Impacts

Local fishermen and coastal communities feel the immediate impact of strict regulations imposed by the government on the way that commercial fishing is to be conducted. Compounded by depleted fisheries, commercial fishermen are being forced out of their livelihoods by new codes of practice. Species catch limitations, size requirements for keeping fish, seasons for fishing, as well as permits and licenses needed to legally trade as a commercial fisher all contribute to the downswing of the industry. Brendan Stokes, Harbormaster in the town of Newbury, MA, recognizes the difficulty commercial fishermen have been facing as a result of stringent regulations. Witnessing a strong downward trend in the commercial fishing industry, common debate circles around the lack of data backing certain

Essay

17. Singer, Laura, and Daniel Holland, eds. Taking the Pulse of the Lobster Community: A Socioeconomic Survey of New England Lobster Fishermen. Report. Gulf of Maine Research Institute, 2008.5. American Security Project. Pay Now, Pay Later: Massachsuetts. FACTS Massachusetts16. Massachusetts Office of Coastal Zone Mangament

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governmental measures. Once robust fishing ports such as Gloucester, MA are now starving out their fishermen who are unable to maintain their businesses with government regulations crippling the industry18.

Amenities supporting local fishermen are currently lacking in the Plum Island community because of the absence of a thriving industry. At the same time that commercial fishing is disappearing, recreational boating and fishing is skyrocketing18. Over the past few years the recreational fishing industry has increased to the point where it is now ranked the second most valuable in the country16.

The increase in recreational boating has strained current facilities, marinas, and docks. Boating down the Merrimack River one sees docks extending out farther into the water than ever before, and boat traffic is particularly heavy during the summer months18. Seen as both positive and negative, Stokes is continuously amazed at the jump in boating. More boats mean more traffic and more risk. Stokes recognizes the constant demand for access to water and believes that if more people could access the water it would economically benefit the local community.

Affected Communities

Intrinsically tied to the boating and fishing culture is the need to address the eroding beaches serving waterfront communities. As discussed previously, the dense population along the states coast makes relocation unrealistic. The current state of the barrier islands is in flux as rising tides and coastal erosion are carving away at the protective beaches. Most recently, the Mothers Day Flood of 2006 and Hurricane Sandy in 2012 have shone light on the negative impacts human development and flood mitigation has had on these narrow barrier islands and their ecologies. Altering the cycles of the tidal infiltration in the salt marshes, exacerbating beach erosion, and affecting waterfowl and birds, humans have historically imposed on nature without considering the long-term implications.

Massachusetts coastal communities are steadfastly determined to keep their homes on the ocean despite repeated storm damage, increased insurance rates, and certain sea level rise. Scituate, MA is another barrier island that has been wrecked by the intense tidal waves, storms, and sea level rise. Historically a fishing town, Scituate is currently made up of occupants with business and sales jobs. Their commitment to maintaining their residences in the current location is as strong as those on Plum Island, though. A stone sea wall separates homes from the strong ocean, and in one specific case repairs have been needed 9 separate times over

Essay

18. Boating and Fishing Questions about Plum Island, MA. Telephone interview by author. October 11, 2014.16. Massachusetts Office of Coastal Zone Management19. Daley, Beth. Oceans of Trouble for U.S. Taxpayers. New England Center for Investigative Reporting. March 09, 2014. Accessed November 10, 2014. http://necir.org/2014/03/09/oceans-of-trouble-for-u-s-taxpayers/.

p p pp p p

Boston Globe Staff. Flood Insurance Policies G S per 1,000 Inhabitants in Massachusetts.Digital image. Boston Globe. January 19,2014. Accessed November 15, 2014. http://www.bostonglobe.com

The number of flood insurance policies vary bycommunity, but the threat of flooding remains constant for all coastal towns. In the event of major storms that cause damage to homes,the ability of the NFIP to assist homeowners with rebuilding and elevating their homes in preparation for the future is impeded due to thehigh number of policies. Additionally, somehomeowners who have given up their policiesface the reality of rebuilding or relocating with no federal assistance.

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Colleen Loughlin | Roser-GrayResisting the Waves Essay

recent years due to storm damage. At 48 Oceanside Drive, the National Flood Insurance Program has provided a total of $750,000 in insurance aid to fix damages accrued by storms. The amount of money spent by the NFIP on homes that are in repeatedly damaged areas is tremendous, and the agency itself is in debt by $24 billion19. The need to protect these towns in a sustainable way that also gives back to the community and not individual homeowners is necessary to make continued coastal living viable. Insurance bailouts are coming to an end as the countrys recent natural disasters (most recently Hurricane Sandy and Hurricane Katrina) have rendered the NFIP unable to assist with future claims.

