Arrangement of Electrons in Atoms (Chapter 4) Notes Part 1 Electromagnetic Radiation

Arrangement of Electrons in Atoms (Chapter 4) Notes

Part 1 Electromagnetic Radiation

Let’s Review Energy!

Let’s Review Energy!Radiation of different wavelengths affect matter differently – certain wavelengths (near infrared) may burn your skin with a heat burn, overexposure to X radiation causes tissue damage.

A. These effects are due to differences in the energy of the radiation.

B. Radiation of high frequency and short wavelength are more energetic than radiation of lower frequency and longer wavelength.

I. Properties of Light-I. Different types of electromagnetic

radiation (x-rays, radio waves, microwaves, etc…) SEEM to be very different from one another.

II. All types of electromagnetic radiation (radiant energy) move through a vacuum at a speed of 3.00 x l08 meters per second.

A. Wavelength – A. Distance between identical points on adjacent

wavesB. Symbolized by lambda, , C. Measured in any length unit, depending on the size

of the waveA. Ex. Shorter X-rays are usually measured in nanometers

or angstroms B. Ex. Longer radio waves might be measured in meters

or kilometers.

Wavelength

B. Frequency - A. the number of complete

wave cycles that pass a given point in one second:

B. Unit of frequency is cycles/second

C. Written as sec-1, or Hertz

D. The letter f or the letter “nu”,, is used to depict frequency.

If the frequency and wavelength are known then the product of the two (wavelength x frequency) is always equal to the same speed. It is known as the speed of light or c.

c = speed of light = 3.00 x l08 m/s

c =f = wavelength (in m)

f = frequency (in Hz)

1. What is the wavelength of radiation whose frequency is 6.24 x l013 sec-1?

A: 4.81X10-6 m

2. What is the frequency of radiation whose wavelength is 2.20 x l0-6 nm? (1 m = 1,000,000,000 nm)

A: 1.36X1023 s-1 or Hz

3. A television relay transmitter operates at a frequency of 927.9 MHz. Calculate the wavelength of the signal in nanometers. Is this visible light? (1 MHz = 1,000,000 Hz)

A: 3.233X108 nm – Not visible light.

II. The Photoelectric Effect (pg 93) – refers to the emission of electrons from a metal when light shines on the metal.

A. The wave theory of light (early 1900) could not explain the photoelectric effect.

A. Light was thought of as waves B. Light was known to be a form of energy, capable of

knocking loose an electron from a metal. C. But the wave theory of light predicted that light of any

frequency could supply enough energy to eject an electron.

B. Scientists couldn’t explain why for a particular metal, no electrons were emitted if the light’s frequency was below a certain minimum.

C. Explanation of the Photoelectric Effect by Max PlanckA. In 1900 Max Planck proposed that light consisted of

BUNDLES OF ENERGY called QUANTA. B. A quantum is the minimum quantity of energy that can be

lost or gained by an atom.

Max Planck

Planck proposed the following relationship between a quantum of energy and the frequency of radiation:

E = hfh = Planck’s constant = 6.63 x l0-34 Joules sec E = energy (in Joules)f = frequency (in Hz)

Examples:1. If a certain light has 7.18 x l0-19 J of energy what is the

frequency of this light? A: 1.08X1015 s-1or Hz

b. What is the wavelength, in nm, of this light? A: 278 nm

2. If the frequency of a certain light is 3.8 x l014 Hz, what is the energy of this light? A: 2.5X10-19 J

3. The energy of a certain light is 3.9 x l0-19 J. What is the wavelength, in nm, of this light? Is it visible?

A: 510 nm – Yes visible light.4. Calculate the smallest increment of energy that an object

can absorb from yellow light, the color given off when sodium atoms are heated in a flame. The wavelength of this light is 589 nm.

A: 3.37X10-19 J

D. Albert Einstein Expanded on Planck’s Idea

A. Explained that while light exhibits many wavelike properties, it can also be thought of as a stream of particles each carrying a quantum of energy.

B. Einstein called these particles PHOTONS.

A. A photon is a particle of electromagnetic radiation having zero mass and carrying a (1) quantum of energy.

Albert Einstein

C. Einstein explained the photoelectric effect by proposing that electromagnetic radiation is absorbed by matter only in whole numbers of photons.

