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Planet Search

Dr. H. GellerASTR 390

Spring 2010

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Unit Overview

• Searching for Planets• Concept of a Habitable Zone• Venus: An Example in Potential

Habitability• Surface Habitability Factors and the

Habitable Zone• Future of life on Earth• Global Warming

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Are Habitable Planets Common?

• Really two questions– Are planets common?– How many exoplanets

are habitable?• Review formation of

stars and planets– evidence from HST

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Habitability Zone Around Other Stars in Our Galaxy

• Use the range from our solar system as a basis for analysis– In our solar system, 4 rocky planets that orbit the Sun from 0.4

to 1.4 AU and spaced 0.4 AU apart• If typical, likelihood of other solar systems having

continuous habitability zone is just width of the zone divided by the typical spacing– 0.2/0.4 = 0.5 – Probability of 50%– Discuss this probability

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Habitability Zone in Our Galaxy

• Other factors also relevant– Several stars in our galaxy with planets

the size of Jupiter within terrestrial zone from their sun

– Mass of star• Larger mass, greater luminosity, shorter life• Most abundant stars in galaxy are least

luminous and longest-lived (red dwarfs)

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Habitability Zones Elsewhere in the Galaxy

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Different Stars –Different Habitable Zones

Athena Andreadis, in Astronomy, Jan. 1999, illus. by Terri Field 8

Another View of Habitability

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iClicker Question

• Compared to a star of spectral type K, a star of spectral type A is generally– A hotter, more luminous, and more

massive.– B hotter, more luminous, and less

massive.– C cooler, dimmer and less massive.

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iClicker Question

• Stars of types O and B are unlikely to have planets with life because– A they have short stellar live.– B their intense ultraviolet light

would sterilize any planets.– C they don’t have enough heavy

elements.

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iClicker Question

• How does the habitable zone around a star of spectral type M compare to that around a star of spectral type G?– A It’s larger and farther from its star.– B It’s hotter and brighter.– C It’s smaller and closer to its star.

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How to Find an Extrasolar Planet

• Think about how a planet effects the star around which it orbits– light seen from star– gravitational effects

• translate into visual effects– spectroscopic effects

• translate into observed spectroscopic observations

• remember Doppler Effect

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Four Ways to Find an Extrasolar Planet

• Photometrically– light from star blocked by planet decreasing

light seen from star in concert with orbit• Astrometrically

– change in position caused by “dance with planet”• Spectroscopically

– Doppler Effect on spectral lines due to “dance with planet”

• Gravitational Microlensing– large gravitational force effecting light path 14

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Change in position of Sun due to Jupiteras seen from 10 parsecs distant

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Remember Doppler

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Applying Doppler

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Applying Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity

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Extrasolar Planets Capability

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Considerations for Habitability

• Distance from sun• Luminosity of sun• Planet size• Atmospheric loss processes• Greenhouse effect and gases in the

atmosphere• Source of energy (internal/external)• Presence of water• Presence of carbon biomolecules• Biota

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Phases of Water and CO2

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Planetary Spectra

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Planet Size Questions

• Tectonics: why important• Magnetosphere and solar winds• Gravity and tectonics

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Atmospheric Loss Processes to Consider

• Solar winds of charged particles– Sweeps away atmosphere in episodic wind

events• Planet’s magnetic field (magnetosphere)

– Deflect solar winds– Earth and Mercury have magnetospheres– Mars and Venus do not have magnetospheres

• Atmospheric loss processes– Escape velocity of gases

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iClicker Question

• About how many extrasolar planets have been detected to date?– A between 10 and 100– B between 100 and 1000– C more than 1000

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iClicker Question• How have we detected most

extrasolar planets discovered to date?– A Transits– B Hubble Space Telescope images– C the Doppler related technique

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iClicker Question

• Which technique will the Keplermission use to search for Earth size planets around other stars?– A Transits.– B The astrometric technique.– C The Doppler related technique.– D Gravitational lensing.

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iClicker Question

• Nearly all the extrasolar planets discovered to date are– A terrestrial-like planets.– B jovian-like planets.– C large, icy worlds.

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Is Earth Rare?