Similarly, Provincetown on Cape Cod is a barrier island community that attracts as many as 60,000 tourists each summer. For a small year-round population of 3,000, this influx of visitors places high importance on the existing tourism and sales industries on the island. The reliance on tourists during the summer months in order to sustain the communitys economy throughout the rest of the year is in danger of collapse due to sea level rise and repeated storm damage. An architectural infrastructure designed to capitalize on the tourism industry by providing additional recreational outlets, serving the prominent boating community, and temporarily alleviating the already limited resources on the island itself would be a more sustainable solution to the problem. Plum Island, MA has in particular lost great amounts of beach in the past twenty years from coastal storms, beach erosion, and sea level rise. Powerful storms have claimed homes and displaced permanent residents who have nowhere else to go. In what typically took a century, Plum Island has lost 100 feet ofbeach in two decades20. Hard stone-walled jetties such as the ones seen at the mouth of the Merrimack River are criticized by environmentalists as being financially burdensome due to maintenance and ineffective as protection.

Sand dredging is a popular tool that many coastal communities are resorting to, including Plum Island. The mouth of the Merrimack River was dredged to improve the safety of navigation as its waters are dangerously shallow and pose a great risk to boaters. Private homeowners have pooled their resources together to dredge sand in front of their properties as a last effort to keep the waves at bay after petitions for state funding were denied. However, the introduction of new sand is detrimental in more ways than one. Oftentimes different grains and colors than the sand around it, sea life that originally was camouflaged no longer have natural protection. Additional studies have shown that dredging is only temporarily affective, and in many cases washes away faster than the sand would naturally.

19. Daley, Beth. Oceans of Trouble for U.S. Taxpayers. New England Center for Investigative Reporting. March 09, 2014. Accessed November 10, 2014. http://necir.org/2014/03/09/oceans-of-trouble-for-u-s-taxpayers/.20.Wade, Christian M. Political Currents Pushing Coastal Buyback Program. The Salem News.September 2014. Accessed November 10, 2014. http://www.salemnews.com/news/local_news/article_68fd88bb-5aaf- 549a-8f8f-8ae8b25bd429.html?mode=jqm.

photograph by Cheryl LoughlinPrivatized shore armoring on Plum Island with sand bags and additional stones

photograph by Cheryl LoughlinFederally-funded north jetty on Plum Islandextending roughly 2,000 feet into the oceanfrom shore

boston.comSea walls along Scituate, MA are in need ofrepairs after accumulating years worth ofstorm damage defending homeowners from the ocean.

stripersonline.comGroin fields were built along P.I.s beach to helpalleviate beach erosion.

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Shoreline armoring with hard structures provides a false sense of security while simultaneously compromising surrounding property and habitat7.

Further temporary engineered coastal defense systems are witnessed in sea walls, jetties, groins, and sand-bagging. Particularly with sea walls and jetties, the erosion is quickened because the wave energy is absorbed all at once by the hard barrier at the edge of the beach. The lack of the beach in these cases eliminates the ability of nature to diffuse the wave energy as it approaches the shoreline. Scituate is lined with sea walls that have been breached during storms such as The Perfect Storm of 199121. The allusion of protection in these armored walls proves to have faults once they are broken, and water floods into the land and surrounding homes. Flattening the tops of jetties increases the speed that waves have when crashing, as there is nothing impeding their path through to the other side. Whereas previously the jetties on Plum Island had rough tops and worked to slow the wave energy to a degree, the smooth platforms now do nothing in terms of diffusing the incoming energy. Groins are shorter structures than jetties, but extend perpendicularly into the ocean to help prevent beach erosion and trap sand that would otherwise be swept down the beach. This has beneficial and negative side effects as sand accumulates on the updrift side of the groin, but often deprives the downdrift side of the groin of necessary sediment. Sand-bagging is resorted to at the last minute and also has diminishing returns in effectiveness. All of these fixes are impermanent solutions which exacerbate erosion and promote human development in vulnerable areas.