D. The electron must be struck by a single photon possessing at least the minimum energy/frequency (Ephoton = hv) required to knock the electron loose

from a metal surface or the electron remains bound to the metal surface.

E. Electrons in different metals are bound more or less tightly, so different metals require different

minimum frequencies to exhibit the photoelectric effect.

EXAMPLE

An atom or molecule emitting or absorbing radiation whose wavelength

is 589 nm cannot lose or gain energy by radiation except in MULTIPLES OF 3.37x l0-19 J. It cannot, for example, gain 5.00 x l0-19 J from this radiation

because this amount is not a multiple of 3.37 x l0-19.

5. In astronomy, it is often necessary to be able to detect just a few photons because the light signals from distant stars are so weak. A photon detector receives a signal of total energy 4.05 x l0-18 J from radiation of 540 nm wavelength. How many photons have been detected?

A: 11 photons

6. Excited chromium atoms strongly emit radiation of 427 nm. What is the energy in kilojoules per photon?

A: 4.66X10-22 kJ

7. Light hitting certain chemical substances may cause rupture of a chemical bond. If a minimum energy of 332 kJ is required to break a carbon-chlorine bond in a plastic material, what is the longest wavelength of radiation that possesses the necessary energy?

A: 5.99X10-31 m

III. The Hydrogen-Atom Line-Emission Spectrum

A. Investigators passed an electric current through a vacuum tube containing hydrogen gas at low pressure, they observed a characteristic pinkish glow.

B. When a beam of the emitted light was shined through a prism, it was separated into a series of specific frequencies (and therefore specific wavelengths, c =) of visible light. The bands of light were part of what is known as hydrogen’s LINE-EMISSION SPECTRUM. (page 95)

III. The Hydrogen-Atom Line-Emission Spectrum

C. The lowest energy state of an atom is its ground state.

D. A state in which an atom has a higher amount of energy is an excited state. When an excited atom returns to its ground state, it gives off energy.

IV. Bohr’s Model of Hydrogen – A. Incorporated Planck’s quantum theory to

explain line-emission spectra. B. Bohr said the absorptions and emissions

of light by hydrogen corresponded to energy changes within the atom. The fact that only certain frequencies are absorbed or emitted by an atom tells us that only certain energy changes are possible.

C. Bohr’s model incorporated (l) Rutherford’s Experiment, which established a nucleus and (2) Einstein’s theory that used Planck’s quantum theory to determine that light is discrete bundles of energy.

Bohr’s Model of the Hydrogen Atom

V. Bohr’s Theory of the Atom:A. Electrons cannot have just any energy; only orbits of

certain radii having CERTAIN energies are permitted.B. Thus, when an electron absorbs quanta of energy, it will

cause them to jump away from the nucleus to a higher orbit (energy level or n) and when the electron falls from a high orbit to a lower one, a photon of a particular wavelength is released, and a particular color will be given off.

C. The larger the value of n, the farther the electron is from the nucleus and the higher energy it possesses.

D. However, Bohr’s approach did not explain the spectra of atoms with more than one electron or the chemical behavior of atoms.

V. Bohr’s Theory of the Atom:

Electrons in Atoms (Chapter 4) Notes

Part 2 Quantum Model of the Atom

So where are the electrons of an atom located?

A. Various Models of the Atom

Dalton’s Model

Thomson’s Plum Pudding Model

Rutherford’s Model

Bohr’s ‘Solar System’ Model – electrons rotate around the nucleus

Quantum Mechanics Model – modern description of the electron in atoms, derived from a mathematical equation (Schrodinger’s wave equation)

B. In 1926, the Austrian physicist Erwin Schrodinger used the hypothesis that electrons have a dual wave/particle nature (developed by Louis de Broglie in 1924) to develop an equation that treated electrons in atoms as waves.

Erwin Schrodinger

Electrons as WavesLouis de Broglie (1924)

Applied wave-particle theory to electrons

electrons exhibit wave properties

QUANTIZED WAVELENGTHS

Adapted from work by Christy Johannesson www.nisd.net/communicationsarts/pages/chem

Standing Wave 200

150

100

50

0

- 50

-100

-150

-2000 50 100 150 200

Second Harmonic or First Overtone 200

150

100

50

0

- 50

-100

-150

-2000 50 100 150 200

Fundamental mode 200

150

100

50

0

- 50

-100

-150

-2000 50 100 150 200

Louis de Broglie~1924

Electrons as WavesQUANTIZED WAVELENGTHS

Courtesy Christy Johannesson www.nisd.net/communicationsarts/pages/chem

n = 4

n = 6

Forbiddenn = 3.3

n = 5

Schrodinger’s equation results in a series of so called wave functions, represented by the letter (psi).