• What are the odds?– Location, location, location– Special events

• What are the odds of any special event?– Example of coin toss

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Summary of the Techniques for Searching for Habitable Worlds

• Planet Formation• Extrasolar Planets

– Detection• Earth-like Planets?

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Habitability: Introduction• Define “habitability”

– Anthropocentric perspective• capable of supporting humans

– Astrobiological perspective• capable of harboring liquid water

• Key physical and chemical features of habitability– Surface habitability– Temperature– Source of energy– Liquid water (present and past)– Biological macromolecules (e.g., sugars, nucleotides)– Atmosphere and magnetosphere 34

Recall Solar System Formation

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Planet Surface Temperatures

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Planet Gravity, Density and Rotation

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Planet Mass and Velocity

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iClicker Question

• The habitable zone refers to– A the regions of a planet where good

weather allows life to exist.– B the range of distances from a star

where a planet’s surface temperature is always above the freezing point of water.

– C the range of distances from a star within which water could exist in liquid form on a suitably sized planet.

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Concept of a Habitability Zone

• Definition of habitability zone (HZ)“Region of our solar system in which temperature allows liquid water to exist (past, present and future)”

• Phase diagram for H2O• Retrospective analysis of HZ using the

terrestrial planets as case study– Mars, Venus and Earth

• Prospective analysis of HZ40

Phase Diagrams – Water and CO2

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iClicker Question

• A planet that is not within a habitable zone cannot have– A life.– B subsurface oceans.– C abundant liquid water on its

surface.

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Luminosity of the Sun

• Definition of luminosity (watts/m2)• Sun’s luminosity has been changing: earlier

in its evolution, luminosity was only 70% of what it is today (how could temperature be maintained over geological time)

• Future for luminosity – Remember life cycle of stars– In another 2-3 BY, luminosity will place Earth

outside habitability zone– More about at end of chapter

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Distance from the Sun• Terrestrial planets – heat mostly from Sun• Jovian planets – 2/3 of heat from interior

(all planets originally had internal heat source due to bombardment)

• Heat from Sun is inversely proportional to distance2 or heat energy = k*1/(distance)2

• Heat falls off rapidly with distance

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Habitability Zone of Solar System• Exploration of Mars, Venus and Earth provides a

framework to establish a HZ in terms of water– Venus (0.7 AU): liquid H2O in the past– Mars (1.5 AU): oceans primordially– Thus, range of habitability around stars like Sun is 0.7 to

1.5 AU• Zone of “continuous habitability versus zone of

“habitability” (which is more narrow?)– needs to maintain habitability for billions of years

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Continuous Habitability Zone of Solar System

• Outer edge of HZ must be less than Mars (1.5 AU) orbit (closer to Earth than to Mars)– Estimate of ~1.15 AU

• Inner edge of HZ closer to Earth than Venus because Venus lost its greenhouse of H2O early in its evolution– Estimate of ~0.95 AU

• Conclusion: for planet to maintain liquid H2O continuously for 4 BY, HZ is as follows:– >0.95 AU < 1.15 AU– HZ of only 0.2 AU in breadth 46

Habitability Zone in Our Galaxy• Use the range from our solar system as a basis for

analysis– In our solar system, 4 rocky planets that orbit the Sun

from 0.4 to 1.4 AU and spaced 0.4 AU apart• If typical, likelihood of other solar systems having

continuous habitability zone is just width of the zone divided by the typical spacing– 0.2/0.4 = 0.5 – Probability of 50%– Discuss this probability

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Habitability Zones Elsewhere in the Galaxy

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Habitability Zone in Our Galaxy

• Other factors also relevant– Several stars in our galaxy with planets

the size of Jupiter within terrestrial zone from their sun

– Mass of star• Larger mass, greater luminosity, shorter life• Most abundant stars in galaxy are least

luminous and longest-lived (M-dwarfs)– Don’t forget, 2/3 of stars in galaxy are

binary stars

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Signatures of Habitability

• Distance from sun• Luminosity of sun• Planet size• Atmospheric loss processes• Greenhouse effect and gases in the

atmosphere• Source of energy (internal/external)• Presence of water• Presence of carbon biomolecules• Biota 50

Comparative Habitability of Terrestrial Planets

• Venus (0.7 AU; radius 0.95E)– Very hot; evidence of liquid water in the past

• Mars (1.5 AU; radius 0.53E)– Very cold; evidence of subsurface water today

and surface water in the past• Earth (1.0 AU; radius 1.0E)