The numerous repairs made to the jetties on the northern end of Plum Island exhibit the great strain placed on economies when funding these projects. Constructed in 1881, the jetties were built to a height of 12 feet above mean low water level, with a width of 15 feet. Two decades later, however, repairs totaling $8,730 were made to both jetties; this is equivalent to $223,000 spent in todays economy. In total, the amount spent on repairs to the jetty from 1905 until 1970 is equivalent to $11,160,752 today22. Countless tons of stone were brought in from off-site locations to fortify the jetty structure as it deteriorated and broke down over the years. Under the 2013 Disaster Appropriations Act another $5.5 million was appropriated by the Army Corps of Engineers. This continued spending on a failing engineered system is the strongest case for a new typology defending the coasts from flooding while respecting the natural environment and its processes.

7. Carini, Frank21. Aloe, Jessica. Mass. Law Makes Flood Insurance More Affordable Yet Some See Risks. New England Center for Investigative Reporting, July 28, 2014. Accessed November 10, 2014. http://necir.org/2014/07/28/11996/.22. Army Corps of Engineers. NEW ENGLAND DISTRICT. Repairs Made to South Jetty in Newburyport New England District News Stories. May 30, 2013. Accessed November 10, 2014. http://www.nae.usace.army.

$223

,000

$8,7

30

$18,40

0$33

0,600

1905-08

adjusted present day value

1917-18 1925 1936-38 1968-70

$4,600$60,482

$143,700$2,346,212

$8,814,541 $1,489,000

Costs of Plum Island Jetty Repairs ComparingInitial Prices to Adjusted Rates to Reflect Present Day Valuesdiagram by author

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Funding for Infrastructural Project

The cost of funding a coastal protection infrastructural project would largely fall on the shoulders of the state and federal governments and specific agencies within them. As a result of the scope of the project, individual towns and communities could assume no financial responsibility because of the off-shore location and its future trajectory. Different states have regulations on what is privately owned, state owned, and federally owned land extending from the beach out into the ocean. The coast line is the line of ordinary low water along that portion of the coast which is in direct contact with the open sea23. States lay claim to lands beneath navigable waters within boundaries specific to each state. Massachusetts in particular has state ownership of submerged lands from the coast line out 3 nautical miles, whereby the federal government then has ownership and jurisdiction. Recognizing that a coastal protective infrastructure would occur within a certain radius off of the coast, most likely within one-quarter mile so the public can easily gain access, it can be deduced that each state would have to appropriate funds.

Due to the environmental and economic impacts of such a structure, the Office of Energy and Environmental Affairs, Massachusetts Office of Coastal Zone Management, and Division of Marine Fisheries, and the National Flood Insurance Program would inevitably collaborate on funding and execution. The ability of the state to endure economic setbacks and financial burdens accrued from coastal damage to residents is diminishing. Lowered flood insurance premiums were made for years by the federal government, which encouraged housing development and continued coastal living. In 2012 Congress phased out subsidies previously given to homeowners with damaged property, and replaced it with raised premiumswere made for years by the federal government, which encouraged housing development and continued coastal living. In 2012 Congress phased out subsidies previously given to homeowners with damaged property, and replaced it with raised premiums in order to accurately reflect the dangers of living in flood-prone zones. This was vehemently rejected by homeowners who either never had to pay for flood insurance coverage, or were faced with staggering increases in premiums. In response to this measure of Congress, Obamas Homeowner Flood Insurance Affordability Act signed in March of 2014, limits insurance rate increases to 18% a year21 in attempts to decrease the financial strain placed on families in FEMAs newly produced flood zones.

However, environmentalists are against these lenient amendments of the23. S. 1301-1315, 43rd Cong., Bureau of Ocean Energy Management 67 (2002) (enacted).21. Aloe, Jessica

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House and Obama because of its delaying the inevitable. The shock of new insurance policies is not reason to stop their implementation19. Realizing the danger of living on the coast is necessary in catalyzing changes in legislature and sustainability along the coast. A balance between the cost of protecting flood-prone homes and protecting the environment along the coasts is difficult to reach, yet must be viewed through the lens of sustainable, realistic infrastructure. As mentioned previously, a host of federal and state agencies would be involved in the execution of such infrastructural projects. The Massachusetts Office of Coastal Zone Management (CZM) is under the umbrella of the Executive Office of Energy and Environmental Affairs (EEA) and aspires to mediate impacts of human activity through the protection of coastal and marine resources. As its objectives align with safeguarding the environment alongside the developed world, funding for coastal protective projects overseen by the CZM would be provided through the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)16.

