Upload
jodie-jones
View
180
Download
0
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
Title
Seeing a child with autism swimming is sometimes like seeing a completely different
child. The aquatic environment can help in achieving many personal, social, motor skill, and
fitness objectives. Early intervention, physical education, and therapeutic recreation programs
often utilize an aquatic setting (Benjamin, Harvey, & Prupas 2006; Gayle, Lepore, & Stevens,
2007; Jake, 2003). The aquatic environment is chosen for these programs because the water
provides the proprioceptive and tactile input that calms and soothes children with autism,
allowing the student more freedom from their disability and more ability to focus on the tasks
presented to them.
Autism is defined in the Individuals with Disabilities Education Amendment Act of 2004
as “a developmental disability significantly affecting verbal and nonverbal communication and
social interaction, generally evident before age three, that adversely affects a child's educational
performance.” 300 A 300.8 c 1. Individuals with autism have a combination of characteristics at
various degrees of severity which may include: (1) Difficulty with speech, language, and
communication; (2) Difficulty relating to people, objects, and events; (3) Abnormal response to
sensory stimuli; (4) Developmental discrepancies; (5) Difficulty processing information; (6)
Engaging in repetitive activities and stereotyped movements; (7) and resisting environmental
change or change in daily routines (IDEA, 2004; Janzen, 1996). Each student is affected
differently by autism and will have their own personality, a unique combination of characteristics
and unique needs. For example, difficulties with language and communication might include that
the student is non-verbal, meaning they do not talk at all, uses echolalic speech, meaning they
tend to only repeat what they hear instead of responding appropriately, or has difficulty making
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
2Aquatics programming for individuals with autism
eye contact (Winnick, 2005). Sometimes this will cause others to assume they are not
acknowledging the speaker when they really are listening.
A child with autism will follow normal motor developmental patterns but may have poor
motor skill performance, low fitness, and low muscle tone (Birkan, 2004; Jake, 2003). Land
based exercise programs can pose the risk of injury to any person who is untrained or unfit due to
muscle weakness and subsequent poor joint alignment. Considering the buoyant support of
water, an aquatics program would be an excellent choice for a fitness program (Gayle, Lepore, &
Stevens 2007). In the water students can experience more success in activities that require
balance and timing, which provides encouragement to continue the activity For example
dynamic balance activities like hopping on one foot and leaping can be done much slower
allowing time to react between parts of the skill. The support also makes the threat of falling
much less apparent. Benjamin, Harvey, & Prupas (2006) noted that “many children with autism
have more success in attaining movement skills in an aquatic environment than in a gymnasium
setting” (p. 47).
Swimming is an effective way to achieve fitness and is an excellent choice for recreation
because it is a socially appropriate outlet for lifetime involvement. Researchers have documented
many physical benefits of aquatic programs for people with autism, including balance, speed,
agility, power, hand grip, muscular strength, flexibility, cardiorespiratory endurance (Birkan,
2004). Psychomotor improvements in swim skill performance and water safety have also been
shown (Powell, Vonder- Hulls, & Walker 2006).
In addition to the motor skill and fitness benefits; aquatic sessions are a great time to
focus on social and cognitive objectives is while children are calm in the pool. Because of the
difficulties with language and communication, students with autism lack social skills and if not
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
3Aquatics programming for individuals with autism
nurtured, may lack social interaction. Playing pool games is an excellent way to promote verbal
and nonverbal vocabulary, communication skills, and social interaction. One of the greatest
benefits that have been shown in research is a reduction in stereotypical autistic movements after
physical activity (Levinson & Reid, 1993; Richmond, 2000).
cite that research here). Occupational therapists find that paying attention, tolerating touch, eye
contact, and self stimulating behaviors can all be improved in the aquatic environment (Powell,
Vonder- Hulls, & Walker 2006). Need additional info regarding social skills here and how they
can be nurtured.
