Arctic Anthropology

Hunter-Gatherer Impact on SubarcticVegetation: Amerindian and

Palaeoeskimo Occupations of Port auChoix, Northwestern Newfoundland

M.A.P. Renouf, Trevor Bell, and Joyce Macpherson

Abstract. This paper presents data from two ponds at Port au Choix, in northwestern New-foundland, each associated with one or more archaeological sites. Disruptions in vegetation inthe ponds and surrounding areas are linked to contemporaneous human activities nearby andcomparisons are made between Amerindian and Palaeoeskimo impact patterns. Whereas Amer-indian occupations had a major impact on the Field Pond basin, only those Palaeoeskimo activi-ties that took place at or in Bass Pond had an impact on its limnology. This difference is linkedto site location preferences, the availability of woodland, and distance of human settlement fromthe pond. This study contributes to our understanding of the dynamic relationship betweenhunter-gatherers and their environment.

IntroductionIn this paper we present palaeo-environmentaldata from two ponds from Port au Choix, north-western Newfoundland, each adjacent to one ormore archaeological sites (Fig. 1). A third pond.Stove Pond, is distant from any archaeologicalsite and is our regional control. Field Pond is ad-jacent to the Gould site which has a Maritime Ar-chaic Indian (6290-3330 cal B.P.=) and a Recent In-dian (2110-1300 cal B.P) component. Bass Pond isadjacent to Phillip's Garden East, a Groswater Pa-laeoeskimo site (2950-2130 cal B.P.), and Phillip'sGarden, a Dorset Palaeoeskimo site (1990-1180 cal

B.P.). We describe the regional vegetation historyderived from Stove Pond data and local patternsexpressed at Bass Pond and Field Pond. We pointout synchronicities between disruptions in the lo-cal vegetation and limnological records and chro-nologies of adjacent site occupations. We arguethat these coincidences are causal and compareAmerindian and Palaeoeskimo impact patterns.We place our results in the context of other stud-ies of hunter-gatherer environmental impact. Thisstudy contributes to the emerging understand-ing of the dynamic relationship between hunter-gatherers and their environment.

M.Ä.P. Renouf, Archaeology Unit, Department of Anthropology and Archaeology Memorial UniversitySt. fohn's, NL, Canada, AlC 5S7

Trevor Bell. Department of Geography, Memorial UniversitySt. fohn's, NL, Canada AlC 5S7

foyce Macpherson, Department of Ceography, Memorial UniversitySt. fohn's, NL Canada, AlC 5S7

ARCTIC ANTHROPOLOGY, Vol. 46, Nos. 1-2, pp. 176-190, 2009 ISSN 0066-6939© 2009 by the Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System

Renouf, Bell, and Macpherson: Hunter-Gatherer Impact on Subarctic Vegetation 177

kilometres

Phillip's Garden East¿Phillip's Garden'^

Barbace Point

Port a u Choixftninsula

PointRiche

© MUN, Department ot Geography, 2007-58

Pond

Maritime Archaic cemetery

Labrador

Area /

Newfoundland- 4 9 -

59"

Figure 1. Places named in the text.

Archaeological ContextThe pre-contact human occupation of Port auChoix comprises a series of sequential and/oroverlapping Amerindian and Palaeoeskimo cul-tures which collectively span the past 6,300 years:Maritime Archaic Indian [6290-3300 cal B.P.),Groswater Palaeoeskimo (2950-1820 cal B.P.), Dor-set Palaeoeskimo (1990-1180 cal B.P), and RecentIndian (2110-940 cal B.R). Because of the rich andseasonally predictable resources of the study area,many sites at Port au Choix are large and were in-tensively occupied over several centuries.

Amerindian and Palaeoeskimo cultures haddifferent but overlapping economies and site loca-tion preferences rooted in their distinct origins andhistorical trajectories. Groswater and Dorset Palae-oeskimo site locations, technology, and faunal col-lections demonstrate a marine focus. Material cul-ture is dominated by a harpoon technology and,where preserved, faunal assemblages reflect sealhunting (e.g., Hodgetts et al. 2003; Renouf 1993).Most sites occur in exposed island and headlandlocations suitable for hunting migrating herds ofharp seals; fewer sites occur in more sheltered lo-cations associated with streams, rivers, and estuar-ies and only a few interior sites are know^n (Holly2002; Pastore 1986; Renouf 2003; Schwarz 1994).

In contrast. Maritime Archaic and Recent In-dian sites are more evenly distributed across ex-posed headland, sheltered inner bay, and interior,locations, reflecting a more generalized marine-terrestrial economy (Holly 2002; Pastore 1986;Rast, Renouf, and Bell 2004; Renouf 2003; Schwarz1994). This is supported by a more generalized

technology hased on projectile points, bifaces, andretouched flakes and, where preserved, a mix ofmarine and terrestrial species in faunal collections[Cridland 1998; Rowley-Conwy 1990). In contrastto larger and richer Palaeoeskimo sites, Amerin-dian sites are generally smaller with sparser cul-tural assemblages.

These differences are thought to reflect thegreater mobility of Amerindian compared to Pa-laeoeskimo populations, in particular the Dor-set, who are thought to have had a restricted mo-bility centered on large hays (Erwin 2001; Leblanc2000a, 2008; Robbins 1985). The different empha-ses in economic activity are reflected in the pat-terns of Amerindian and Palaeoeskimo sites inPort au Choix as well as the nature of disturbanceimpacts on local lake catchments and hasins.

Palaeoenvironmental ApproachRegional and local environmental conditions dur-ing occupation of key archaeological sites in Port auChoix are reconstructed from proxy evidence pre-served in pond sediments near the sites and a con-trol pond 11 km inland from Port au Choix. Sedi-ment cores were retrieved from either the surface offrozen ponds or a floating platform and returned tothe laboratory for analysis and sub-sampling. Eachcore was split in half for visual analysis of sedimentcolor and texture and the recovery of macrofossilsfor radiocarbon dating. Gores were sub-sampled atselected intervals for most or all of the followinganalyses; grain-size distribution of clastic compo-nent, organic content, fossil pollen and spores, al-gal remains, and charcoal content.