Architectural Potential

Architecture is uniquely situated to mediate the needs of the public, property owners, boaters and fishermen, and the vital estuarine and marsh systems. Creative design does not need to be sacrificed in order to accomplish these goals. Typologies of marine infrastructures already exist that architecture can extrapolate into new, protective coastal structures. It is possible to draw from both successful and unsuccessful coastal design projects to inform a hybridized architectural solution that is responsive to the natural environment, addresses the needs of the robust recreational boating and fishing community, and works to alleviate some of the effectsof coastal erosion. The lifespan of this architectural system is intended to surpass human utilization and ultimately function as a natural habitat for sea life. Hypothesizing about future uses of this architectural protective structure opens up possibilities to further the revitalization of struggling ecologies. As SCAPE/Landscape Team proposed in their Living Breakwaters intervention along Staten Island, constructed reefs and breakwaters can foster complex sea habitats, water-based activities, and social resiliency24. A new approach to coastal protection that accommodates ecologies through constructed reefs and fisheries, revitalizes communities via alleviation from tidal energy, and supports industries through innovative amenities producing positive outcomes for previously detrimental interventions.

19. Daley, Beth 16. Massachusetts Office of Coastal Zone Management24. SCAPE/Landscape Architecture PLLC. SCAPE: Living Breakwaters. SCAPE: Living Breakwaters. 2013. Accessed August 31, 2014. http://www.scapestudio.com/projects/living-breakwaters/.

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Projects that are focused around these aforementioned principles are appearing in proposals for areas experiencing adverse effects of coastal flooding and development. New York and New Jersey were devastated by Hurricane Sandy, and have since placed priorities on developing a system that prevents the same amount of damage from occurring in the future. Architects and designers produced proposals that not only attempt to alleviate the damage done by these natural disasters, but also contribute beneficial social infrastructure. The BIG Teams proposal for redeveloping Manhattans coastline incorporates a mix of social and civic program responsive to the unique characteristics of the neighborhoods and existing architectural conditions15. The protective system is not sacrificed in order to achieve this architectural solution; rather attention to the complex zones addressed. Another example of multi-functional offshore infrastructure is in Singapore at the Pulua Semakau eco-park landfill. This uniquely built island is in the ocean and has become a recreational outlet for fishermen, campers, bird watchers, and people interested in learning about the ecology of the landfill and its environment. Though surrounded by an impermeable membrane, the island produces clean water, fresh air, and a thriving environment with robust wildlife, fauna, and marine life. Breaking the mold of typical landfill uses, the Semakau landfill transcends into a vibrant offshore green environment25.

Revitalizing Marine Ecosystems Through Artificial Reefs

Projects focused around artificial farming are in place in New England in order to reestablish the marine ecologies that have become depleted due to overharvesting, unclean water, and pollution. Among the more successful projects currently underway is the Billion Oyster Project in New Yorks Harbor. In the 1600s there were 220,000 acres of oyster reefs in the Hudson River, and was one of the most biologically productive, diverse, and dynamic environments on the planet26. With the implementation of the Clean Water Act, the Billion Oyster Project took root and established a large scale restoration. Through educational models, volunteers, and active involvement in keeping the river clean, the Billion Oyster Project predicts one billion oysters living in 100 acres of artificial reefs; once again the Hudson will be the oyster capital26.

Artificial reefs are utilized as tools to mitigate natural habitat loss, increase recreational and commercial fishing, and help local fish populations bounce back. Aquaculture is used in New England to restore components of the aquatic ecosystem27. The construction of oyster reefs for water quality improvement, shore protection zones, and enhancing natural populations is one of the most significant examples of restoration15. THE BIG TEAM25. Infrascape Design. Infrascape Design. August 18, 2011. Accessed November 10, 2014.26. Billion Oyster Project. About BOP. Billion Oyster Project About BOP Comments. 2013. Accessed November 23, 2014. https://www.billionoysterproject.org/about/.27. Lapointe, George. Overview of the Aquaculture Sector in New England. PDF. Northeast Regional Ocean Council, March 2013.