Students with autism can be included in many different aquatics programs based on the
most developmentally appropriate setting, the child’s individual needs, and the goals of the
aquatics program. Examples of settings that could include aquatics: physical education, adapted
physical education, inclusive physical education, therapeutic recreation, behavior management,
physical therapy, IEP goals, recreation, learn to swim, water safety instruction, and competitive
swimming.
If given the opportunity to implement an aquatics program for a student with autism,
professionals should be eager to take advantage of it. This article will provide some strategies for
planning and implementing a program for those who will be taking initiative to teach a student with
autism in the water.
ABC Model introduction
Short paragraph
Step One: Pre-Planning for Safe Participation
These things should be considered before deciding if a child will participate.
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
4Aquatics programming for individuals with autism
Health Conditions
Before starting an aquatics program you will need to determine if the student can
participate safely. It is important to gather information on the student including any medical
conditions the student may experience. Seizures are a common secondary condition for children
with autism so it is important to find out if the child has ever had a seizure and train the staff on
how to care for the student in that situation. The student should get a doctor’s approval in regards
to any health conditions prior to beginning any aquatics program.
Lastly, make sure to get parental consent for the student to participate. Due to the
inherent risks of aquatic activities, if medical conditions cannot be managed, swimming may not
be the best type of program.
Sanitation
Some children with autism engage in self-injurious behavior like picking or scratching
the skin that could cause open skin wounds (Exkorn, 2005). State bathing codes prohibit
swimming with an open wound due to the risk of serious viral or bacterial infections that can
lurk in swimming pools (new jersey bathing code page 15 ; Griffiths, 2003).
Some students with autism may be delayed in toilet training (Boswell & Gray, year?).
Ask caregivers if the student is toilet trained. If not, students should be required to wear a water
proof swim diaper and state bathing codes require plastic water proof briefs with snug fitting
elastic at the legs and waist (NJ pg 15). Reminding all students to use the toilet before
swimming is also recommended (Page 15 new jersey bathing code)
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
5Aquatics programming for individuals with autism
Safety
Children with autism may lack safety awareness and an understanding of the importance
of pool rules. All staff should have disability awareness training on how to interact with an
individual with autism and to understand the safety issues they need to watch for, such as a
student running and jumping into deep water without regard for safety of ability level.
Supervision & Personnel
Instructors should communicate with the facility’s management to consider lifeguard
supervision. Some things to consider for staffing would be: assigning particular lifeguard staff to
exclusively watch the student(s) and informing lifeguards about medical issues so that they can
be prepared to respond to an emergency.
If a student has any known conditions that require frequent assistance from an aid or
nurse, make arrangements for those trained staff to attend the sessions.
While a one to one teacher student ratio may be needed to supervise some students, small
or large group instruction may be appropriate for others. Within a program that accommodates a
larger group of people, one-on-one assistants, peer tutors, or other supervision will likely be
necessary.
Choosing a Facility
The potential for a successful aquatic program starts with choosing a facility. Some
things concerning the facility may be out of the instructor’s control and therefore should be
considered before choosing the location.
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
6Aquatics programming for individuals with autism
For some students, warm water will be more relaxing and comfortable. Pools that are
shared with competitive swimming programs or used for other vigorous exercise will likely need
to have a water temperature between 79 and 82 degrees F. This temperature may be appropriate
for some students with autism while others would focus better in temperatures closer to 85
degrees. Raising the water temperature is usually not a reasonable request in large public or
private facilities.
Environment- Limiting distractions and noises in the pool setting is greatly beneficial due to
hypersensitivity and distractibility. Consider scheduling the lessons for a time of day when the
pool is not heavily used by other programs and patrons. You could also plan your lesson so that
the student is facing away from distractions. Noises such as fans, motors, and music at a low
volume might be considered background noise by most of us but, can be very distracting for
some students with autism. Fans for ventilation and motors like those used for filtration are often
required for operation and are not adjustable.
Some individuals with autism are sensitive to lighting, especially bright florescent lights.