– Temperature moderation; liquid water on surface today and in the past

• Keys– greenhouse effect – size of planet– proximity to Sun

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Greenhouse Effect

• Factors to consider– light energy (visible wavelengths) from Sun– transfer through a planet’s atmosphere – absorption on the planet’s surface (soil, H2O)– re-radiation of energy as longer wavelengths

• i.e., infrared radiation– inability of infrared radiation to escape

atmosphere• Conversion of energy from light to heat energy

• Analogy to a greenhouse– Glass versus atmosphere as “barrier” 52

Greenhouse Effect In the Terrestrial Planets

• Venus’ greenhouse effect– without atmosphere/greenhouse: 43oC– with atmosphere/greenhouse effect: 470oC (+ 427oC)

• Earth’s greenhouse effect– without atmosphere/greenhouse effect: -23oC– with atmosphere/greenhouse effect: 15oC (+ 38oC)

• Mars’ greenhouse effect– without atmosphere/greenhouse effect: -55oC– with atmosphere/greenhouse effect: -50oC (+ 5oC)

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Principles of theGreenhouse Effect

• Primary principle of the Greenhouse Effect– A greenhouse gas is a gas that allows visible light to be

transmitted but is opaque to IR (infrared) radiation• Key is trace gases in atmosphere and cycling in the oceans

and terrestrial landscapes– Water has two effects, one greenhouse, one cooling (think

clouds)– Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Gas Venus (%*) Earth (%) Mars (%)H2O 0.0001 3 0.1CO2 98 0.03 96

Pressure 90 1 0.007(atm)

*% is relative abundance of that gas versus the other gases54

iClicker Question

• Venus’ atmosphere has much more carbon dioxide than Earth’s because– A Venus was born in a region of the solar

system where more carbon dioxide gas was present.

– B Venus lacks oceans in which carbon dioxide can be dissolved.

– C Venus has volcanoes that outgas much more carbon dioxide than those on Earth.

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Greenhouse Effect: H2O• Water can act as a greenhouse gas

– Prolonged periods of excessive heat or cold to change temperature at a global scale

• Two key chemical properties of H2O– High heat capacity– Decrease in density with freezing (insulation and

reflectance) • Temperature scenario on planetary surface as f

[H2O]– Cooling of H2O, leading to ice formation, followed by

more cooling (albedo)…runaway greenhouse effect– “Positive Feedback”

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Greenhouse Effect:CO2

• Carbon dioxide sometimes called a “compensatory” greenhouse gas– Need a molecule to compensate for “positive

feedback” of H2O, resulting in a “negative feedback”

• Key chemical properties of CO2– Importance of atmospheric state– Concentration in atmosphere linked to

oceans, geological reactions, and biota (plants)

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Cycling of CO2 on Earth

Atmosphere

OceansRock

dissolution

Sedimentation/ bicarbonate

plate tectonics

Keys: (i) recycling of CO2

(ii) geological time scales (millions to billions of years)

(iii) Earth’s long-term thermostat

(iv) interplay of CO2 and H2O cycles58

Greenhouse Effect: CO2• Temperature scenario on planetary surface f [CO2]

– As temperature increases, CO2 goes from atmosphere to geological substrates so that cooling occurs (negative feedback)

– As temperature decreases, CO2 in atmosphere increases (off-gassing from geological substrates) so that temperature increases (positive feedback)

• Evidence that CO2 and H2O have achieved control of Earth’s temperature– Surface temperature delicately balanced for at least 3.8

billion years– Sedimentary rocks in geological record (3.8 BY)

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Greenhouse Effect: CO2

• Catastrophic effect of too much CO2– Venus

• 100 times more CO2 than on Earth• Venus lost most of its H2O early in its

evolution as a planet– therefore no greenhouse effect via H2O

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Temperature of Earth’s Surface

• Related to the energy received from the Sun– Luminosity of Sun– Distance from Sun

• Albedo/reflectivity of the surface – Total absorption (albedo of 0)– Total reflection (albedo of 1)

• Greenhouse gases– H2O– CO2

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Consider This

• If the Sun were twice as bright as it actually is, life on Earth would not be possible.– A True– B False

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Now Consider This

• Consider the following– If the Sun were twice as bright the

temperatures on Earth would be much greater, but how do you calculate this?• E a T4 therefore T a E1/4

• So if E doubles, then temperature increases by about 1.2 times, so the temperature on Earth would be about 360 Kelvin (boiling point is 373 Kelvin at 1000 millibars).

