ARCHITECTURE-edited

8/7/2019 ARCHITECTURE-edited

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ARCHITECTURE


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The word "architecture"comes from the Latinarchitectura and that from Greek (architekton), "master builder", from the combination

of- (archi-), "c

hief" or "leader" and (tekton), a "builder" or "carpenter".[8][9]

While the primary application of the word"architecture" pertains to the built environment, byextension, the term has come to denote the art and

discipline ofcreating an actual (or inferring an impliedor apparent) plan of any complex object or system.


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architecture

is the activity ofdesigning and constructingbuildings and other physical structures by aperson or a machine, primarily done to providesocially purposeful shelter. A wider definitionoften includes the design of the total builtenvironment, from the macro level ofhow abuilding integrates with its surrounding manmade landscape to the micro level of

architectural or construction details and,sometimes, furniture. Wider still, architecture isthe activity of designing any kind ofsystem.


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architecture

creative organisation of materials and

components in a land- or city-scape, dealing

with mass, space, form, volume, texture,

structure, light, shadow, materials, program,

and pragmatic elements such as cost,

construction limitations and technology, to

achieve an end which is functional,economical, practical and often with artistic

and aesthetic aspects.


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Historic treatises

The earliest written work on the subject of

architecture is De architectura, by the Roman

architect Vitruvius in the early 1st century

Durability - it should stand up robustly and remain in

good condition.

Utility - it should be useful and function well for the

people using it.

Beauty - it should delight people and raise their spirits.


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Historic treatises

Leone Battista Alberti, in his De Re Aedificatoria, sawbeauty primarily as a matter of proportion, althoughornament also played a part. For Alberti, the rules ofproportion were those that governed the idealised human

figure, the Golden Mean.

In the early nineteenth century, Augustus WelbyNorthmore Pugin wrote Contrasts (1836) that, as the titledsuggested, contrasted the modern, industrial world, which

he disparaged, with an idealized image of neo-medievalworld. Gothic architecture, Pugin believed, was the onlytrue Christian form of architecture.


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Historic treatises

The 19th century English art critic, John Ruskin, in his Seven Lampsof Architecture, published 1849,[16] was much narrower in his viewof what constituted architecture. Architecture was the "art whichso disposes and adorns the edifices raised by men ... that the sightof them" contributes "to his mental health, power, and pleasure".

The great 19th century architect of skyscrapers, Louis Sullivan,promoted an overriding precept to architectural design: "Formfollows function. While the notion that structural and aestheticconsiderations should be entirely subject to functionality was metwith both popularity and skepticism, it had the effect of introducingthe concept of "function" in place of Vitruvius "utility". "Function"

came to be seen as encompassing all criteria of the use, perceptionand enjoyment of a building, not only practical but also aesthetic,psychological and cultural..


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EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE

the two predominant building materials used inancient Egypt were sunbaked mud brick and stone,mainly limestone, but also sandstone and granite inconsiderable quantities.[

stone was generally reserved for tombs and temples,while bricks were used even for royal palaces,fortresses, the walls of temple precincts and towns,and for subsidiary buildings in temple complexes.

Egypt houses were made out of mud collected fromthe Nile river. It was placed in molds and left to dry inthe hot sun to harden for use in construction.


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Also, many temples and tombs have survivedbecause they were built on high groundunaffected by the Nile flood and were

constructed of stone. Although the use of the arch was developed

during the fourth dynasty, all monumentalbuildings are post and lintel constructions, with

flat roofs constructed of huge stone blockssupported by the external walls and the closelyspaced columns.


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Many motifs of Egyptian ornamentation are

symbolic, such as the scarab, or sacred beetle,

the solar disk, and the vulture. Other common

motifs include palm leaves, the papyrus plant,

and the buds and flowers of the lotus.[7]

Hieroglyphs were inscribed for decorative

purposes as well as to record historic eventsor spells.


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scarab, or sacred beetle


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solar disk


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vulture


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The Great Sphinx is thought by most

Egyptologists to represent the likeness of King

Khafra

Father of Terror,

Carved out of the surrounding limestonebedrock, it is 73.5 meters (241 ft) long, 6 m (20

ft) wide, and has a height of 20 m (65 ft),

making it the largest single-stone statue in the

world.