It might be permissible to dim or turn out a portion of the lights but ask the facility managers in
advance. If the ideal conditions are not available, it is not a dead end. Over time and through trial
and error teachers and students may learn how to deal with the environment to be able to enjoy
the water.
Step Two: Assess
(knowing where students are at the end of instruction/ make modifications)
Getting to know a student with autism in the water is an experience that cannot be substituted with any amount of reading nor will it be the same as getting to know them on dry-land. In order to determine student’s needs and identify which objectives will be addressed in
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129130131
7Aquatics programming for individuals with autism
the aquatic program you will need to learn how the student is affected by autism and what abilities he/she has in the water.
Consult with school teachers, caregivers, parents, other professionals who know the student and are trained in strategies to manage his/ her behavior, and possibly the student to help decide what goals will steer the program. If the student has an Individualized Education Plan (IEP) or other equivalent type of plan for school, ask the parents if you can read a copy of the plan to gather useful information. The IEP will show you what goals the student has at school that you may be able to contribute to during the program. Some goal areas may be more heavily weighted than others due to the individuals needs but, try to balance affective, cognitive, psychomotor, and fitness goals.
If you find that the student’s goals at school or home are related to behavior management or modification, you should become familiar with any existing behavior management strategies that the student already uses in that setting. Learn how to use the strategies and plan to use them consistently throughout the program. For example if the student is being taught at school to control outbursts like screaming when happy and excited; the swimming instructor should also discourage this and/or replace it with a more appropriate response during the lessons. Some basic examples of behavior management are redirecting and replacing.
A wide variety of goals can be incorporated in the aquatics program. Some examples of program goals or objectives are: health related fitness, therapeutic play-based functional movement, improving range of motion, helping to facilitate neurodevelopmental growth, improved body awareness, increased balance, sensory integration, mobility skills, social skills, communication skills, and most importantly, having fun.
Based on what you know now, choose an aquatic assessment that will allow you to discover what the student can do in the water. See [table x phil conatser, book, red cross, ]The assessment could range from observations of the student’s behavior during free play in the water to a swimming skills test. It is important to observe the student in the water because the water may prompt certain impulsive behaviors. Working through some of these behaviors might become a short term or secondary program goal. If the child has a great fear of the water, overcoming this fear will be the first goal.
Continue to assess in each session. Through teacher observations or formal data gathering with rubrics, make a record of your student’s progress that can be used to make adjustments to the program.
Step Three: Planning Instruction (old title prescribe)
132133
134135136137138139140141
142143144145146147148149
150151152153154
155156157158159160161
162163164
165
8Aquatics programming for individuals with autism
Lesson Structure: To aid the student with autism that depends on routine, the general
structure of the lesson components should remain consistent. The duration of a lesson will
depend on the students’ tolerance. Lessons should be ended before the student loses focus. The
parents and other teachers can advise on how long the student will usually focus on instruction.
Consider planning the session a few minutes shorter than the predicted time limit. After learning
more about the student’s behavior, the teacher can adjust the duration of the lessons to maximize
learning. Try to schedule the lessons at the same time on the same day(s) of the week.
When a change is coming, try to let the student know in advance. For students who are
very dependent on their routine schedule, consider inviting them to come to the pool for out of
water activities if there is a problem preventing them from getting in the water such as an open
wound, ear infection, or problems with the pool chemistry.
To help with the transition from daily activities to the pool, caretakers can give the
student something to hold while they walk into the building that relates to the swimming
program. It could be a picture of the instructor or of the pool or an object like goggles or a kick
board (Langendorfer & Bruya, 1995). The transition object could even be a social story or
activity schedule for the lesson.
Setting up stations can help students with autism that have short attention spans and is an
excellent way to map out the various parts of the lesson so that there can be an easy flow
throughout. Stations should have routine transitions in between. Each station should have a goal
or time limit to be sure the duration does not go over a few minutes. Use of timers or a
countdown to the number of repetitions toward a goal can be used to signal the approaching end
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
9Aquatics programming for individuals with autism
of a station. The actual time and space between stations should be short and clearly mapped out.