178 Arctic Anthropology 46:1-2

The sediment accumulation history of eachpond is interpolated from several radiocarbon-dated macrofossils (e.g., small twigs, needles,leaves from terrestrial vegetation] recovered fromeach core. Samples were selected as close to thecore bottom as possible and at intervals through-out the core, though suitable macrofossils were notalways present. Calibrated radiocarbon dates (calB.P.) are used to plot the age scale on palaeoenvi-ronmental records. Variations in sediment accu-mulation rates are typically minor in Newfound-land lakes except during the early postglacialperiod when vegetation cover was sparse in thecatchment and landscape erosion was relativelyrapid. Once vegetation was established only majordisturbances had impacts adequate to affect pondsedimentation rates; tbese may be triggered by. forexample, fire, climate, or human activities.

As pond sediment accumulates year by year itincorporates pollen grains and spores from plantsliving nearby with some blown in ftom greater dis-tances. By identifying the pollen grains and sporesat different levels in a sediment core, vegetationand related environmental changes can be recon-structed. For example, a relative increase in shruband herb pollen taxa together with a decrease intree pollen taxa over time may signify a shift in veg-etation cover from boreal forest to more open shrubwoodland. Similarly, an increase in the concentra-tion oîPediastrum, an aquatic alga, may indicatean increase in nutrient status and/or light transmis-sivity of the pond water. The presence of charcoalfragments in pond sediments is taken as evidenceof fire. Microscopic charcoal fragments can be car-ried for long distances by the wind and do not nec-essarily indicate fires in the local pond catchment,w^hereas the occurrence of larger fragments (morethan 8 microns) implies a local fire source.

We characterize local disturbance events inthe palaeoenvironmental record based on abruptchanges in pollen and spore taxa coincident withother shifts in catchment status that are not co-incident between study ponds, nor observed inour control pond, that is distant from archaeologi-cal sites. We interpret the record from the controlpond as representative of regional climate and veg-etation changes and therefore departures from thisrecord must be local in nature. We attribute an an-thropogenic trigger to disturbance events wherediscrete anomalies in vegetation and environmen-tal trends are consistent with activities at adjacentarchaeological sites and where temporal coinci-dence between disturbance and site occupation isdemonstrated.

Regional Vegetation HistoryTbe Port au Choix area is located in the North-em Peninsula ecoregion which is dominated

by forested coastal lowlands underlain by lime-stone (Damman 1983). Most of the ecoregion hasan elevation less than 125 m above sea level andthe topography is undulating to ridged. It has amaritime-type climate with cool summers andmild winters. The mean annual temperature is ap-proximately 3° C, with a mean summer temper-ature of 11° C and a mean winter temperature of—4.5° C. The mean annual precipitation rangesfrom 1,000 to 1,100 mm (Banfield 1983). Balsam firis the dominant tree species, with black spruce be-coming more common at higher elevations. Dwarfblack spruce and evergreen shrubs are common oncoastal barrens exposed to the wind.

Stove Pond, located 11 km inland and distantfrom any known archaeological site, was the con-trol pond selected to establish baseline palaeoen-vironmental information from an undisturbed sitein the region (Fig. 1). The record is described indetail in Bell, Macpherson, and Renouf (2005) andonly tbe general trends are presented here. Tbe pe-riod covering prehistoric human occupation—thelast 7,000 years or so—reveals few changes in veg-etation history. The composition of the boreal for-est at 7000 cal B.P. was not greatly different frompresent, with somewhat less spruce and relativelymore birch. The development of Sphagnum (moss)bog on the mineral soil diminished tbe input ofparticulate minerals to the pond, reducing the rateof sediment accumulation and increasing pollenconcentrations after 5000 cal B.P. The reduction ofdissolved mineral input restricted tbe growth ofaquatic organisms such as Pediastrum. A periodof increased warmth and potentially drier condi-tions in the interval 5000-3000 cal B.P. is recordedby a reduction in Sphagnum and other bog andmoisture-dependent plants, an increase in spruceand more temperate trees, and tbe greatest char-coal concentration, indicating forest fires.

Bass Pond PalaeoenvironmentsBass Pond is a small lake within 100 m of the OldPort au Cboix Cove shoreline and 500 m west ofPhillip's Carden East, a Groswater Palaeoeskimo site(Fig. 1). Phillip's Carden, a mucb larger Dorset Pa-laeoeskimo site, is adjacent to Phillip's Garden Eastand therefore is also within 500 m of Bass Pond.

A 2.1 m sediment core, largely consistingof marl, was retrieved from a central sediment-filled karst depression in approximately 1 m wa-ter depth. A basal radiocarbon date suggests over10,000 years of sedimentation in the pond; bow-ever, only the last 6,000 years are presented herefor comparison with the archaeological record.Five radiocarbon dates on terrestrial macrofos-sils analyzed by atomic mass spectrometry (AMS)establish tbe upper core chronology, detailed inBell, Macpberson, and Renouf (2005). For the most


part sediment accumulation rates range from 0.9to 1.2 cm per century, except for periods between2200 and 1100 cal B.P. when tbe rate doubles, anda brief maximum of 4 cm per century between2200 and 1900 cal B.P. A general sampling intervalof 5 cm was increased to 2.5 cm where accumula-tion rates were higher and bence sample resolu-tion ranged from 500 years for the older and recentparts of the record to as high as 65 years for the pe-riod around 2000 cal B.P.

With one obvious exception, the vegetationrecord of the Bass Pond catchment basin over thepast 6,000 years shows few fluctuations and re-sembles the modern vegetation cover (Fig. 2). To-day, open woodland (primarily balsam fir andwhite spruce), heathland (including Empetrum,dwarf hirch, dwarfed balsam fir and black spruce,juniper, willows, and sedges) and bordering fen(sedges, heaths, shrub birches, dwarfed spruce,herhs, and Sphagnum] characterize the surround-ing vegetation.