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also called Khufu's Pyramid or the Pyramid of

Khufu, and Pyramid of Cheops, is the oldest

and largest of the three pyramids in the Giza

Necropolis bordering what is now Cairo, Egypt,

and is the only remaining member of theSeven Wonders of the Ancient World. It is

believed the pyramid was built as a tomb for

Fourth dynasty Egyptian pharaoh Khufu


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The Karnak temple complex, universally

known only as Karnak, describes a vast

conglomeration of ruined temples, chapels,

pylons and other buildings. It


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The architectonic organization taking like basic

element the column is an essential

contribution of the Egyptian art, like is it thefoundamentatin of the beauty in the

mathematical reason of the proportions, is to

say of the relations between the parts that

integrate the building.


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Mesopotamia

(from the Greek meaning "The land between

the two rivers")[1] is an area geographically

located between the Tigris and Euphrates

rivers, largely corresponding to modern Iraq,[2]

as well as northeastern Syria,[2] southeastern

Turkey,[2] and the Khzestn Province of

southwestern Iran[3][4].


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Houses

The materials used to build a Mesopotamianhouse were the same as those used today:

mud brick, mud plaster and wooden doors,

which were all naturally available round the

city,[27] although wood could not be naturally

made very well during the particular time

period described. Most houses had a squarecenter room with other rooms attached to it,

but a great variation in the size and materials

used to build the houses suggest they were

built by the inhabitants themselves [1]. The

smallest rooms may not have coincided with

the poorest people; in fact it

could be that the

poorest people built houses out of perishable

materials such as reeds on the outside of the

city, but there is very little direct evidence for

this.[28]

mud brick

mud plaster

wooden doors


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ziggurat (Akkadian ziqqurrat, D-stem ofzaqru "to build on a raised area") was a temple tower

of the ancient Mesopotamian valley and Iran, having the form of a terraced pyramid of

successively receding stories or levels. Some modern buildings with a step pyramid shape have

also been termed ziggurats.


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The Ziggurat was dedicated to the moon

Nanna (or Suen. The name Nanna is Sumerian

for "illuminator."), in the Sumerian city ofUr in

ancient Mesopotamia


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CAD rendering ofSialk's largest ziggurat based on

archeological evidence.


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According to Herodotus, at the top of each ziggurat was a

shrine, although none of these shrines has survived.[5]

One practical function of the ziggurats was a high place

on which the priests could escape rising water that

annually inundated lowlands and occasionally flooded for

hundreds of miles, as for example the 1967 flood.[6]

Another practical function of the ziggurat was for

security. Since the shrine was accessible only by way of

three stairways,[7] a small number of guards could

prevent non-priests from spying on the rituals at the

shrine on top of the ziggurat. These rituals probably

included cooking of sacrificial food and burning of

carcasses of sacrificial animals. The height of the ziggurat

allowed the smoke to blow away without polluting city

buildings. Each ziggurat was part of a temple complex

that included a courtyard, storage rooms, and living

quarters, around which a city was built.[8]


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GREEK ARCHITECTURE

Common materials of Greek architecture were wood,used for supports and roof beams; unbaked brick usedfor walls, especially for private homes; limestone andmarble, used for columns, walls, and upper portions oftemples and public buildings; terracotta, used for rooftiles and ornaments; and metals, especially bronze,used for decorative details.

Architects of the Archaic and Classical periods used

these building materials to construct five simple typesof buildings: religious, civic, domestic, funerary, orrecreational.


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Temple of Hera: restored ruins at Olympia.


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A 1908 illustration of the temple as it might have looked in the 5th century BCE


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Most buildings were rectangular and

made from limestone or tuff, of which

Greece has an abundance, and which

was cut into large blocks and dressed.

Marble was an expensive building

material in Greece: high quality marble

came only from Mt. Pentelicus in Attica

and from a few islands such as Paros, and

its transportation in large blocks was

difficult. It was used mainly for sculptural

decoration, not structurally, except in the

very grandest buildings of the Classicalperiod such as the Parthenon.


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The palaestra was the ancient Greekwrestling school. The events that did not

require a lot of space, such as boxing andwrestling, were practiced there. The palaestra

functioned both independently and as a part

of publicgymnasia. A palaestra could exist

without a gymnasium, but no gymnasium

could exist without a palaestra.