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aquaculture. As overfishing, pollution, climate rise and human impact negatively impact aquatic ecosystems, the introduction of artificial reefs to coastal New England act to offset some of the incurred damages. Massachusetts currently grows oysters, soft shell clams, quahog, bay scallops, and mussels through artificial reefs that are permitted by local municipalities27. The fact that artificial reefs are regulated under specific guidelines to ensure they are not detrimental to the existing ecosystem provides hope for their continued success. Variations in their application and combination with other programs will surely arise as artificial reefs become more utilized. Varieties of fish, algae, and shellfish flourish in these artificial reefs; habitats are created in the crevices of rocks and other materials, invertebrates inhabit the reef structures and filter algae, organic matter, and bacteria from the water column28.

The Brewster Island Reef is one of four artificial reefs along Massachusetts state coastline. East of the Boston Harbor, the constructed reef was implemented in 2006 by the Marine Fisheries to mitigate the anticipated biological damages accrued by the construction of the Hub Line. The entire reef is 1.7 acres in size, and has six rectangular segments of varying boulders arranged in parallel arrays28. This specific reef aims to provide habitats for finfish and invertebrates vital to Massachusetts marine economy such as the American lobster, cod, flounder, and sea scallops. In order to track the success of the artificial reef, a naturally occurring reef near the site was located as a control. As the aquatic ecosystem is mediated through man-made construction, the public is encouraged to use the new site for fishing and diving29. As engineered infrastructures, these artificial reefs simultaneously apply to the role architecture has in designing efficient and effective systems that serve more than one user group. Architecture is situated to bridge the gap between civil engineering and architecture through multifunctional artificial reef structures that provide shoreline protection, recreational fishing and boating outlets for residents, and habitats for aquatic ecosystems.

One of the most powerful aspects of architecture is its ability to transform public opinion. Waterfronts are among the most beautiful landscapes in the world. New Englands coast is known for its picturesque harbors and stretch of sandy beaches. Just as lighthouses are iconic waterfront fixtures, offshore commercial architecture can become a symbol of environmentally conscious coastal protection as one of architectures responsibilities to address the need for protective coastal design. Through strategic placement of the offshore marina infrastructure, homeowners

27. Lapointe, George. Overview of the Aquaculture Sector in New England. PDF. Northeast Regional Ocean Council, March 2013. 28. United States of America. Massachusetts Division of Marine Fisheries. Executive Office of Energy and Environmental Affairs. Mass.gov. By M. A. Rousseau. June 2008. Accessed November 23, 2014. http:// www.mass.gov/eea/docs/dfg/dmf/programsandprojects/artificial-reef-policy.pdf.29. Glenn, Bob, and Kelly Whitmore. Bottom Sediment Enhancement. Energy and Environmental Affairs. 2014. Accessed November 23, 2014. http://www.mass.gov/eea/agencies/dfg/dmf/programs-and-projects/ bottom-sediment-enhancement.html.

Linear Bar

Separated Bars

Double Loaded Bar

Bar Series with Breakwater

Bar with Breakwater

Radial

Massing Typologies for Plum Islanddiagrams by author

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onshore would have an added layer of hybridized defense from the ocean. In accordance with Executive Order No. 181, the proposed architectural intervention will assist in making the navigation through the boating channel safer, slow the tidal energy of onshore homes while also accumulating sediment for beach replenishment30. Incorporating the diverse needs of residents on the island, tourists, fishermen and lobstermen, boaters, and the environment will result in a new typology of coastal protection. Designing the structures that safeguard the livelihoods of communities and encourage additional ecological growth will set a new standard of design and sustainable consideration. Transforming the traditional engineered shoreline armoring systems into architectural marinas that serve community and ecological needs generates a linear system of structure that can expand in length depending on the parameters of each particular coastal community. The benefits provided by the revitalizing marina infrastructure will not only benefit the barrier islands, but change opinions of how offshore infrastructures interact with the environment and coastal development.

Massachusetts (2008) (enacted).

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Annotated Bibliography

Institution of Civil Engineers. Facing Up to Rising Sea Levels. Building Futures. Accessed August

28, 2014. http://www.buildingfutures.org.uk/projects/building-futures/facing-up.As the United Kingdom is facing a changing physical environment due to rising sea-levels, the Institution of Civil Engineers partnered with Building Futures in order to develop a dialogue regarding the need to re-approach coastal design. Not only is the UK facing rising sea-levels, but there are parts of the landmass that are starting to sink, and they have seen an increase in storm frequency. Due to the financial burden of tackling this kind of project, poor communication between all stakeholders, and planning interventions at inappropriate timescales, effective solutions have not yet been found. The Building Futures seeks to challenge designers, planners, and communities to view flood management as a new possibility for innovation. Can flood management be profitable? Three plans are proposed to approach flood management; retreat, defend, and attack. Looking at the various pros and cons for each strategy is an integral tool to understanding the most responsible and viable solution for a specific location. Attention has been paid to financial, economic, social, and environmental issues associated with incorporating flood management. As designers and planners for cities look at the new and evolving landscape, it is necessary to relinquish

previous dispositions and open up to the possibilities of a new flood management typology.