At 3000 cal B.P. spruce pollen peaks whilefir pollen steadily increases, prohably indicatingmaximum conifer woodland development on thePoint Riche Peninsula. Soon after 3000 cal B.Rspruce pollen gradually declines until an abruptdecrease at 2200 cal B.P. Fir pollen percentagesalso register a marked decrease at 2200 cal B.P. Be-tween 2200 and 1600 cal B.P. there is a marked in-crease in birch pollen, which we interpret to rep-resent shrub birch.^

Also at 2200 cal B.P. there is a prominentcharcoal peak. Since there is no correspondingpeak at Stove Pond and Field Pond (see below)this is likely a local forest fire that could in partaccount for the marked decline in spruce and firand a corresponding increase in shrubs and herhs.

The rapid accumulation of sediment at 2200-1100 cal B.P. and particularly at 2200-1900 calB.P. may reflect soil disturbance through loss ofprotective vegetation cover following the forest fireat 2200 cal B.P. There were prominent hands oftiny twig fragments, mostly halsam fir, at 29-22 cmand 60-40 cm depth in the core, the former inter-val approximately dated to 2000-1700 cal B.P.

Although pollen from most shrub and herbtaxa shows short-lived peaks in the 2200-2000cal B.P. interval, willow pollen decreases in abun-dance and Sphagnum spores are reduced to verylow levels at 2200-1800 cal B.P. Because willowand Sphagnun^ occur only close to the pond weconclude that there was disturbance of the pond-shore vegetation.

Pollen from the aquatic herb Myriophyllumfirst appeared at 2200 cal B.P. and briefly peakedat 2000 cal B.P. It subsequently decreased in abun-dance and disappeared by 1800 cal B.P. There is acoincident and more sustained increase in remainsof Pediastrum at 2000-1400 cal B.P. Both Myrio-

phyllum and Pediastrum are proxies for pond pro-ductivity, or eutro phi cation (Burden, McAndrews,and Norris 1986; Cvi ynar 1978; Hannon et al.2001).

By 1500 cal B.P. most pollen spectra largelyresume their pre-2200 cal B.P. levels althoughthere appear to be recurring minor fluctuations inmany taxa. The apparently low rate of accumula-tion of the top 10 cm of sediment which representsthe last 1,000 years or so precludes finer temporalresolution of this part of the record.

In summary, the Bass Pond core reveals afairly complacent record of vegetation and envi-ronmental changes over the last 6,000 years withthe clear exception of a disturbance period at2200-1400 cal B.P. when more or less all taxa inthe catchment basin and general limnological con-ditions in the pond were affected. These distur-bances are absent in Stove Pond and Field Pond(see below) which suggests that the disturbancesare local and unrelated to climate.

The Phillip's Garden SitesPhillip's Garden East (EeBi-1) extends over 0.15 hect-ares on a small terrace at 12 m above sea level [a.s.I.)(Kennett 1990; Lehlanc 1996, 2000b; Renouf 1994,1999). The site has two chronologically and spa-tially distinct occupations, at 2950-2650 cal B.P.and 2700-2130 cal B.P; details of radiocarbon datescan be found in Renouf (2005). Occupational inten-sity is moderate with one dwelling feature, at leasttwo activity areas, and more than 2750 lithic and or-ganic artifacts. Faunal material demonstrates April/May harp seal hunting. Lithic debitage and relativetool frequencies suggest a narrow range of huntingactivities. On these bases Phillip's Garden East is in-terpreted as a seasonally and sporadically occupiedshort term himting camp.

Phillip's Garden (EeBi-1) is a 2.14 hectareDorset Palaeoeskimo site extending over two ter-races at 6-11 m a.s.I. and dating to 1990-1180 calB.P; details of radiocarbon dates can be found inHarp (1976), Renouf (2002, 2006, 2009), Renoufand Murray (1999) and Hodgetts et al. (2003). Siteoccupation is divided into three temporal phasesof initial, increasing, and decreasing population:1950-1550 cal B.P., 1550-1350 cal B.P, and 1350-1180 cal B.P (Renouf and Bell 2009). Occupa-tion was sustained and intensive. There are over67 identified dwellings and numerous large andrich middens. The large size and suhstantial con-struction of some of the houses suggest permanentmulti-family structures. Currently there are morethan 35,000 lithic and organic artifacts from exca-vation of 24 dwellings and several associated mid-dens. Faunal assemblages demonstrate that April/May and also December seal hunting was the mainsubsistence activity throughout site occupation

180 Arctic Anthropology 46:J-2

10

20-

3o:

40

50

Q. 60(DÛ

70

80

9a

Bass Pondsummary pollen percentages

trees shrubs Jems,_

Û.CO 2000

Oofset occupationat Phillip's Garden East

Groswater occupational Phillip's Garden East

7000J 40 20 50 5 201010 5 5 5 5 5 101010 2010 5 5

10

20

^ 3 0

,SÍ40

g-50Û

60

Field Pondsummary pollen percentages

CQ

to

O 5000

6000^

shrubs

or A ñ^ 1Ä ^

ÄCf

70105"1 "n'—I "-1M M

.-e^%Wf<f<f^'

I b

505 3010105105 1510 205 5105 205 5 5 0 0 1 20

Gould site

occupations

Recent Indianyounger component

ndian" older component

MaHtlme Archaicyoungef component

main period otoccupation

MEuitime Archaicyounger component

single hearth

Figure 2. Bass Pond and Field Pond percentage pollen diagrams. Occupation periods of adjacent archaeologicaloccupations are indicated.

Renouf, Bell, and Macpherson: Hunter-Catherer Impact on Subarctic Vegetation 181

(Hodgetts 2005). This harp seal hunting focus isreflected in the tool assemblage, as is a comple-mentary focus on hide working. On these basesPhillip's Garden is interpreted as a seasonally oc-cupied population aggregation site.