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bouleuterion or council chamber, alarge public building which served as a court

house and as a meeting place for the town

council


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As is usual for Greek theaters (and as opposed

to Roman ones), the view on a lush landscape

behind the skene is an integral part of the

theater itself and is not to be obscured.

A 2007 study by Nico F. Declercq and Cindy

Dekeyser of the Georgia Institute of

Technology indicates that the astonishing

acoustic properties are either the result of an

accident or the product of advanced design:

The rows of limestone seats filter out low-frequency sounds, such as the murmur of the

crowd, and amplify/reflect high-frequency

sounds from the stage.[1]


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ORDER OF GREEK ARCHITECTURE

In their original Greek version, Doriccolumns

stood directly on the flat pavement (the

stylobate) of a temple without a base; their

vertical shafts were fluted with 20 parallel

concave grooves; and they were topped by a

smooth capital that flared from the column to

meet a square abacus at the intersection withthe horizontal beam (entablature) that they

carried.


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Doriccolumns


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The Ionic order column

originated in the mid-6th

century BC in Ionia, the

southwestern coastland and

islands ofAsia Minor settled

by Ionian Greeks, where an

Ionian dialect was spoken.

The Ionic order column was

being practiced in mainland

Greece in the 5th century

BC. The first of the great

Ionic temples, though it

stood for only a decade

before an earthquake

leveled it, was the Temple of

Hera on Samos, built about

570 BC560 BC by the

architect Rhoikos.


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Vitruvius wrote that theCorinthian order had been

invented by Callimachus, an

architect and sculptor who was

inspired by the sight of a votive

basket that had been left on the

grave of a young girl. A few of

her toys were in it, and a square

tile had been placed over the

basket, to protect them from the

weather. An acanthus plant had

grown through the woven

basket, mixing its spiny, deeply

cut leaves with the weave of the

basket


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ROMAN ARCHITECTURE

The Architecture ofAncient Rome adoptedthe external Greek architecture for their ownpurposes, which were so different from Greek

buildings as to create a new architectural style The use ofvaults and arches together with a

sound knowledge of building materials, forexample, helped enabled them to achieveunprecedented successes in the constructionof imposing structures for public use.


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The Colosseum or Coliseum originally the Flavian


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The Colosseum or Coliseum, originally the Flavian

Amphitheatre (Latin:Amphitheatrum Flavium, ItalianAnfiteatro

Flavio or Colosseo), is an elliptical amphitheatre in the centre of

the city ofRome, Italy, the largest ever built in the Roman

Empire. It is one of the greatest works ofRoman architecture

and Roman engineering.Occupying a site just east of the Roman Forum, its construction

started between 70 and 72 AD under the emperor Vespasian

and was completed in 80 AD under Titus, with further

modifications being made during Domitian's reign (8196).[1]

The name "Amphitheatrum Flavium" derives from both

Vespasian's and Titus's family name (Flavius, from the gensFlavia).


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The Latin word basilica (derived from Greek,

Basilik Sto, Royal Stoa), was originally used

to describe a Roman public building (as inGreece, mainly a tribunal), usually located in

the forum of a Roman town. In Hellenistic

cities, public basilicas appeared in the 2nd

century BC.


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Byzantine Architecture


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TheB

yzantine Empire

[3]

and Eastern RomanEmpire are recent names used to describe the

Roman Empire during the Middle Ages, centered

on its capital ofConstantinople, referred to by

its inhabitants simply as the Roman Empire, itsemperors continuing the unbroken succession of

Roman emperors, preserving Greco-Roman legal

and cultural traditions;


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Byzantine architecture is the architecture of the

Byzantine Empire. The empire graduallyemerged as a distinct artistic and cultural entity

from what is today referred to as the Roman

Empire after AD 330, when the Roman EmperorConstantine moved the capital of the Roman

Empire east from Rome to Byzantium.

Byzantium, "New Rome", was later renamed

Constantinople and is now called Istanbul.


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Early Architecture of the

Byzantine Empire


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Prime examples of early Byzantine architecture datefrom Justinian I's reign and survive in Ravennaand Constantinople, as well as in Sofia (theChurch of St Sophia). One of the great

breakthroughs in the history ofWesternarchitecture occurred when Justinian's architectsinvented a complex system providing for asmooth transition from a square plan of thechur

ch to a

circular dome (or domes) by means ofsquinches or pendentives.