Although has no actual physical meaning, the value of 2 describes the probability distribution of an electron. (Same concept covered in Algebra II when dealing with

linear regressions and finding best fit lines.)


Electron Probability vs. Distance

Ele

ctro

n P

roba

bilit

y (%

)

Distance from the Nucleus (pm)

100 150 200 2505000

10

20

30

40

Orbital

90% probability offinding the electron

We cannot know both the location and velocity of an electron (Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle), thus Schrodinger’s equation does not tell us the exact location of the electron, rather it describes the probability that an electron will be at a certain location in the atom. Here is an overview of electron properties:

1. Waves are confined to a space and can only have certain frequencies.

2. Electrons are considered waves confined to the space around an atomic nucleus. Electrons can only exist at specific frequencies. And according to E=hv (Planck’s hypothesis), these frequencies correspond to specific energies (or quantified amounts of energy.)

3. Electrons, like light waves, can be bent or diffracted.

Orbital

90% probability offinding the electron

C. Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle says we cannot know both the location and the momentum of a particle.

A. When the radiation used to locate a particle hits that particle, it changes its momentum. Therefore, the position and momentum cannot both be measured exactly.

B. Today we say that the electrons are located in a region outside the nucleus called the electron cloud.

Werner Heisenberg

Heisenberg Uncertainty PrincipleHeisenberg Uncertainty Principle Impossible to know both the velocity and

position of an electron at the same time

Microscope

Electron

Werner Heisenberg~1926

I. Electron Cloud – Energy LevelsA.Electrons are found in various energy levels around the nucleus, analogous to the rungs of a ladder.

A. The lowest rung of the ladder corresponds to the lowest energy level.

B. A person can climb up or down a ladder by going from rung to rung. Similarly, an electron can jump from one energy level to another.

C. A person on a ladder cannot stand between the rungs; similarly, the electrons in an atom cannot exist between energy levels.

A. Quantum: To move from one rung to another, a person climbing a ladder must move just the right distance. To move from one energy level to another, an electron must gain or lose just the right amount of energy. The exact amount of energy required to move from one energy level to another is called a quantum of energy.

B. Photon: When electrons move from one energy level to another energy level we see light – going from one energy level to another energy level gives off an exact amount of light (called a photon).

Electron Absorbing Energy (Photon)

Electron will move from a ground state to an excited state.

Electron Emitting Energy (Photon)

Electron will move from an excited state to a ground state.

II. Quantum Mechanics Model of the Atom

Periodic Table with predicted ending electron configurations.

Quantum Numbers

UPPER LEVEL

Four Quantum Numbers:Specify the “address” of each electron

in an atom


Quantum Numbers

Principal Quantum NumberPrincipal Quantum Number ( nn )

Angular Momentum Quantum #Angular Momentum Quantum # ( ll )

Magnetic Quantum NumberMagnetic Quantum Number ( mmll )

Spin Quantum NumberSpin Quantum Number ( ms )

A. Energy Levels: energy levels (represented by the letter n) are assigned values in order of increasing energy: n=1,2,3,4, and so forth…. which correspond to the periods in the periodic table. Which energy level is furthest away from the nucleus and has electrons with the highest energy - 1, 2, 3, or 4?

Relative Sizes 1s and 2s

1s 2sZumdahl, Zumdahl, DeCoste, World of Chemistry 2002, page 334

Energy level

Size of the orbital

n2 = # of orbitals in the energy level


1s

2s

3s

B. Sublevels: Within each energy level, the electrons are located in various sublevels – there are 4 different sublevels s, p, d, and f. Sublevels define the shape of the orbital (s, p, d, & f).

Shapes of s, p, and d-Orbitals

s orbital

p orbitals

d orbitals

p-Orbitals

Zumdahl, Zumdahl, DeCoste, World of Chemistry 2002, page 335

px pypz

d-orbitals

Zumdahl, Zumdahl, DeCoste, World of Chemistry 2002, page 336

Atomic Orbitals

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Benjamin Cummings. All rights reserved.

s sublevel

p sublevel

d sublevel

f sublevel

1s 2s 2p 3p

More pictures!

s pd f


Orbitals combine to form a spherical

shape.