Teachers should explain and demonstrate the task at each new station.
When planning a lesson, focus on the student’s strengths. For example use a task the
student is already successful with for the focal point of a game and design the game with ideal
conditions that the student is known to function well within. This is in contrast to first choosing a
typical game and then trying to manage your student’s behavior within that game.
Design games that are cooperative instead of competitive to encourage social skills.
When the goal of the game can only be reached by incorporating others, the students will be
learning social interaction. Plan interactions that allow students to make eye contact and speak to
each other.
Step Three: Teaching
Successes and challenges both motivate students. Tasks that are too easy or too difficult
often do not encourage a student to participate at full potential. When a task seems too easy
students may be bored or easily distracted. When a task is too difficult, students may be
frustrated or discouraged. Finding a balance between challenge and success is an important
teaching skill that will help to motivate and control behaviors (find a reference, look in
Winnick). To ensure success, plan some things in each lesson that you know will be successful.
To ensure that each task is an appropriate challenge, teachers need to plan adaptations that can
make each task easier or more difficult.
When introducing new skills, do so gradually. For example, you could demonstrate a skill
near the end of a session and tell the student that he/she will try it at the next session. Develop
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
10Aquatics programming for individuals with autism
small components of skills at a time to increase success before attempting the whole skill. Then,
review learned skills frequently.
When reviewing, be consistent in using the same strategies and cues that were used when
a skill was first taught. Over time the cues can become less frequent or can be replaced with just
a prompt. For example- when first teaching the breast stroke kick, you might constantly repeat
the cues with each repetitive motion, “heels up, toes out, and around”. As the student learns the
skill the repeating cues could be shortened to “up, out, and around”. When reviewing the breast
stroke kick later on the teacher might say, “show me your breast stroke kick, remember up, out,
and around”. Over time you may only need to say, “show me your breast stroke kick”.
Learning Environment- The potential for success with each pool session starts before
the student arrives. There are many things you can do that may help the student to accept the
swim lessons into their routines and therefore be more calm and ready to focus. All of these
could be considered environmental cues. The environmental cues that work best will be unique
for every student.
Choosing to use plenty of fun bright colored equipment can attract the student’s attention
and help to motivate them. In addition to bright colors, different textures may appeal to some
students. Scarves or other cloth like objects that move in a flowing manner underwater may
interest some students. Using buoyant swimming aids that can be held, positioned under, or
attached to the body when learning new skills, can increase the level of success and confidence
thereby increasing participation.
The pool environment and lesson schedule should be used as consistently as possible. For
each lesson, use the same part of the pool, enter through the same doors and walk to the
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
11Aquatics programming for individuals with autism
designated area via the same path. Set up equipment in the same arrangement and at the same
time i.e. before or after the student arrives. Setting up the equipment so that the student can see
what will be used during the lesson is an environmental cue to let them know what is coming up.
Posting a daily visual schedule that outlines the lesson plan is an environmental cue that may
help the student to be ready to accept the various lesson activities. Always use the same type of
opening and closing. One example for a routine would be to sing a hello song at the opening and
a goodbye song at the closing (Langendorfer & Bruya, 1995). Another example is to do a certain
type of greeting at the beginning and a cheer at the end or give students a small token like an ink
stamp or sticker at the end.
Beginning the Lesson- When you finally will meet the student in the water there are
some things you can do to make them more comfortable and more able to focus. Entering the
water can be made more inviting by using different approaches other than a traditional ladder. A
disorder in visual depth perception may cause hesitation and anxiety when entering the pool.