Healey, Jane A. Regulating Residential Development on Massachusetts Barrier Islands:

Inadequacies, Opportunities, and the Case of Plum Island. Masters thesis,

Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2003. Cambridge: Department of Urban Studies

Planning, 2003.Plum Island is used as a case study for the investigation into responsible residential development on Massachusetts barrier islands. This thesis explores the difficulties of living on a barrier island such as Plum Island, but pushes the boundaries of design and proposes new methods of environmentally and economically viable development. The difficulties of working with a multitude of stakeholders are outlined in Healeys thesis as well. As homeowners are deeply rooted to their homes, it is difficult for designers, engineers and planners to convince them of the questionable viability of their location. Developers are also jumping at the opportunity to build on these barrier islands as a result of their tremendous financial profit. After the integration of water and sewer lines to the developed 1/3 of Plum Island, more development would be allowed to occur. However, as Healey also explains, the coastal erosion, while a natural process, is being exacerbated by man-made interventions, development, and an increase in storms. Recognizing the importance of the salt marsh and barrier island ecosystem is fundamental in Healeys proposals for revisions to developmental

plans on the eroding beaches.

Hoel, Michael L. Lands Edge: A Natural History and Field Guide to Barrier Beaches from Maine

to North Carolina. Newbury, MA: Little Book Pub., 1986.Hoel studied the history behind the Atlantic glaciated coast and the actions of the sea against the barrier islands. Throughout history the coast has been bombarded by series of storms that have caused beach migration, coastal erosion, and a change in the topography. These phenomena are completely natural, yet are creating negative effects in the developed areas. The developed land is also harming the natural ecosystem and its inhabitants. Salt marsh ecologies are extremely unique and are one of the most productive environments in the world. Hoel elucidates the necessity to maintain their health in order to maintain equilibrium. Despite global sea-level rise, salt marshes are able to naturally adapt to the changing levels of the sea


29


due to their composition. Understanding the fundamental functions of the salt marsh system, its food chain, and how it benefits the coast is vital to mans future approach to development

along the coast and on ever-changing barrier islands.

Massachusetts Office Of Coastal Zone Management (Czm). Trends in the Demographics of

Human Population & the Massachusetts Marine Economy. Trends in the Demographics

of Human Population and the Massachusetts Marine Economy: 1-9. Accessed September

01, 2014. http://www.mass.gov/eea/docs/czm/oceans/waves-of-change/tech-demogecon.

pdf.The demographics of population trends within Massachusetts have shown to increase tremendously along the coast from the 1970s until 2000. Having 78 coastal communities, the population within these cities and towns accounts for 1/3 of Massachusettss entire population. More specifically, within Essex County the population grew 5.6% over thirty years and continues to show an upward trend in growth. The marine economy of Massachusetts is also fundamental to approximately 81,808 jobs. Not only contributing to the states economy, these industries are crucial to the coastal communities they serve. Residential and commercial development in coastal communities has outgrown that of the rest of the state and trends show it continuing in this way. The shift in primary industries also has a drastic effect on the success and livelihood of coastal economies. Tourism is taking a big role in economies as mineral production and commercial fishing have shrunken over the recent years. Smart development along the coastal communities needs to be environmentally conscious and respect the importance of the sea to the states economy and job market.

SCAPE/Landscape Architecture PLLC. SCAPE: Living Breakwaters. SCAPE: Living

Breakwaters. 2013. Accessed August 31, 2014. http://www.scapestudio.com/

projects/living-breakwaters/.In response to the Rebuild By Design competition based along the New Jersey/New York coastline post Hurricane Sandy, SCAPE/Landscape Architecture, PLLC proposed a protective measure that integrated ecology, human culture, and risk reduction. By creating a long system of habitat breakwaters and constructed reefs, the risk of coastal flooding is drastically reduced because the wave energy is absorbed farther off shore. Additionally, these artificially created barriers catalyze the growth of protective ecosystems such as oyster colonies and other species of organisms. Approaching this system in a way that can be adapted to other future sites, the social demographics of coastal communities was considered. Communities most vulnerable to inundation often have populations with higher than average rates of poor English. As a tool to change this, SCAPE/Landscape incorporated learning facilities on the land that were associated with specific features in that regions breakwater structure. Integrating the community into the overall design of the coastline and offshore plan was fundamental in making many, if not all, parts of the various communities feel connected to the flooding solution.