2s

2pz2py

2px


Orbital (2 electrons/orbital)Orientation of orbital (px, py, pz)

Specifies the exact orbital within each sublevel


Feeling overwhelmed?

Read chapter 4.2!


"Teacher, may I be excused? My brain is full."

Chemistry

C. Orbitals: Where are the electrons in the various sublevels located in relation to the nucleus? Electrons are NOT confined to a fixed circular path, they are, however, found in definite regions of the atoms – these regions are called atomic orbital’s! Each orbital can only hold 2 electrons at a time (Pauli exclusion principle).

Within the s sublevel there is only 1 orbital (which is spherical) it is called the s orbital.http://www.shef.ac.uk/chemistry/orbitron/AOs/1s/index.html

Within the p sublevel there are 3 orbital’s (which are dumbbell shaped) called the px, py, pz orbital’s.

Within the d sublevel there are 5 orbital’s (4 of which are cloverleaf shaped) called the dxy, dxz, dyz, dx2-y2, dz2 orbital’s.

Within the f sublevel there are 7 orbital’s - which are too complex to draw

D. D. How many electrons can go into each energy level?

Each orbital can hold two electrons. (2n2 = number of electrons per energy level)

The 1st energy level (n=1) only has 1 sublevel called 1s. s only has 1 orbital called the s orbital, so only 2 electrons will be found in the 1st energy level. (2n2 = 2)

The 2nd energy level (n=2) has 2 sublevels called 2s and 2p. s only has 1 orbital called the s orbital, p has 3 orbital’s called px, py, and pz orbitals, so 8 electrons will be found in the 2nd energy level. (2n2 = 8)

The 3rd energy level (n=3) has 3 sublevels called 3s, 3p, and 3d. s only has 1 orbital called the s orbital, p has 3 orbital’s called px, py, and pz orbitals, and d has 5 orbital’s, so 18 electrons will be found in the 3rd energy level. (2n2 = 18)

How about the 4th energy level?

It has 4 sublevels called 4s, 4p, 4d, and 4f. s only has 1 orbital, p has 3 orbital’s, d has 5 orbital’s, and f has 7 orbitals, so 32 electrons will be found in the 4th energy level. (2n2 = 32)

E. Lets put it all together:

Example of neon atom:

Spin of an electron within an orbital. Each orbital can hold two electrons, both with different spins (clockwise spin and counterclockwise spin). Electrons fill the orbitals one at a time with the same spin, then fill up the orbitals with electrons of the opposite spin.

Spin Spin

An orbital can hold 2 electrons that spin in opposite directions.


Copyright © 2006 Pearson Benjamin Cummings. All rights reserved.

Quantum Numbers AnalogyEnergy Levels (n) or Principal Q.N.n=1 (Weir) n=2 (Liberty Hill) n=3 (Georgetown) n=4 (Austin)

Sublevels (l) or Azimuthal Q.N.l=0 – s shape 1 bedrooml=1 – p shape 3 bedrooml=2 – d shape 5 bedrooml=3 – f shape 7 bedroom

Orbitals (ml) or Magnetic Q.N.If l=0 then ml=0 (Represents the 1 bed/orbital in the s sublevel)If l=1 then ml= -1, 0, 1 (Represents the 3 bed’s/orbital’s in the p

sublevel) If l=2 then ml= -2, -1, 0, 1, 2 (Represents the 5 bed’s/orbital’s in the p

sublevel)If l=3 then ml= -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3 (Represents the 7 bed’s/orbital’s in

the p sublevel)Magnetic Spin – Fourth Q.N. (ms)

ms = +1/2 - 1st electron in orbitalms = -1/2 – 2nd electron in orbital

Level n 1 2 3

Sublevel l Orbital ml

Spin ms

0 0

0 0 1 0 -1 0 1 0 -1 2 1 0 -1 -2

2101

= +1/2

= -1/2

Allowed Sets of Quantum Numbers for Electrons in Atoms

Maximum Number of Electrons In Each SublevelMaximum Number of Electrons In Each Sublevel

Maximum Number Sublevel Number of Orbitals of Electrons

s 1 2

p 3 6

d 5 10

f 7 14

LeMay Jr, Beall, Robblee, Brower, Chemistry Connections to Our Changing World , 1996, page 146

Quantum Numbers

n shell

l subshell

ml orbital

ms electron spin

1, 2, 3, 4, ...