Anthropogenic Impacton Bass Pond

We argue that the disturbance across pollen taxaand environmental proxies at 2200-1400 cal B.Rin the Bass Pond record is related to the Palae-oeskimo occupation of the local catchment basin.We suggest that the Groswater occupation of Phil-lip's Garden East caused the gradual reduction inspruce trees in the local coniferous woodland af-ter 3000 cal B.P. and the burning ofthat woodlandseen in the charcoal peak at 2200 cal B.P. Groswa-ter occupants of Phillip's Garden East used fire-heated rocks for their main source of heat (Renouf1994) and therefore hearths or hot rocks may havecaused accidental burning of local forest cover.

Lakeside disturbance is reflected in a markedreduction in the occurrence of willow and Sphag-num in Bass Pond sediments at 2200-1800 cal B.P.We suggest that this is linked to trampling, first byGroswater and later by Dorset people, as they en-gaged in pond-side activities, for example, gath-ering plants, retrieving water, or soaking skins.Sphagnum is particularly vulnerable to tramplingand did not return to pre-disturbance levels un-til 1400 cal B.P., which is near the end of the mostintensive occupational phase of Phillip's Garden,1550-1350 cal B.P

Lakeside wood-working activity at 2000-1700 cal B.P. may be represented by a concentra-tion of tiny twigs in pond sediments. The twigs atonly several millimetres diameter are too small forbeaver activity but too large to have been blownin. Tberefore we think they w ere possibly the by-products of wood-working activity at or near thepond edge. This suggestion of wood working isconsistent with a number of small axes recoveredat Phillip's Garden East (Renouf 1994).

We also propose that the disturbance acrossBass Pond pollen taxa at 2200-1400 cal B.P. is theresult of two separate and sequential processes,those at 2200-2000 cal B.P. relating to the forestfire and those at 2000-1400 cal B.P. relating to Dor-set sealskin processing activities. The initial peakof nutrient levels at 2200 cal B.P, seen in the ap-pearance oí Myriophyllum at this time with a laterspike at 2000 cal B.P., is likely the result of the for-est fire and soil erosion resulting from loss of veg-etation. Increased soil erosion is also reflected inthe increased sedimentation in the lake basin at2200-1900 cal B.P. Soon after 2000 cal B.P. shruband herb taxa return to pre-fire levels. However,

tree taxa do not return to normal levels until 1500cal B.P, well beyond the 2200 cal B.P. forest fire.Similarly, increased nutrient levels [Pediastrum]persist until 1400 cal B.P. Willow and Sphagnumremain low until 1800 cal B.P. and sedimenta-tion rates remain high until 1100 cal B.P. In Bell,Macpherson, and Renouf (2005) and Renouf andBell (2008) we argue tbat these latter disturbancesare related to Dorset hide processors immersingsealskins in water for depilation, thus encouragingbacterial growth in and trampling vegetation at theside of the pond.

Field Pond PalaeoenvironmentsField Pond is a small shallow pond adjacent tothe Gould site. The drainage basin is composedof spruce-dominated, stunted forest, with wet-land on one side and heath and former bog on theother. We obtained an 80 cm core from the deep-est part of the basin, which was dated with fourAMS dates (Table 1). The record extends back only6,000 years whereas the adjacent Gould site hadintermittent occupation beginning 6290 cal B.P.and extending to 1380 cal B.P. Sediment accumu-lation rates more than double after 1600 cal B.P.,reaching levels of 1.9—2.4 cm per century. Varia-tions in sampling interval and sedimentation ratesmean that sample resolution ranges from 275 yearsin the earlier part of the core to 65 years during pe-riods of specific interest (e.g., around 2500 and1600 cal B.P and between 1100 and 500 cal B.P).

Unlike Bass Pond, the pollen record fromField Pond is characterized by short-lived fluc-tuations, particularly in the last 1,600 years or so(Fig. 2). The earliest perturbation in the record iscentered on 5000 cal B.P. when there is a markeddecline in spruce pollen. Fir and larch percentagesalso show a decrease. Peak percentages of birchpollen probably represent shrub (see Endnote 2),while at the same time alder experiences a short-lived expansion into what seems to have beenmore open woodland.

The subsequent recovery of tree speciesand decline of shrubs is abruptly terminated at4300 cal B.P. The isolated peak of large charcoal(more than 8 microns) fragments must have a lo-cal source as they cannot have been blown into thebasin. The charcoal peak coincides with a declineof spruce and fir pollen, short-lived increases inshrub birch and heathland shrubs and herbs, and adecline in Sphagnum, Pediastrum reaches its max-imum concentration, indicating high nutrient lev-els in the pond water.

At 3700-3300 cal B.P. there appears to be asustained disturbance in the pond catchment char-acterized hy a decline in spruce and larch and a re-lated increase in birch, willow, alder, sedges, heathshrubs, and wetland and aquatic herbs. In contrast.

Table 1. Radiocarbon dates from Field Pond and the Gould site.

Site/Pond

FieldPond

FieldPond

FieldPond

FieldPond

GouldSite

GouldSite

GouldSite

GouldSite

GouldSite

GouldSite

GouldSite

GouldSite

GouldSite

GouldSite

GouldSite

GouldSite

GouldSite

GouldSite

GouldSite

GouldSite

GouldSite

GouldSite

GouldSite

Context

5.5 cmcore depth

16 cmcore depth

34-35 cmcore depth

54.5 cmcore depth

RI youngercomponent

Ri youngercomponent

RI youngercomponent

Rl youngercomponent

RI oldercomponent

RI oldercomponent

Rl oldercomponent

unknownculturalaffiliation

MAI youngercomponent








MAI oldercomponent

MAI oldercomponent

MAI oldercomponent

C14 yearsB.R

670±40

700±50

1730±50

3460±40

1480 + 70

1500 ±40

151Q±40

1520 ±60

1870±60

1950±60

2080±40

2850±40

3200 + 100

3260 + 50

3420±60

3450±70

3450±50

3720±50

3850±100

4060 ±80

5440 ±50

5440+50

5440±40

Lab No.