Using a larger stair case style ladder or a pool with a zero entry slope may be more inviting than
a regular ladder. Some students with autism interpret a light touch as offensive and prefer or
even crave firm pressure. Entering the water step by step is similar to a light touch while a more
instantaneous entry will give a rush of firm pressure (Martinez, 2006). Using a sliding board or
jumping in may be more inviting due to depth perception and water pressure. The same sensation
could be incorporated throughout the session by allowing students to jump off a large floating
mat in the center of the pool. If the student uses a reward or token economy behavior strategy,
jumping or sliding in it could be the tangible reward used throughout the lesson. If your pool
doesn’t have a sliding board, you can create a similar object by hanging a large thick mat over
the side of the pool. An assistant instructor should kneel on the mat behind the student to hold it
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
12Aquatics programming for individuals with autism
in place and spot the student’s head, while another assistant should be in the water to receive the
child if needed.
Communication
Students will usually respond better to simple, one part or two part instructions. When
students are not responding to instruction, the teacher can progressively make the verbal
directions shorter and add more visual and physical prompts until the student starts to respond.
The teacher can encourage any response that resembles the desired response with praise and
positive reinforcement and then continue to shape the response toward the desired response.
(Peterson, 2004)
Example Script:
Teacher - “Bobby, raise your right arm up towards the ceiling and put your left arm down
by your side.” Student- No response. The teacher adds a demonstration while repeating
the instruction, “Bobby, raise your right arm up towards the ceiling and put your left arm
down by your side.” Student- No response. Teacher shortens the instruction repeated with
demonstration, “right arm up, left arm down”. The student puts the left arm up. Teacher -
“Good job, arm up. Thank you. Now let’s put the other arm up”. The teacher adds a
physical prompt to continue with shaping the behavior- The teacher touches the right arm
and says “down”
For students who do not communicate verbally, teachers must learn how to communicate
with very little talking. Visual cues, environmental cues, physical prompts, and demonstrations
are all excellent ways to communicate. Teachers can demonstrate a skill and then give the
student a visual cue to repeat it like pointing at them. A physical prompt, like touching the
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
13Aquatics programming for individuals with autism
students hand could signal that they should do something with that hand. Teachers can also use
“hand-over-hand” strategy by holding the students hand, foot, arm, or other appropriate body
part to manipulate it through a motion. Arranging equipment in order that it will be used would
be an example of an environmental cue.
Many students with autism use pictures to communicate. Aquatic instructors can create
pictures for the pool by simply laminating papers and/or placing them inside air tight plastic
sandwich bags. Follow the same design for any picture communications that the student already
uses. Consider photo copying pictures or photographs and label them with a short phrase or
sentence. Strategically arrange the pictures in a sequence that follows the lesson plan, known as a
picture schedule. Pictures can be organized into a photo album, binder or, along on a linear
object like a ruler.
For students who like music, teachers can repeat cues in a simple rhythm that will help
the students remember them. For example the three chosen cues for elementary backstroke could
be repeated to the tune of three blind mice.
When choosing what cues to use, consider what the student may already be familiar with, what
their interests are, and what would be age-appropriate.
If echolalia is one of the student’s characteristics, respond by acknowledging and
repeating the phrase again. For example the student repeats what you have said, “Bobby, we are
going to swim”, respond with, “that’s right, we are going to swim”. After a few rounds of
repeating, the student will eventually stop repeating the phrase and will move on towards
completing the task (Martinez, 2006).
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
14Aquatics programming for individuals with autism
Use clear language without jokes, sarcasm, similes, or metaphors. For example, instead
of telling a student to, “be a rocket”, tell them to put their arms over head in the streamline
position.
Behavior Management Strategies
Always try to identify what came before and after each success and failure. Give students
attention and praise when they are behaving appropriately. Try not to give attention to
inappropriate behavior unless it is unsafe or very disruptive. Some behaviors like hitting oneself
may be done to attract attention. Students may eventually stop doing behaviors that don’t get
attention. For example, if the student is splashing excessively, the teacher can quietly stand back
and wait for them to stop before continuing instruction instead of shielding the face while asking
and wildly motioning for them to stop.