0, 1, 2, ... n - 1

- l ... 0 ... +l

+1/2 and - 1/2

Electrons In Atoms Notes (Chapter 4) Part 3 Electron

Configurations

I. Electron Configuration: It should be obvious to you now that it is very difficult to draw a representation or model of atom showing where the electrons are located, so what we do instead is write electron configurations for elements.Definition of electron configuration: An electron configuration is a written representation of the arrangement of electrons in an atom.

When constructing orbital diagrams and electron configurations, keep the following in mind:Aufbau Principle – electrons fill in order from lowest to highest energy.The Pauli Exclusion Principle – An orbital can only hold two electrons.Two electrons in the same orbital must have opposite spins.You must know how many electrons can be held by each angular momentum number, l. (ie; s can hold 2, 6 for p, l0 for d, 14 for f)Hund’s rule – the lowest energy configuration for an atom is the one having the maximum number of unpaired electrons for a set of degenerate orbitals. By convention, all unpaired electrons are represented as having parallel spins with spin “up”.

Filling Rules for Electron Orbitals

Aufbau Principle: Electrons are added one at a time to the lowest energy orbitals available until all the electrons of the atom have been accounted for.

Pauli Exclusion Principle: An orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons.To occupy the same orbital, two electrons must spin in opposite directions.

Hund’s Rule: Electrons occupy equal-energy orbitals so that a maximum number of unpaired electrons results.

*Aufbau is German for “building up”

Quantum Numbers

1. Principal # 2. Ang. Mom. # 3. Magnetic # 4. Spin #

energy level

sublevel (s,p,d,f)

orbital

electron

Pauli Exclusion PrinciplePauli Exclusion PrincipleNo two electrons in an atom can have the

same 4 quantum numbers.

Each electron has a unique “address”:


Wolfgang Pauli

II. What? How do we write an electron configuration?

A. 1st rule - electrons occupy orbitals that require the least amount of energy for the electron to stay there. So always follow the vertical rule (Aufbau Principle):

You notice, for example, that the 4s sublevel requires less energy than the 3d sublevel; therefore, the 4s orbital is filled with electrons before any electrons enter the 3d orbital!!!! (So just follow the periodic table and you can’t go wrong!!!!)

II. What? How do we write an electron configuration?

1st rule - electrons occupy orbitals that require the least amount of energy for the electron to stay there. So always follow the vertical rule (Aufbau Principle):

You notice, for example, that the 4s sublevel requires less energy than the 3d sublevel; therefore, the 4s orbital is filled with electrons before any electrons enter the 3d orbital!!!! (So just follow the chart and you can’t go wrong!!!!)

B. 2nd rule – only 2 electrons can go into any orbital, however, you must place one electron into each orbital in a sublevel before a 2nd electron can occupy an orbital. Orbital’s with only 1 electron in the orbital are said to have an unpaired electron in them. (Hund’s rule)

III. Writing Electron Configurations (3 ways): A. Orbital Notation: an unoccupied

orbital is represented by a line______, with the orbitals name written underneath the line. An orbital containing one electron is written as _____, an orbital with two electrons is written as ____. The lines are labeled with the principal quantum number and the sublevel letter.

Examples: (Remember that you must place one electron into each orbital before a second

electron in placed into an orbital.)Hydrogen ____ Helium __

1s 1s

Lithium ___ ____

1s 2s

Carbon ____ ____ ____ ____ _____ 1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz

You try to write the notation for Titanium

H = 1s1

1s

He = 1s2

1s

Li = 1s2 2s1

1s 2s

Be = 1s2 2s2

1s 2s

C = 1s2 2s2 2p2

1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz

S = 1s2 2s2 2p4

1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz 3s 3px 3py 3pz

THIS SLIDE IS ANIMATEDIN FILLING ORDER 2.PPT

H = 1s1

1s

He = 1s2

1s

Be = 1s2 2s2

1s 2s

+1e-

+2e-

e-

+4e-

e-e-

e-

B. Electron Configuration Notation: eliminates the lines and arrows of orbital notation. Instead, the number of electrons in a sublevel is shown by adding a superscript to the sublevel designation. The superscript indicates the number of electrons present in that sublevel.

