Research: An Introduction

Muhammad Azeem Qureshi

Lecture 1

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Recommended Books

Introduction to Research Understanding and Applying Multiple Strategies

2015-Fifth Edition (Elizabeth DePoy, Laura N. Gitlin): (ELSEVIER)

Research Methods Research Methods Concepts and Connections

(Michael W. Passer)

2014 by Worth Publishers, Macmillan Higher Education

Business Research Methods Eight Edition (Zikmund, Babin, Carr & Griffin)

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Recommended Books

Research Methods for Business Students 2009-5th Edition (Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis, Adrian Thornhill)

Fundamental of Research Methodology & Statistics Yogesh Kumar Singh

2006 New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers 2006 New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers

Research Methodology Methods & Techniques

2nd Revised Edition (C. R. Kothari)

Research Methods for Business A Skill Building Approach

4th Edition (Uma Sekran)

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Research

A process employed to find out solution to a problem.

An activity to answer the questions which have not

been answered yet.

Systematic investigative process employed to increase Systematic investigative process employed to increase

or revise current knowledge by discovering new facts.

It starts from observation and identification of problem.

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The research in Natural & Social Science

The natural sciences are different from the

social sciences in several respects. The

natural sciences are very precise, accurate,

deterministic, and independent of the person

making the scientific observations while in

social sciences, the subjective approach is

used.

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Scientific Knowledge

Scientific knowledge refers to a

generalized body of laws and theories to

explain a phenomenon or behavior ofexplain a phenomenon or behavior of

interest that are acquired using the

scientific method.

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What is The Scientific Method?

A method of systematic observation,

measurement, and experiment is called

The Scientific Method.The Scientific Method.

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The Hallmarks of Scientific Research

Purposiveness

Rigor (Exactitude & Carefulness)

Testability

Replicability

Precision and Confidence (Closesnes of findings to reality & Estimations are correct)

Objectivity

Generalizability

Parsimony (Simplicity)

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Theory

Theory refers to generalization about a phenomenon

and gives explanation about how or why something

occurs.

Theory is a formal, testable explanation of some Theory is a formal, testable explanation of some

events that includes explanations of how things relate

to one another.

The power of a theory is its ability to connect events

into a unified web.

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Theory (Continue)

It may also be described as a system of generalizable

statements that are logically linked together to understand or

predict human phenomena.

There are two goals of a theory

Understanding and predicting. (explanation through

supplement material given to students)

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Theory (Continue)

A theory can be built through a process of reviewing previous findings of

similar studies, simple logical deduction, and/or knowledge of applicable

theoretical areas.

For example, if a Web designer is trying to decide what color background is

most effective in increasing online sales, he may first consult previous

studies examining the effects of color on package design and retail

store design. He may also find theories that deal with the wavelength of

different colors, affective response to colors, or those that explain retail

atmospherics. This may lead to the specific prediction that blue is the most

effective background color for a Web site.

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Laws and Theories

Laws are observed and established patterns of

phenomena or behaviors, while

Theories are systematic explanations of the

underlying phenomenon or behavior.underlying phenomenon or behavior.

The goal of scientific research is to discover laws and

postulate theories that can explain natural or social

phenomena, or in other words, build scientific

knowledge.

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Laws and Theories

We arrive at scientific laws or theories

through a process of logic and evidence.

Logic (theory) and evidence (observations)Logic (theory) and evidence (observations)

are the two, and only two, pillars upon

which scientific knowledge is based.

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Induction and Deduction

Induction and deduction are two different

reasoning strategies. In other words, they

are two different ways to figure out theare two different ways to figure out the

solution to a problem.

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Induction (From specific to general)

With induction - you start with your own experience and

then generalize a rule. For example, The last ten times I

touched the hot stove I burnt my hand. I bet every time I

touch the hot stove my hand will be burned.

Another example: Because the last few times I cut my

hair, it grew back. Inductive reasoning allows me to

generalize that after anyone cut his/her hair it will always

grow back.

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Induction (From specific to general)

It is a theory building approach.

On the basis of a theory and its propositions, hypotheses

are derived and then formally tested.

Experimental-type researchers primarily use deductive

logic.