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Consider This

• If the Sun were several times brighter than it actually is, the habitable zone would include Jupiter’s orbit.– A True– B False

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Now Consider This

• Consider the following– Jupiter’s temperatures now are about

150 Kelvin. In order to double that to get within the liquid water range, the Sun’s brightness would have to increase by 2 to the 4th power (in accordance with Stefan-Boltzmann Law), or 16 times the brightness that it is now.

– What does “several times brighter”mean?

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Habitability of Venus• Key factors

– Nearer to Sun (1.9 x more sunlight than Earth)– Temperature high enough to melt a lot of stuff– Massive atmosphere of CO2 and little H2O

• Due to mass of Venus and atomic mass

• CO2 in atmosphere approached theoretical maximum of CO2 from carbonate in rock– analogy to earth if oceans were to boil

• Divergent paths for Venus and Earth due to early loss of massive volumes of H2O from Venus atmosphere– Data to support original presence of H2O (stable

isotope) 66

Habitability of Venus

• Reason for loss of H2O– Heat from Sun transferred H2O from

oceans to atmosphere – UV light in upper atmosphere breaks up

H2O bonds• With H2O gone, die was cast

– all CO2 could not be locked up in oceans and could not escape

• Absence of plate tectonics– no re-cycling of CO2

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Venus and Earth Comparisons

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iClicker Question

• What is the likely reason for Venus’lack of water in any form?– A The planet accreted little water

during its birth.– B The water is locked away in the crust.– C The water was in the atmosphere,

where molecules were broken apart by ultraviolet light from the Sun.

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Habitability of Mars• Mars atmosphere similar to Venus

– High CO2– Very small pressures and no greenhouse warming– Small pressure + distance from Sun = cold and dry– H2O present today in polar ice caps and ground ice

• Geological hints of warmer, early Mars– Volcanic activity but no re-cycling of CO2 (small size

preclude plate tectonics)– Higher/thicker atmosphere = Earth early in evolution– Evidence of liquid H20 is great

• Dry channels and valley etched by liquid H2O; sedimentary deposits

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Habitability of Mars (cont)

• Unlike Earth, Mars climate changed as CO2disappeared and temperature dropped– Mars’ small size facilitated more rapid cooling

after bombardment and no tectonics to re-cycle CO2

• History– Formation of Mars (as with Earth via accretion)– Heavy cratering during bombardment– High CO2 and high H2O (0.5 BY)

• Probability of life most likely– Progressive loss of CO2 to carbonates– Drop in atmosphere and temperature

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Summary of Terrestrial Planets wrtHabitability

• Mercury (forget about it)• Venus (0.7 AU; radius 0.95 E)

– Very hot; evidence of liquid water in the past• Mars (1.5 AU; radius 0.53 E)

– Very cold; evidence of water beneath surface today and in the past on surface too

• Earth (1.0 AU; radius 1.0 E)– Temperature moderation; liquid water today

and in the past too• Keys

– greenhouse effect (CO2, H2O, oceans)– size of planet (tectonics, gravity, atmosphere)– proximity to Sun (luminosity) 72

Test Your Understanding Questions

• If Venus were just a little bit smaller, its climate would be Earth-like.

• Venus is not in the habitable zone now, but it may have been in the past.

• Venus is not in the habitable zone now, but in a few billion years from now it will be.

• If we could somehow start plate tectonics on Venus, its surface would cool and it would regain the oceans it had in the past.

• Mars will someday undergo a runaway greenhouse effect and become extremely hot.

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Consider This

• If Venus were just a little bit smaller, its climate would be Earth-like.– Consider the following

• If Venus were smaller, what physical characteristics would change?

– Gravity -> Escape Velocity -> Atmosphere Gases» May change atmospheric pressure, but then if it

were much smaller it would not be able to hold onto any atmosphere, like Mercury

» Less gravity would also mean the interior cooling off faster

• What does “a little bit smaller” really mean?