Examples:

Hydrogen: 1s1 Helium: 1s2

Lithium: 1s22s1

Carbon: 1s22s22p2

You try to write the notation for Titanium

Fe = 1s1 2s22p63s23p64s23d6

1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz 3s 3px 3py 3pz

+26

e-

e-

e-

e-

4s 3d 3d 3d 3d

Iron has ___ electrons.26

3d

ArbitraryEnergy Scale

18

18

32

8

8

2

1s

2s 2p

3s 3p

4s 4p 3d

5s 5p 4d

6s 6p 5d 4f

NUCLEUS

e-

e-e-

e-

e- e-

e-

e-

e-

e-

e-

e-

e-e-

e-

e-

e-

e-

e- e-

e-

e-

Orbital Filling

Element 1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz 3s Configuration

Orbital Filling

Element 1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz 3s Configuration

Electron ConfigurationsElectron

H

He

Li

C

N

O

F

Ne

Na

1s1

1s22s22p63s1

1s22s22p6

1s22s22p5

1s22s22p4

1s22s22p3

1s22s22p2

1s22s1

1s2

NOT CORRECTViolates Hund’s

Rule

Electron ConfigurationsElectron

H

He

Li

C

N

O

F

Ne

Na

1s1

1s22s22p63s1

1s22s22p6

1s22s22p5

1s22s22p4

1s22s22p3

1s22s22p2

1s22s1

1s2

C. Short Hand or Noble Gas Notation: Use the noble gases that have complete inner energy levels and an outer energy level with complete s and p orbital’s. Use the noble gas that just precedes the element you are working with.

Boron is ls22s22p1

The noble gas preceding Boron is He, so the short way is [He]2s22p1.

Sulfur is ls22s22p63s23p4

Short way: [Ne]3s23p4

Example: Titanium

More Practice Problems: Write electron configurations for each of the following

atoms:1. boron2. sulfur3. vanadium4. iodineDraw orbital diagrams for these:5. sodium6. phosphorus7. chlorineWrite shorthand electron configuration for the following:8. Sr9. Mo 10. Ge

Irregular Electron configurations – sometimes the electron configuration is NOT what we would predict it to be. Sometimes electrons are moved because (l) it will result in greater stability for that atom or (2) for some unknown reason??

It is very important to define “stable” here. STABLE means:

1. all degenerate (equal energy) orbital’s are FULL

2. all degenerate orbital’s are half-full

3. all degenerate orbital’s are totally empty.

Examples – draw the orbital’s (lines or boxes) and fill each orbital with the predicted number of electrons. Predict the electron configuration for Cr #24: [Ar]4s23d6

However, the real E. C. is [Ar]4s13d5. The 4s1 electron has been moved to achieve greater stability.

ALWAYS USE THE ACTUAL E. C. AND NOT THE PREDICTED ONE. YOU WILL HAVE THESE ATOMS WITH IRREGULAR E. C. HIGHLIGHTED OR MARKED ON YOUR PERIODIC TABLE.

Electron configurations for Ions-First, determine if the element will lose or gain electrons. Secondly, what number of electrons will be gained or lost? It is recommended that you write the e.c. for the atom and then determine what will happen.

For cations (positive ions) – look at the element and decide how many electrons will be lost when it ionizes and keep that in mind when writing the E. C. The last number in the E. C. will now be LESS than what is written on your periodic table.Ex. Write the electron configuration for magnesium ion: [Ne]3s2 is for the atom. Mg is a metal and will lose its valence (outer) electrons, so the e.c. for Mg2+ is 1s22s22p6

Practice: 1. #32. #123. #194. #13

For anions (negative ions) – look at the element and decide how many electrons that element will GAIN when it ionizes. The last number in the E. C. will be MORE than what is written on the periodic table.Ex. Sulfide ion: Sulfur atom is 1s22s22p4. Sulfur is a nonmetal with 6 valence electrons (2s2 and 2p4) and will gain 2 electrons: 1s22s22p6 is for the sulfide ion.Practice:

1. #172. #73. #164. #30

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Arrangement of Electrons in Atoms (Chapter 4) Notes Part 1 Electromagnetic Radiation