Beta 155668

Beta 149993

Beta 155669

Beta 151259

Beta 134150

Beta 134156

Beta 134155

Beta 108552

Beta 134149

Beta 120796

Beta 134147

Beta 148517

Beta 132364

Beta 108099

Beta 134153

Beta 120795

Beta 134148

Beta 107795

Beta 121295

Beta 146081

Beta 134151

Beta 148518

Beta 148519

Technique

AMS

AMS

AMS

AMS

radiometric

AMS

AMS

radiometric

radiometric

radiometric

AMS

radiometric

radiometric

AMS

radiometric

radiometric

AMS

radiometric

radiometric

radiometric

AMS

radiometric

radiometric

Material

needles

woodfragment

needles

plantmaterial

charcoal

charcoal

charcoal

charcoal

charcoal

charcoal

charcoal

charcoal

charcoal

charcoal

charcoal

wood;Picea sp.

charcoal

charcoal

charcoal

charcoal

charcoal

charcoal

charcoal

Calibratedmedian ageB.P.

6 3 0

6 6 0

1640

3730

1380

1380

1390

1410

1810

1900

2050

2970

3430

4990

3680

3720

3720

4070

4260

4570

6240

6240

6240

CalihratedB.P. 1 <r(older)

6 7 0

6 9 0

1700

3830

1480

1410

1490

1510

1870

1990

2110

3060

3560

3560

3820

3830

3830

4150

4420

4800

6290

6290

6290

CalibratedB.P. 1 CT(younger)

5 6 0

5 7 0

1570

3640

1300

1330

1340

1350

1730

1830

2000

2880

3340

3420

3580

3640

3640

3980

4100

4430

6210

6210

6210

CalihratedB.P. 2 <r(older)

6 8 0

730

1780

3840

1520

1520

1520

1530

1950

2040

2150

3140

3690

3610

3840

3900

3840

4230

4520

4830

6390

6390

6310

CalihratedB.P. 2 <r(younger)

5 6 0

5 6 0

1530

3630

1290

1310

1310

1310

1630

1730

1950

2850

3160

3380

3490

3490

3580

3910

3980

4300

6020

6020

6130

Noie: MAI = Maritime Archaic Indian, RI = Recent Indian, AMS = Atomic Mass Spectrometry


there is a near absence of ferns, mosses, andgrasses. Pediastrum concentration levels are con-sistently very higb during this period while thereare no large charcoal fragments. The decline inwoodland and increase in shrubs and herbs at3700-3300 cal B.P. is even more dramatic whenset against tbe regional trend of conifer woodlandexpansion due to warming climate, as seen in tbeStove Pond and Bass Pond records.

FoUow ing almost 700 years of recovery inthe catchment, tbere appears to bave been a fairlycomplex and dramatic disturbance spanning 2700to at least 2400 cal B.P. There are three distinctthough not necessarily unrelated events duringthis period. First, around 2700-2600 cal B.P. thereis marked decline in coniferous woodland species,short peaks in birch, alder and willow, the onlyoccurrence of a thin sand layer in pond sediments,implying marked erosion of catchment substrate,and a spike in pollen concentration. Second, cen-tered on 2500 cal B.P., there is a temporary declinein percentages of almost all taxa, except spruce,fir, sedges, Lycopodium (club moss), and Equi-setum (horsetails). Charcoal fragments occur intheir highest concentration at this time and tbereis a sudden drop in pollen concentration. Third.within a hundred years or so, shrub and some herbspecies bave once more expanded as woodlandspecies decline. There is also a second spike inpollen concentration.

Around 1600-1500 cal B.R there is almost athree-fold increase in pollen concentration, a dou-bling of the sedimentation rate, and minor peaksin spruce, shrub birch, and some herbs. Crasses,sedges, mosses, and aquatic herbs are almost ab-sent. Pediastrum concentration levels are mod-erately high and there is sustained deposition ofcharcoal fragments.

At 1300-500 cal B.P. there are recurringpeaks across tree, shrub, and herb taxa coincidentwitb spikes in pollen concentration and a sus-tained low charcoal signature; the sedimentationrate remains high relative to pre-1600 cal B.P. lev-els. Pediastrum generally declines during this pe-riod while Diporotheca ascospores and spruce sto-mata concentrations peak. Ascospores occur onroots and were likely washed into the pond duringerosion events while the appearance of stomatalcells of spruce also suggests erosion of the catch-ment substrate (e.g., peat). One period of markedspruce decline occurs at 800-600 cal B.P. and iscoincident with a rise in shrubs and herbs and areturn to more normal pollen concentrations.

Gould SiteThe Could site (EeBi-42) (Fig. 1) is on a broad ter-race at 8-10 m a.s.l. A small stream flows southfrom Field Pond and divides the site into an east

and west area. There are two cultural and fourtemporal site components; details of radiocar-bon dates are in Table 1. The earlier two compo-nents are Maritime Archaic Indian, dated to 6290-6210 cal B.P and 4800-3340 cal B.P (Reid 2007;Renouf and Bell 2000a, 2001). A single anoma-lous radiocarbon date, 3060-2880 cal B.P.. post-dates the Maritime Arcbaic occupation. The twoyounger components are Recent Indian, dating to2110-1730 cal B.P. and 1510-1300 cal B.P (Renoufand Bell 2000b; Renouf, Bell, and Teal 2000; Teal2001). Site stratigraphy consists of up to 2 m thick-ness of peat over basal limestone. The two Mari-time Archaic temporal components were on andslightly above the basal stratum within four dis-tinct strata and the Recent Indian components oc-curred well above the basal stratum, in a stratumwithin tbe peat. Site stratigraphy suggests thatduring the Maritime Archaic occupation the Gouldsite was a partially vegetated limestone terrace andthat during Recent Indian occupation it was cov-ered with 15-30 cm of peat and was forested (Re-nouf and Bell 1999).