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Parable of the Daisyworld

• Introduction– What is a parable?– Daiseyworld as a parable

• Methodologies in the sciences– Scientific method and testing of hypotheses– Use of modeling as a method/tool

• GAIA Hypothesis“Climate (temperature) on the surface of the Earth is regulated like a thermostat by biota (plants, animals and microbes)”

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Parable of the Daisyworld(cont)

• Gaia and systems theory (cybernetics)

• Key features– Feedback processes

• Positive feedbacks• Negative feedbacks

– Homeostasis (liken to that of living organisms and thermostat)

– Role of biota– Albedo of surface features 76

Parable of the Daisyworld(cont)

• Simple mathematical model of the earth’s surface and temperature

• Biota is simplified to be solely two species of daisies– White daisy– Dark/black daisy

• Temperature response of daisies is species specific

• Albedo of the surface– Reflect light (1)– Absorb light (0; greenhouse effect)

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Parable of the Daisyworld(cont)

• Hypothesis: if theory is correct, presence of biota imparts more stability of climate (temperature) over time than a planet without daisies

• Run simulation and look at results• Examples

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Parable of the Daisyworld

Increasing Luminosity of Sun

0 C

No water/land

No biota

Albedo = 1

25 C

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Parable of the Daisyworld

Increasing Luminosity of Sun

0C

Water/Ice/Land

No biota

Albedo = mixed

25C

+

-

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Parable of the Daisyworld

Increasing Luminosity of Sun

0C

Water/Ice/Land

Biota

Albedo = mixed

25C

+ -

+

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Parable of the Daisyworld: Summary

• Basic principles of Daiseyworld model– Cybernetic system

• Role of biota in governing temperature when luminosity changes (i.e., increases as in Earth’s evolution; catastrophic change)

• Appreciate role of models in scientific method

• Hypothesis: atmosphere as a signature of life on a planet

• Add biota to your list of factors affecting habitability 82

Planet Habitability Questions

• Tectonics– why important?

• Effects of Magnetosphere– Especially with respect to solar

wind• Gravity and relationship to plate

tectonics

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Atmospheric Loss Processes to Consider

• Solar winds of charged particles– Sweeps away atmosphere in episodic wind

events• Planet’s magnetic field (magnetosphere)

– Deflect solar winds– Earth and Mercury have magnetospheres– Mars and Venus do not have magnetospheres

• Atmospheric loss processes– Escape velocity of gases

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iClicker Question

• Are the presence of greenhouse gasses relevant to habitability?– A Yes– B No

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iClicker Question

• Are energy sources relevant to habitability?– A Yes– B No

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iClicker Question

• Which are sources of energy for a planet?– A The Sun– B Remnant heat from formation in

the core of the planet.– C Radioactive decay of elements in

the interior of the planet.– D All of the above.

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iClicker Question• Is the presence of water relevant to

the topic of habitability?– A Yes– B No

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iClicker Question

• Is the presence of carbon biomolecules relevant to the topic of habitability?– A Yes– B No

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When does it end on Earth?

• Change in our atmosphere– human causes and others

• Change in magnetosphere• Change in Earth interior

– cooling of the Earth• Change in Sun

– life cycle of any star like our Sun

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Post Main Sequence on the HR Diagram

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Test Your Understanding Questions

• We are not yet certain, but it is quite likely that Earth has suffered through a runaway greenhouse effect at least once in the past 4 billion years.

• While the habitable zone of the Sun migrates outward over time, the habitable zones of other Sun-like stars might instead migrate inward over time.

• If earth someday becomes a moist greenhouse, it will have a climate that is humid but still quite comfortable.

• The fact that additional atmospheric CO2 must cause a greenhouse effect is all we need to know to link global warming to human activity.

• Earth has been warmer in the past than it is today, so there is nothing to worry about with global warming. 92

Consider This

• While the habitable zone of the Sun migrates outward over time, the habitable zones of other Sun-like stars might instead migrate inward over time.– Consider the following

• What constitutes Sun-like stars?– Our Sun is a G2 V (main sequence)

• Assuming all F, G and K main sequence stars– All main sequence stars increase luminosity over

time