Daley, Beth. Oceans of Trouble for U.S. Taxpayers. New England Center for Investigative Reporting. March 09, 2014. Accessed November 10, 2014. http://necir.org/2014/03/09/oceans-of-trouble-for-u-s-taxpayers/.Insurance premiums for homeowners along the coast are rising as legislature has been approved which would more accurately reflect the risks of living along the coast. However, many property owners are unprepared for the price increases because new federal flood plain maps have raised insurance rates for thousands of homes already facing the premium inflation. As sea levels rise and coastal storm frequency increases, the question of maintaining


30


coastal living is at the forefront of discussion. Towns such as Scituate, MA are accustomed to extreme storm damage, and lay claim to 112 of the nations total 12,000 significant flood claims to the NFIP. Due to FEMAs blind assistance policy, the amount of financial assistance awarded since 2005 has placed the program in $24 billion debt. Taxpayers are left with the bill, and many feel it is not the responsibility of every taxpayer to cover expenses of those living in risk-prone locations. As coastal living continues to be a popular trend and sea level rise is a fact, it is crucial to acknowledge how existing coastal protection infrastructure fails in the long term and is a tremendous economic burden. Opportunities for new protective typologies can emerge from the problems that are facing taxpayers, homeowners, and the environment.

Exec. Order No. 181, 3 C.F.R. 1 (1980).The governor of Massachusetts created an executive order regarding barrier beaches and the measures to be taken in order to protect these essential resources. Barrier beaches are given first-priority help from state and federal programs. Additionally, this adoption of assistance was applied to the Statewide Outdoor Comprehensive Recreation Plan. Most notable, however, is that the largest amount of state and federal assistance is provided to those homeowners who are willing to relocate away from the disaster-prone coastal locations. The federal and state agencies acknowledge the risk and economic strain that comes from living on barrier beaches, and place emphasis on restricting development and encouraging relocation. Also laid out in this order is that state and federal funds and grants are not to be used to encourage development in the hazardous areas. Engineered infrastructures are to be located near navigation channels only to facilitate safer navigation. Providing an architectural intervention that improves navigation while protecting the existing homes onshore will set a new standard for development that does not increase the hazard of living on barrier islands, and potentially improves the economic burden by creating additional economic outlets.

Executive Office of Energy and Environmental Affairs. Massachusetts Shoreline Change Browser. 2014. Raw data. Massachusetts Office of Coastal Zone Management, Commonwealth of Massachusetts.Through the GIS technology provided through the Executive Office of Energy and Environmental Affairs the drastic changes in shoreline on Plum Island can be analyzed. The geography of the shoreline on the barrier island is constantly in flux due to its impermanence as a barrier island, yet the permanent development on the northern end of the island is subject to natures changing coastline. While these changes are not as noticeable day-to-day while living on the island, maps cumulatively show the changes throughout the years. With sea levels rising, these shoreline changes stand to become more drastic in coming years; leaving homeowners in hazardous conditions as the distance between their homes and the ocean diminishes.


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Colleen Loughlin | Roser-GrayResisting the Waves Annotated Bibliography

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Colleen Loughlin | Roser-GrayResisting the Waves Bibliography

Bibliography

Aloe, Jessica. Mass. Law Makes Flood Insurance More Affordable Yet Some See Risks. New England Center for Investigative Reporting. July 28, 2014. Accessed November 10, 2014. http://necir.org/2014/07/28/11996/.

Adie, Donald W. General Design Principles. In Marinas, a Working Guide to Their Development and Design, 95-162. London: Architectural Press, 1984.

Advanced Water Purification Facility / Mainstreet Architects + Planners, Inc. ArchDaily. November 26, 2013. Accessed September 01, 2014. http://www. archdaily.com/451678/advanced-water-purification-facility- mainstreet-architects-planners-inc/.

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Architectural Thesis Research | Interactive, Protective Coastal Infrastructure