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A squinch in architecture is a

piece ofconstruction used for

filling in the upper angles of a

square room so as to form a

proper base to receive anoctagonal or spherical dome.


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A pendentive is a constructive

device permitting the placing

of a circular dome over a

square room or an elliptical

dome over a rectangular

room. The pendentives, which

are triangular segments of a

sphere, taper to points at the

bottom and spread at the top

to establish the continuous

circular or elliptical baseneeded for the dome.


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The Church of St. Irene


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Hagia Sofia


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The Middle period of Byzantinehistory saw no ambitious architectural undertaking. From

the years ofIconoclasm we have only the Church ofHagia

Sophia in Thessaloniki. Another major building, the

Assumption church in Nicaea, was destroyed in the

1920s, although the photographs survive.

It is presumed that Basil I's votive church of the

Theotokos of Phoros (no longer extant) served as a model

for most cross-in-square sanctuaries of theperiod, including the Cattolica di Stilo in southern Italy

(9th century), the monastery church ofHosios Lukas in

Greece (ca. 1000), Nea Moni of Chios (a pet project of

Constantine IX), and the Daphni Monastery near Athens(ca. 1050).


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Narthex

In early Christian

architecture a portion of

the church at the west

end, separated from the

nave by a low wall or

screen and reserved for

the catechumens,

energumens, and

penitents who were notadmitted amongst the

congregation.


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Naos

The naos is the space

where the congregation

stands during the

service.


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BEMA

The altar stands in the central bay, or

bema, which is sometimesprovided with a synthronon, orbench, where the clergy may sit.The prosthesis is used for thepreparation of the eucharist, andthe diakonikon houses liturgicalvestments and texts used in thec

elebration of mass.

[


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Cattolica di Stilo


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Saint Sophia

Cathedral in Kiev

(present dayUkraine)


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Comnenian and Paleologan periods

Kalenderhane


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Kalenderhane

Mosque (Turkish:

Kalenderhane

Camii) is a former

Eastern Orthodoxchurch in Istanbul,

converted into a

mosque by the

Ottomans.With

high probability

thechur

ch wasoriginally

dedicated to the

Theotokos

Kyriotissa. This

building

represents one

among the few

still extant

examples of a

Byzantine church

with domed

Greek cross plan.


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The former Church of the Pantokrator(

today mosque ofZeyrek) in Istanbul

viewed from

S i k' ili i I l


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Saint Mark's Basilica in Italy


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The Chora Church (Turkish Kariye Mzesi, Kariye Camii, or Kariye

Kilisesi the Chora Museum, Mosque or Church)


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Gapan Church: Byzantine architecture-inspired


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Romanesque architecture is the

term that is used to describe thearchitecture of Europe which

emerged in the late 10th century

and evolved into the Gothic style

during the 12th century. The

Romanesque style in England ismore traditionally referred to as

Norman architecture.


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The word Romanesque was used todescribe the style which was

identifiably Medieval and prefigured

the Gothic, yet maintained the

rounded Roman arch and thus

appeared to be a continuation of the

Roman tradition of building, albeit a

much simplified and less technicallycompetent version.


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Romanesque architecture is known by

its massive quality, its thick walls,

round arc

hes, sturdy piers, groinvaults, large towers and decorative

arcading.

San Vittore alle


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Chiuse, Genga,

Italy, of undressed

stone, has atypically fortress-

like appearance.


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The interior of St

Gertrude, Nivelles,Belgium, has a king

post roof.


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Bayeux Cathedral, the crypt has

groin vaults and simplified

Corinthian capitals.


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Santa Maria in

Cosmedin (or de

Schola Graeca) isa basilica church

in Rome.


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The "blind arcade"

beneath this window at

Canterbury Cathedralhas overlapping arches

forming points, a

common decorative

feature of Romanesque

architecture in England.


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Gothic architecture is a style ofarchitecture which flourished during the high and late

medieval period. It evolved from Romanesque architecture

and was succeeded by Renaissance architecture.

Originating in 12th-century France and lasting into

the 16th century, Gothic architecture was knownduring the period as "the French Style" (Opus Francigenum),

with the term Gothic first appearing during the latter part of

the Renaissance as a stylistic insult.