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Deduction (From general to specific)

With deduction - you start with a rule and then apply it to

new situations. For example: The law of gravity says that

what goes up must come down, so I bet if I throw this

ball up it will fall back down.

Another example: Since my teacher's grading policy

states that he takes 1 point off for each spelling mistake,

I can deduce that I will lose 5 points if I make five

spelling mistakes.

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Deduction (From general to specific)

It is a theory testing approach.

Using a deductive type of reasoning, the researcher

begins with the acceptance of a general principle or

belief based on a particular theoretical framework. This

principle is then applied or used to explain a specific

case or phenomenon. This approach involves drawing

out or verifying what is already accepted as accurate.

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Conducting scientific research, therefore, requires two sets

of skills theoretical and methodological needed to

operate in the theoretical and empirical levels

respectively. Methodological skills ("know-how") are

relatively standard, invariant across disciplines, and

easily acquired through doctoral programs. However,

theoretical skills ("know what") is considerably harder to

master, requires years of observation and reflection.

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They cannot be taught but rather learnt though

experience. All of the greatest scientists in the history of

mankind, such as Galileo, Newton, Einstein, Neils Bohr,

Adam Smith, were master theoreticians, and they are

remembered for the theories they postulated thatremembered for the theories they postulated that

transformed the course of science. Methodological skills

are needed to be an ordinary researcher, but theoretical

skills are needed to be an extraordinary researcher.

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Abductive Reasoning

Abductive reasoning typically begins with an incomplete set of

observations and proceeds to the likeliest possible

explanation for the set. Abductive reasoning yields the kind of

daily decision-making that does its best with the informationdaily decision-making that does its best with the information

at hand, which often is incomplete.

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Abductive Reasoning

A medical diagnosis is an application of abductive reasoning:

given this set of symptoms, what is the diagnosis that would

best explain most of them? Likewise, when jurors hear

evidence in a criminal case, they must consider whether theevidence in a criminal case, they must consider whether the

prosecution or the defense has the best explanation to cover

all the points of evidence. While there may be no certainty

about their verdict, since there may exist additional evidence

that was not admitted in the case, they make their best guess

based on what they know.

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Sources of Knowledge or Beliefs

Philosopher and scientist Charles Peirce (1877),in an article titled The Fixation of Belief,described four methods by which people cometo hold beliefs about the world:to hold beliefs about the world:

1) Tenacity

2) Authority

3) Reason

4) Science

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Tenacity involves believing something simplybecause it is what we have long believed.

There is no exploration of ones beliefs, noreasoned contemplation of opposing viewpoints.

Peirce argued that tenacity involves closing

Tenacity

Peirce argued that tenacity involves closingoneself off to information that is inconsistentwith, or otherwise threatens, a rmly held belief.

Although he clearly viewed tenacity as anunsatisfactory method upon which to base onesknowledge and beliefs, Peirce noted that itpossessed strength, simplicity, and directness(1877, Section V, Para 12).

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AUTHORITY

Authority involves relying on other people asour source of knowledge and beliefs, and itspervasive throughout our life. In childhood webegin to rely on parents, other caregivers,begin to rely on parents, other caregivers,siblings, teachers, friends, television, radio, theweb and books etc.

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AUTHORITY (Continue)

As a college student, you rely on authority when youacquire knowledge from your professors and textbooks. Ifyou decide not to take a course from a particularinstructor because a friend says Dont do it, his lecturesare really boring, or He will not give you good marksthen youve relied on your friend as an authority.then youve relied on your friend as an authority.

We are most likely to view someone as credible whenthe following are true: We believe that the person has expertise on thesubject. We perceive the person as trustworthy.

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REASON

Reason rests on the use of logic and rational (i.e.,intellectually sound) argument to reach a conclusionabout how things must be.

Scientists use reasoning when they construct theories toaccount for known facts and when they deriveScientists use reasoning when they construct theories toaccount for known facts and when they derivehypotheses from theories in order to test those theories.

But scientic knowledge is not based on the method ofreason only. The primary limitation of the method ofreason is that different logical conclusions can be drawndepending on the premises one begins with. For example:

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REASON (Continue)

Although opposite conclusions are reached, bothconclusions are logically valid, given the startingassumption that their respective premises are true. But inreality, of course, both conclusions cant be true.