The occupational intensity of both Mari-time Archaic temporal components was low. Sincethe earlier component pre-dates the basal sedi-ment levels of Field Pond, it is not considered fur-ther. The younger component is spread out overapproximately 0.7 hectare on both sides of thestream and consists of four concentrations of cul-tural material, including six small hearth features,fewer than 60 artifacts and a small amount of deb-itage. Twenty charcoal concentrations were spreadthroughout the site and soil samples yieldedcharred spruce or fir needles (Deal 2005). A smallnumber of blueberry, raspberry, elderberry, andpin cherry seeds were found in soil samples fromMaritime Archaic levels which, if related to cul-tural occupation, suggests occupation includinglate summer or early fall (Deal 2005). Four cinque-foil seeds, found in good archaeological context,indicate site use during the spring/summer (Deal2005).

We bave not determined the function of theMaritime Arcbaic component. However, it maybe connected to the Maritime Arcbaic cemetery(EeBi-2) not far away on the Point Riche Penin-sula (Jelsma 2000; Tuck 1976). Tbis cemetery con-sists of three identified burial loci on a 4-6 m a.s.l.sandy terrace. Three charcoal-based radiocar-bon dates range from 5040 to 3480 cal B.P. (Tuck1976)."' overlapping with the younger Maritime Ar-chaic Gould site component. A more direct con-nection might be a small dump from the Gouldsite dated to 3560-3420 cal B.P. (Renouf and Bell1998) that included a concentration of 56 smallwhite quartz pebbles similar to pebble concentra-tions found in many of the burials (Tuck 1976).The two sites might also be connected by relative


location. During Maritime Archaic occupation rel-ative sea level was lower than today hy an esti-mated 5 m (Renouf and Bell 2000a) and at 4,000-3,000 years ago the cemetery was on an islanddirectly across from the Gould site. Therefore it ispossible that the Gould site was a regularly usedshort-stay camp associated with burial of the deadnearby.

The Recent Indian component occurs in asingle stratum within the thick layer of peat andis defined by the presence of charcoal and/or fire-cracked rock. Distrihution of cultural material,including charcoal, is uneven across an area ofapproximately 0.09 hectare. Recent Indian occu-pation is more intensive than Maritime Archaicand 166 lithic artifacts, 384 ceramic sherds, sev-eral pieces of animal skin identified as beaver, andthousands of tiny retouch flakes were found. Therewas a large pit-hearth, which Teal (2001) argueswas within a dwelling feature. In addition to threeother pit-hearths there were eight small charcoal-lined pits, nine charcoal concentrations, and11 pieces of preserved wood, mostly logs 1-1.5 mlong and 20-25 cm wide. Soil samples yieldedwidespread occurrence of charred spruce or firneedles at high concentration (Deal 2005). Basedon the dwelling feature and the domestic nature ofthe artifacts Teal (2001) interprets this occupationas a base camp. The presence of a small number ofraspberry and dandelion seeds suggests that occu-pation included summer months (Deal 2005).

Anthropogenic Impacton Field Pond

The more open woodland reflected in the distur-bance in tree and shrub taxa at 5000 cal B.P. mayrelate to Maritime Archaic activities representedby a cultural deposit on the west side of the streamdated to 4800-4430 cal B.P [Renouf and Bell2001). The charcoal spike at 4300 cal B.P. is fromlarge pieces of charcoal that appear to have beenwashed into the pond from the local catchment.This probably relates to human activity shown tohave occurred at the pond's edge, dated to 4150-3980 cal B.P. This date comes from charcoal as-sociated with a Maritime Archaic projectile pointfragment foimd beneath a hearth. This humanpresence is also reflected in the decline in Sphag-num, likely from pond-side trampling. We attri-bute the halt in woodland recovery to local activ-ities such as tree clearing. Increased Pediastrumcould be related to increased nutrient input fromerosion, connected to clearing, or as a result ofgeneral organic input from human activities.

The most sustained disturbance event, at3700-3300 cal B.P., corresponds to the main pe-riod of Maritime Archaic occupation of the Gould

site, dated to 3830-3340 cal B.P.. We attributethe localized decline in spruce and fir, which iscontrary to the regional pattern of woodland ex-pansion, to tree clearing. This is supported by acut spruce log dated to 3830-3640 cal B.P. (Re-nouf and Bell 1999) associated with three groundstone gouges; there were 20 smaller pieces of pre-served wood in the vicinity. There is no charcoalin the pond sediment despite the presence of sixhearths and 20 charcoal concentrations. This canbe explained by the location of the 3700-3300 calB.P. activity areas which are downslope of FieldPond. Increased Pediastrum could be related to in-creased nutrient input from erosion, connected toclearing or as a result of generalized organic inputfrom human activity. We attribute the near-absenceof ferns and mosses to pond-side trampling.

There is no archaeological material attribut-able to the very clear disturhance event at 2700-2400 cal B.P.. There are three possible explana-tions. First, the disturbance could be natural, forexample, a local forest fire resulting from a light-ning strike. However, we think this unlikely be-cause forest fires are uncommon in these wetcoastal areas (Meades and Moores 1989). Second,the disturhance might be linked to the GroswaterPalaeoeskimo occupations of Port au Choix datedto 2950-1820 cal B.P. (Renouf 1994, 2005). Al-though the two largest Groswater sites are on thePoint Riche headland (Fig. 1) consistent with theouter coast site location preferences of Palaeoes-kimo groups, there is a smaller site on the shel-tered southern shore of Back Arm harbour, at themouth of a small stream, about 1 km from FieldPond (Wheatley 2004]. It is possible that Groswa-ter might also have camped near Field Pond it-self. However, we think this unlikely becausemost Groswater sites have abundant cultural de-bris which would have appeared in our inten-sive trenching of the area. The third possibility isthat the disturbance might relate to a post-ArchaicAmerindian occupation of the Gould site whichwould be a temporal continuation of the earlierMaritime Archaic Indian occupation. Currentlypost-Archaic occupations are known for Labra-dor and the Maritime provinces but not for New-foundland. However, recent excavations of theMaritime Archaic Big Brook site (EjBa-2) at the tipof the Northern Peninsula suggest a possible post-Archaic presence, where a date of 2990-2870 calB.P. (2830 + B.P., Beta-171714, charcoal) is associ-ated with a projectile point of post-Archaic form(Beaton 2004). An anomalous date of 3060-2880cal B.P. from the east side of the Gould site, associ-ated with fire-cracked rock and a few flakes of Am-erindian rather than Palaeoeskimo lithic type, sug-gests the possibility of post-Archaic occupation.Gurrent data are insufficient to choose amongst thepossibilities.