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The term "Gothic", when applied to architecture, has

nothing to do with the historical Goths. It was a

pejorative term that came to be used as early as the

1530s by Giorgio Vasari to describe culture that was

considered rude and barbaric.[1] At the time in which

Vasari was writing, Italy had experienced a century of

building in the Classical architectural vocabulary

revived in the Renaissance and seen as the finite

evidence of a new Golden Age of learning and

refinement.


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A buttress is a support--usually

made of brick or stone--built against

a wall to support or reinforce it. A

flying buttress is a free-standing

buttress attached to the mainstructure by an arch or a half-arch.


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Most Gothicchurches, unless they are entitled chapels, are of the Latin cross (or

"cruciform") plan, with a long nave making the body of the church, a transverse armcalled the transeptand beyond it, an extension which may be called the choir, chancel or

presbytery.

Plan of

Amiens Cathedral


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A characteristic of

Gothicchurch

architecture is itsheight, both real

and proportional. A

section of the main

body of a Gothic

church usually

shows the nave as

considerably taller

than it is wide.

he Gothic east end ofCologne Cathedral

represents the extreme of verticality. (nave-

19th century)


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LightOne of the most

distinctive

characteristics of

Gothic architecture is

the expansive area of

the windows as at

Sainte Chapelle and

the very large size ofmany individual

windows


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Majesty

The facade of a large church or cathedral,

often referred to as the West Front, is generally

designed to create a powerful impression on

the approaching worshipper, demonstrating

both the might of God, and the might of the

institution that it represents. One of the best

known and most typical of such facades is that

of Notre Dame de Paris.


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The Baguio

Cathedral


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Baroque architecture, starting in the

early 17th century in Italy, tookthe humanist Roman vocabulary ofRenaissance architecture

and used it in a new rhetorical, theatrical, sculptural fashion,

expressing the triumph of absolutist church and state. Newarchitectural concerns for color, light and shade, sculptural

values and intensity characterize the Baroque. But whereas

the Renaissance drew on the wealth and power of the Italian

courts, and was a blend of secular and religious forces, the

Baroque was, initially at least, directly linked to the Counter-

Reformation

Important features of Baroque


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Important features ofBaroque

architecture include: long, narrow naves are replaced by broader, occasionally circular forms

dramatic use of light, either strong light-and-shade contrasts, chiaroscuroeffects (e.g. church ofWeltenburg Abbey), or uniform lighting by means ofseveral windows (e.g. church ofWeingarten Abbey)

opulent use of ornaments (puttos made ofwood (often gilded), plaster orstucco, marble or faux finishing)

large-scale ceiling frescoes the external faade is often characterized by a dramaticcentral projection

the interior is often no more than a shell for painting and sculpture(especially in the late Baroque)

illusory effects like trompe l'oeil and the blending ofpainting andarchitecture

in the Bavarian, Czech, Polish, and Ukrainian Baroque, pear domes areubiquitous

Marian and Holy Trinity columns are erected in Catholic countries, often inthanksgiving for ending a plague


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dramatic use of light, either strong light-and-

shade contrasts, chiaroscuro effects (e.g.

church of Weltenburg Abbey


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opulent use of

ornaments (puttos

made ofwood (oftengilded), plaster or

stucco, marble or faux

finishing)


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illusory effects like

trompe l'oeil and theblending ofpainting and

architecture


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TheB

ank of China Tower, 1990, by Pritzker

Prize-winning architectIeoh Ming Pei

As the name suggests, Formalism emphasizes

form. The architect is interested in visual

relationships between the building parts and

the work as a whole. Shape, often on a

monumental scale, is the focus of attention.

Lines and rigid geometric shapes predominate

in Formalist architecture. You will find

Formalism in many Modernist buildings,

especially in Bauhaus and International Style

architecture. Architect I.M. Pei has often been

praised for the "elegant formalism" of his

works.


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High-tech buildings are often called machine-

like. Steel, aluminium, and glass combine with

brightly colored braces, girders, and beams.

Many of the building parts are prefabricated in

a factory and assembled later. The support

beams, duct work, and other functional

elements are placed on the exterior of thebuilding, where they become the focus of

attention. The interior spaces are open and

adaptable for many uses. The High-tech

Centre Pompidou in Paris appears to be

turned inside out, revealing its inner workings

on the exterior facade.

Bauhaus is a German expression meaning

house for building. In 1919, the economy in


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house for building. In 1919, the economy in

Germany was collapsing after a crushing war.