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Moreover, in the real world of human behavior, neitherof the premises about infants understanding of objectpermanence may be true.

For example, the age at which children acquire anunderstanding of object permanence may vary fromchild to child.

Perhaps its the case that 70% of infants understandobject permanence by 7 months of age. In that case weobject permanence by 7 months of age. In that case wewould have to phrase our conclusion in probabilisticterms: There is a 70% chance that Alice understandsthe concept of object permanence.

Pure reason is a poor basis for understanding behavior:

What reason can provide, however, is absolute clarityabout the phenomenon

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EMPIRICISM

A great deal of what we know comes directly from our senses: from what we see, hear, touch, and so forth. Knowledge based on the senseson experiences with the worldis called on experiences with the worldis called empirical knowledge.

The related term, empiricism, is the process of acquiring knowledge directly through observation and experience.

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EMPIRICISM (Continue)

As a method of acquiring knowledge,empiricism is a central building block ofscience.

But especially in its raw personal form, as you But especially in its raw personal form, as youand I learn about the world and form beliefsbased on our direct experiences, empiricismhas limitations and risks.

First, no matter how full and varied our livesare, none of us experience everything.

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EMPIRICISM (Continue)

Second, our experiences may not berepresentative of other peoples experiences.

Students or followers may have differentopinion about the same teacher/leader, but inopinion about the same teacher/leader, but inreality the case may be entirely different.

Their knowledge is different because theyvehad different experiences.

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EMPIRICISM (Continue) Third, even if our experiences are representative,

we may interpret or remember them in a biasedmanner.

Your teacher may act fairly and consistently to allthe employees, but you and your colleague mightthe employees, but you and your colleague mightbe hypersensitive to criticism. Therefore, you mayinterpret as criticism remarks made by theteacher that most students would interpret asconstructive feedback.

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Conclusion

Reason alone doesnt constitute sufcientevidence,

Nor do claims made by authorities withoutgood empirical evidence to back up thosegood empirical evidence to back up thoseassertions.

Collecting evidence without evaluating it anddrawing conclusions wont get us far; we needto use reasoning.

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GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

The following characteristics may be gathered from the

definitions of Research

1. It places emphasis upon the discovery of general principles.

3. It is an exact systematic and accurate investigation.

4. It uses certain valid data gathering devices.4. It uses certain valid data gathering devices.

5. It is logical and objective.

6. The researcher resists the temptation to seek only the data

that support his hypotheses.

7. The researcher eliminates personal feelings and preferences.

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GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH (Continue)

8. It endeavors to organize data in quantitative terms.

9. Research is patient and unhurried activity.

10. The researcher is willing to follow his procedures to the

conclusions that may be unpopular and bring social

disapproval.disapproval.

11. Research is carefully recorded and reported.

12. Conclusions and generalizations are arrived at

carefully and cautiously.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD RESEARCHER

1. He should be sensitive in his nature.

2. He should be problem-minded.

3. He should have mastery on the area and should have specialization in the field studied.

4. He should have a scientific outlook about the area.

5. He should be able to think reflectively on the field studied. 5. He should be able to think reflectively on the field studied.

(Active, persistent, and careful consideration of any belief /knowledge)

6. He should have tolerance and patience.

7. He should be interested in the field studied.

8. He should be honest and devotee to his work.

9. He should have the curiosity to find out something new or to answer some questions which are still to be answered.

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Ten Essentials of Research

1. Identify philosophical foundation2. Frame a research problem3. Determine supporting knowledge4. Identify a theory base5. Develop a specific question or query5. Develop a specific question or query6. Select a design strategy7. Set study boundaries8. Obtain information9. Analyze information and draw conclusions10. Share and use research knowledge

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Ten Essentials of Research

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Ten Essentials of Research

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The process of conducting research does notmean following linear steps, such as decidinghypothesis, collecting data and data analysis,rather it implies getting deeper into therather it implies getting deeper into thephenomenon under investigation andcontribute to knowledge for the sake ofknowledge.

Designing a research is as much art as science

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