We attribute a number of vegetation distur-bances to Recent Indian activities. The discrete fireevent at 2000 cal B.P. corresponds with the olderRecent Indian occupation (2110-1730 cal B.P.) as-sociated with two hearths.

The sharpest period of disturbance at 1600-1400 cal B.P. overlaps with the younger and moreintensive Recent Indian component (1510-1300cal B.P.). The dramatic increase in pollen concen-trations, increased sedimentation rate, and virtualahsence of grasses, sedges, and mosses, suggest lo-calized erosion of the peat cover w^hich had devel-oped after Archaic times. Peat erosion was likely anatural process that was exacerbated hy human ac-tivity such as trampling, burning, digging, and treeclearing. There is stratigraphie evidence of RecentIndian clearing activities where there are impres-sions of tree roots in the peat, some of which areconnected to what we think are moulds of trunkswhich have heen terminated, that is, cut (Renoufand Bell 1999). The 11 pieces of preserved woodmay also indicate clearing activities. Charcoal isabundant and widespread throughout the RecentIndian occupation and would have eroded into thepond during the process of peat erosion, whichcontinued long after the Recent Indian occupationceased.

DiscussionDifferences in Amerindian and Palaeoeskimo im-pact on pond vegetation are attributable to dis-tance of the occupation site from the study pond,the availability of woodland, and differences infire technology; all of the above are expressions ofcultural differences, in particular in site locationpreferences. Duration and intensity of site occupa-tion are not major influences on anthropogenic im-pact on pond vegetation.

Maritime Archaic and Recent Indian groupschose the sheltered location close to Field Pondand its outflow stream whereas Groswater andDorset Palaeoeskimo groups chose the exposedPoint Riche headland near good sealing oppor-tunities, at a greater distance from Bass Pond(>500 m). Impacts on the vegetation cover andlocal substrate by Amerindian groups' activitiesare readily recorded in nearby pond sedimentswhereas in contrast, with the exception of localwoodland burning, only the impact of Palaeoes-kimo pond-side activities, such as wood-working,vegetation trampling, and seal hide soaking wasrecorded in Bass Pond.

The potential for vegetation disturbance isconnected to the availability of woodland. TheGould site Amerindian populations chose to beclose to or w^ithin woodland in order to be nearfresh water and fuel. In contrast. Point Riche Pa-laeoeskimo populations chose the exposed heath-

dominated landscape in order to be close to thesea. Woodland has a much greater potential for dis-turhance through cutting, clearing, and burning,which can dramatically alter lake catchment vege-tation and the consequent limnological signature.The Field Pond record shows that Maritime Ar-chaic and Recent Indian tree-clearing activities re-duced the woods and kept them from recoveringtowards more mature woodland as documentedin the Stove Pond regional record. In contrast, withthe exception of one episode of woodland burning,the Bass Pond record does not show these lake ba-sin vegetation changes and instead reflects the re-gional trend of progressive woodland maturation.

Different fire technologies have different ef-fects on vegetation and the subsequent limno-logical record. Amerindians used wood-burninghearths, which provided a great deal of potentialfor charcoal influx into the pond. In Field Pondthe earliest observed occurrence of large charcoalfragments at 4300 cal B.P. is related to brief pond-side occupation (a hearth). The more sustained oc-cupation by later Maritime Archaic Indians has noassociated charcoal signature hecause at this pe-riod their occupation was slightly farther fromthe pond and downslope from it, so that charcoalfragments were not washed in. The Recent Indianoccupation is characterized by a charcoal layerwithin the peat and there is a sustained charcoalinflux to the pond during that period. AlthoughRecent Indian occupation was also downslope ofField Pond, charcoal was washed in from wide-spread and sustained peat erosion. In contrastto Amerindian hearths, Groswater Palaeoeski-mos used flre-heated rocks. Although they musthave heen heated in a pit or hearth, the fact thatwe did not locate any at Phillip's Garden East (Re-nouf 1994) suggests that they were few in number.Therefore there w as less potential for charcoal toenter Bass Pond during the Groswater occupationof Phillip's Garden East; the single peak at 2200cal B.P. was likely the result of an accidental fireprobably associated with the use of heated rocks.Dorset Palaeoeskimos at Phillip's Garden reliedon fat-hurning stone pots and lamps and thereforethere was no potential for charcoal to enter BassPond during Phillip's Garden occupation.

Duration and intensity of site occupation donot seem to have been a major influence on theiimnological record. The most sporadic and leastintense occupation, the Maritime Archaic compo-nent of the Gould site, nonetheless had a major ef-fect on the tree and shrub vegetation of the pondcatchment, creating and maintaining open wood-land conditions. The most sustained and inten-sive occupation, the Dorset settlement at Phillip'sGarden, left no impact on the pond catchment andonly a narrow and direct impact on the pond wa-ters. Recent Indian occupation was small and sea-

166 Arctic Antbropology 46:1-2

sonal and left a major impact on the pond catch-ment, reducing tree cover and accelerating peaterosion. Groswater Palaeoeskimo occupation wassmall, seasonal but intensive, and left only the ser-endipitous mark of an accidental forest fire.