Replacing or redirecting strategies are appropriate for behaviors that need to be
interrupted because they are unsafe or inappropriate (Siegel, 2003). For example, if the student
is doing something inappropriate like touching others, the teacher can redirect the behavior by
giving them something to hold, which will keep the hands busy. In this way, the behaviors are
avoided without having a confrontation or challenge between the teacher and student.
Rewards, as with a token economy system, are often used for motivation and behavior
management. With a token economy, each correct response will earn the student a token, i.e.
sticker on a card. Once the student has earned the predetermined goal number of tokens, they can
be exchanged for a reward that is tangible like a toy, fun activity, or in some situations food. A
practical way to do this in the pool is to use a reward bucket. Simply place a bucket at the edge
of the pool and add things to it that the student can play with at the end of the lesson or add
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
15Aquatics programming for individuals with autism
tokens to the bucket the student can trade in for a reward at the end of the lesson. Remember that
this system is only a positive reinforcement so; do not take things out of the bucket as
punishment. When the student is not achieving the desired outcomes, nothing is added to the
bucket (site Martinez?).
Directing Personnel- Incorporate peer tutors, para-professionals, or other assistants to
help manage groups of students. The lead teacher should give assistants specific instructions and
demonstrate teaching strategies for the assistants. Peer tutors, or same age students without
disabilities can participate alongside students with autism to help promote social interaction and
model the desired behaviors.
Safety & Sanitation While Teaching – While teaching a lesson there a few things to be aware
of to ensure safety and sanitation. Swallowing pool water is a common behavior for students
with autism that needs to be avoided. To control this, use strategies from the student’s behavior
management plans or replacement redirect strategies.
Staying submerged under the water may be common for students who enjoy the quietness
and water pressure here. Closely monitor the amount of time the student is under water and be
prepared to prompt them to come up after a few moments. Never encourage any student to stay
under water or hold their breath for any amount of time. Breath holding is not only dangerous,
but it can trigger a seizure for those prone to epilepsy (Gayle, Lepore, & Stevens 2007). For
students who have frequent seizures, wearing a US Coast Guard approved lifejacket should be
required. Students with epilepsy require close supervision at all times (red cross wsi).
If students will be allowed to swim in water deeper than the shoulders, the instructor
should wear a lifejacket or a lifeguarding rescue tube, if properly trained, in order to be prepared
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
334
335
336
337
338
339
16Aquatics programming for individuals with autism
in a situation where a student could do something unexpected or become fearful or panicked. The
panic or distress associated with drowning will cause a person to “climb” anything or anyone in
reach, pushing others underwater. The student should not be allowed into the deeper water if the
swimming assessment did not show the ability to swim proficiently.
Step 5 Evaluate
Trial and error will be part of the process. Evaluation is needed in regards to the details of
each session but also to the program as a whole.
When lessons don’t go as planned we learn more about our students and we get useful
information on how to improve. Reflecting on each session will help to identify the reasons why
some things worked and others did not.
When evaluating the program as a whole, focus on the goals established prior to the start.
If goals were not met was satisfactory progress made towards reaching the goals? Do the goals
need to be adjusted? Are major changes needed like; moving to a different facility or changing
the main schedule?
Some things that may likely need to be adjusted are Talk about adjusting the duration of
each session..?. Evaluate also is an evaluation of the program effectivenss as a whole. Was the
program effective, should it continue, does it need to be changed, did it work?
…
Adjustments can be made to any aspect that the teacher can control. Some things
are not controllable. Learn how to work around these problems instead of focusing on
them. (end of section)
340
341
342
343
344
345
346
347
348
349
350
351
352
353
354
355
356
357
358
359
360
17Aquatics programming for individuals with autism
Summary
This article provided suggestions on designing and implementing an aquatic program for
students with autism. Not all the information in this article will apply to every student. The
suggestions here are meant to provide instructors with the confidence to take the first steps
toward success with their students. not.
361
362
363
364
365
366
367
18Aquatics programming for individuals with autism
References
Benjamin, J., Harvey, W., Prupas, A. (2006). Early intervention aquatics: A program for children with autism and their families. The Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 77 (2), 46-51.