ArchitectWalter Gropius was appointed to

head a new institution that would help rebuild

the country and form a new social order. Called

the Bauhaus, the Institution called for a new

"rational" social housing for the workers.

Bauhaus architects rejected "bourgeois" details

such as cornices, eaves, and decorative details.

They wanted to use principles of Classical

architecture in their most pure form: without

ornamentation of any kind. Bauhaus buildings

have flat roofs, smooth facades, and cubic

shapes. Colors are white, gray, beige, or black.

Floor plans are open and furniture is

functional.

The Bauhaus school disbanded when the Nazisrose to power. Walter Gropius, Ludwig Mies

van der Rohe, and other Bauhaus leaders

migrated to the United States. The term

InternationalStyle was applied to the

American form of Bauhaus architecture.

International Style is a term often used to


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describe Bauhaus architecture in the United

States. The name came from the book The

InternationalStyle by historian and critic

Henry-Russell Hitchcock and architect PhilipJohnson. The book was published in 1932 in

conjunction with an exhibition at the Museum

of Modern Art in New York. The term is again

used in a later book, International Architecture,

byWalter Gropius.While German Bauhaus

architecture had been concerned with thesocial aspects of design, America's

International Style became a symbolism of

Capitalism: The International Style is the

favored architecture for office buildings, and is

also found in upscale homes built for the rich.

One of the most famous examples of theInternational Style is Le Corbusier's United

Nations Secretariat building. The smooth glass

slab dominates New York's skyline along the

East River.


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One important trend in Modernist architecture is the

t t d minimalist or red cti ist


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movement toward minimalistor reductivistdesign. Hallmarks of Minimalism include: Buildings

are stripped of all but the most essential elements

Emphasis is plac

ed on the outline, or frame, of thestruture

Interior walls are eliminated

Floor plans are open

Lighting is used to dramatize lines and planes

The negative spaces around the structure are part of

the overall design

Modernist architect Ludwig Mies van der Rohe paved

the way for Minimalism when he said, "Less is

more." Minimalist architects drew much of their

inspiration from the elegant simplicity of traditional

Japanese architecture. Minimalists were also

inspired by a movement of early twentieth centuryDutch artists known as De Stijl. Valuing simplicity and

abstraction,De Stijl artists used only straight lines

and rectangular shapes. The Mexico City home of the

Pritzker Prize-winning architect Luis Barragn is

Minimalist in its emphasis on lines, planes, and open

spaces.


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The new main central branch of the Seattle

Public Library was designed by the Dutch

architect Rem Koolhaas and opened in 2004.

Deconstructivism, or Deconstruction, is an

approach to building design that attempts to

view architecture in bits and pieces. The basic

elements of architecture are dismantled.

Deconstructivist buildings may seem to have no

visual logic. They may appear to be made up of

unrelated, disharmonious abstract forms.

Deconstructive ideas are borrowed from the

French philosopher Jacques Derrida.


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The Sydney Opera House, designed by Jrn

Utzon, winner of the Pritzker Architecture Prizein 2003

Frank LloydWright said that all architecture is

organic, and the Art Nouveau architects of the

early twentieth century incorporated curving,

plant-like shapes into their designs. But in thelater half of the twentieth century, Modernist

architects took the concept of organic

architecture to new heights. By using new

forms ofconcrete and cantilever trusses,

architects could create swooping arches

without visible beams or pillars. Organic

buildings are never linear or rigidly geometric.

Instead, wavy lines and curved shapes suggest

natural forms.

Philip Johnson's At&T Headquarters (now the SONY

Building) is often cited as an example of


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Building) is often cited as an example of

postmodernism.

Postmodern architecture evolved from themodernist movement, yet contradicts many of

the modernist ideas. Combining new ideas

with traditional forms, postmodernist buildings

may startle, surprise, and even amuse. Familiar

shapes and details are used in unexpected

ways. Buildings may incorporate symbols to

make a statement or simply to delight the

viewer. Philip Johnson's At&T Headquarters is

often cited as an example of postmodernism.

Like many buildings in the International Style,

the skyscraper has a sleek, classical facade. At

the top, however, is an oversized

"Chippendale" pediment.

The key ideas of Postmodernism are set forth

in two important books by Robert Venturi:

Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture

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ARCHITECTURE-edited