This study contributes to the existing and de-veloping literature on hunter-gatherer environmen-tal impact. Archaeological examples are well-established in Mesolithic contexts in Europe wherepalynological evidence suggests Mesolithic hunter-gatherers cleared trees in order to open habitat andattract game (e.g., Bush 1988; Edwards 1990; Mel-lars 1976) and to enhance availability and abun-dance of edible plant foods (e.g., Innes and Black-ford 2003; Mason 2000; Zvelebil 1994). Argumentsfor anthropogenic forest clearing are based on dis-turbance across pollen spectra that indicates a de-crease in trees and an increase in grasses, herbs,and shrubs, followed by a succession of shrubsand eventual restoration of the forest canopy; theremay or may not be an associated influx of charcoal.Where these disturhances are coincidental withproximal Mesolithic sites a causal connection is ar-gued. Studies of Mesolithic hunter-gatherer impacton the environment are widespread, includingEngland (e.g., Innes and Simmons 1988; Mellars1976; Smith 1970), Scotland (e.g., Edwards 1990;Macklin et al. 2000), Sweden (e.g., Horneberg etal. 2005; Regneil et al. 1995), Finland (e.g.. Hicks1993;Vuorela 1995), and the Czech Republic (e.g.,Kunes, Pokorny. and Sida 2008).

In North America hunter-gatherer impact onthe environment is identified throughout the pre-historic (e.g., Delcourt and Delcourt 2004; Kee-ley 2002; Nicholas 1999) and historic periods (e.g.,Foster and Cohn 2007) based on palynological re-cords of fire ecology and forest clearance or ar-chaeological records of landscape alteration. Inthe Arctic, Thule Inuit impact on pond ecology isidentified through diatom assemblages that recordincreased eutrophication as a result of localizedinput of sea mammal tissue (Douglas et al. 2004).

These and other similar studies complementthe ethnographic literature on hunter-gatherer re-source management which explores the dyna-mism of the human-environment relationship(e.g., Blackburn and Anderson [eds.] 1993; Boyd[ed.l 1999; Lewis 1982; Lourandos 1997;). For ex-ample, Icbikawa (2004) argues that the rain forestsof the Democratic Republic of the Congo are theproduct of a long history of ecological processesinvolving resident Mbuti populations who openedup the canopy, spread plant seeds, and fertilizedpatches of ground. Oliver (2007) summarizes re-search on the British Columbia coast that sug-gests the present-day characteristics of the coastalwoodlands are partially a result of human inter-vention as indigenous people opened canopy, cul-tivated wild plants, and stripped bark from trees

(see also Deur and Turner [eds.l 2005). Theseand other studies shift the focus of enquiry fromhunter-gatherers as passively responding to envi-ronmental circumstances to the more complex sit-uation of hunter-gatherers managing and impact-ing their environment in a dynamic interplay ofcause and effect. Our study is an example of thisapproach applied to prehistoric human occupationand vegetation change in Subarctic Newfound-land. Further, we show that this d3Tiamic interplayis culturally variable.

ConclusionDisturbances in Bass Pond and Field Pond sedi-ments were described and interpreted. They werethen compared to contemporaneous human ac-tivities from nearby archaeological sites. For bothponds we argued for anthropogenic impact onvegetation and limnology. Maritime Archaic In-dian and Recent Indian cutting or clearing wood-land affected the area around Field Pond; charcoalwashed in from hearth fires where they were up-slope of the pond or else where large scale erosionof the peat released charcoal. In contrast Palaeoes-kimos were not in a woodland environment so didnot have the potential to change pond catchmentvegetation in the same way. However, we arguedthat an accidental fire started by Groswater Palaeo-eskimos might have briefly cleared the area's veg-etation. We also argued that Dorset sealskin soak-ing in Bass Pond waters had a distinct impact onits limnology. Effects of pond-side trampling couldbe seen at both ponds. We related the differencesbetween the Amerindian and Palaeoeskimo impactpatterns to cultural differences expressed in sitelocation preferences, proximity of sites to ponds,availability of woodland, and differences in firetechnology. This study emphasizes the dynamicrelationship between hunter-gatherers and theirenvironment in a Subarctic context.

Acknowledgments. Multi-year funding for thisresearch has been provided by SSHRC, NSERC,Parks Canada, the Canada Research Chairs Pro-gram, Memorial University of Newfoundland, andthe Provincial Archaeology Office. We gratefullyacknowledge this sustained support. Dr. SheilaVardy, University of Waterloo, conducted the pol-len analysis of Field Pond sediments. CharlesConway and David Mercer, Memorial University,drafted the diagrams.

Endnotes1. Cal B.P. = calibrated radiocarbon years beforepresent. Calibration used Calib5.0html (Stuiverand Reimer 1993). Date ranges are expressed at theone-sigma probability range.

Renouf Bell, and Macpherson: Hunter-Gatherer Impact on Subarctic Vegetation 187

2. The birch pollen peak at 2200-1600 cal B.P. ismore likely to be birch shrub than tree since birchtrees are uncommon in today's coastal barrensand were probably less common during tbe coolerperiod between 3000 and 2000 cal B.P. (Rosenberg,Walker, and Macpberson 2005). Tbis misidentifi-cation of sbrub bircb as tree probably relates to theoverlap in grain diameter, whicb is the only basisfor their differentiation in Newfoundland pollenrecords (Dyer 1981).

3. Beta 155688 [Table 1) is a date on a coniferneedle tbat was considered too old for the strati-graphic level from which it was sampled, com-pared to Beta 149993. It likely originated fromeroding peat in the catchment basin.

4. Eleven of the 16 radiocarbon dates from thecemetery site are on human bone (Jelsma 2000;Tuck 1976) which, because of tbe marine reservoireffect linked to marine diet, are not used here.Also not used is one date on clam shell and anyradiocarbon dates with a standard deviation moretban 110 years.

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