Birkan, B., Bumin, G., Yandarda, M., Yilmaz, I (2004). Effects of swimming training on physical fitness and water orientation in autism. Pediatrics International, 46, 624–626.
Birkan, B., Camursoy, I., Erkan, M., Konukman, D., Yilmaz, I (2003). Using constant time delay procedure to teach aquatic play skills for children with autism. Research Quarterly for Exercise & Sport, 74 (1).
Boswell, S., Gray, D. (no date). Applying structured teaching principles to toilet training. Retrieved from teacch.com/educational-approaches.
Exkorn, K. (2005). The autism sourcebook: Everything you need to know about diagnosis. New York, NY: Harper Collins Publishers Inc.
Fragala-Pinkham, M., Haley, S., O'Neil, M. (2008). Group aquatic aerobic exercise for children with disabilities. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 50 (11), 822-827.
Griffiths, T. (2003). The complete swimming pool reference (2nd ed.). Champaigne, IL: Sagamore Publishing Company:
Gayle, W., Lepore, M., Stevens, S. (2007). Adapted aquatics programming: A professional guide (2nd ed.) Champaigne, IL: Human Kinetics
Individuals with disabilities education act amendments of 2004 - Pub. L. No. 108-446, 118 Stat. 2647
Jake, L. (2003). Autism and the role of aquatic therapy in recreational therapy treatment services. Retrieved from www.recreationtherapy.com
Janzen, J. (1996). Understanding the nature of autism: A practical guide. San Antonio, TX: Therapy Skill Builders.
Martinez, C. (2006). Adapted aquatics for children with autism. Adapted Physical Education, 17 (5), 34-37.
Peterson, G. (2004) A day of great illumination: B. F. Skinner’s discovery of shaping. Journal of the Experimental Analysis, 82, 3 317–328 Retrieved from www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Powell, J., Vonder Hulls, D., Walker, L. (2006) Clinicians' perceptions of the benefits of aquatic therapy for young children with autism: A preliminary study. Physical & Occupational Therapy in Pediatrics, 26 (1-2), 13-22.
368
369370371
372373
374375376
377378
379380
381382
383384
385386
387388
389390
391392
393394
395396
397398399
19Aquatics programming for individuals with autism
Siegel, B. (2003). Helping children with autism learn: Treatment approaches for parents and professionals. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Winnick, J. (2005). Adapted physical education and sport (4th ed.). Champaigne, IL: Human Kinetics.
ABC MODEL KELLY AND WESSEL
Levinson and Reid (1993)
Richmond (2000)
New Jersey state sanitary code: Chapter IX public recreational bathing. N.J.A.C. 8:26 September 6, 2009. Retrieved from http://www.state.nj.us/health
Crollick, J. L., Mancil, G.R., & Stopka, C. (2006). Physical activity for children with autism
spectrum disorder. Teaching Elementary Physical Education. 17(2), 30-34.
Abstract
Autism is a developmental disorder affecting the lives of thousands of children. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), approximately 34 in 10,000 children ages 3 to 10 years of age have autism (CDC, 2004). The Autism Society of America (ASA) reports that 1 in 166 babies born today will develop autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Several researchers have developed programs that use physical activity to benefit children with autism. Richmond (2000) found a decrease in stereotype after children with autism participated in jogging sessions and ball throwing. Similarly, Levinson and Reid (1993) discovered that vigorous activity reduces stereotyped behavior in children with autism. Further, O'Conner and colleagues (2000) have developed effective methods of exercise that allow children with autism to remain engaged in the developmental process. The purpose of this paper is to examine appropriate physical activity for children with autism and its effectiveness in addressing deficits associated with ASD. Specifically, this article discusses (a) organized play, (b) the importance of physical activity, (c) a sensorimotor approach, and (d) programming based on five physical education objectives.
400401
402403
404
405
406
407
408
409410
411
412
413
414
415
416417418419420421422423424425426427428