Aryan Civilization With a Special Reference of Vedic Litterature

7/28/2019 Aryan Civilization With a Special Reference of Vedic Litterature

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Aryan Civilization With A Special Reference Of Vedic Litterature

Vedic Aryans" purports to be a "literary and scienific perspective" on the antiquity

of classical Vedic civilization. The thesis is that Rig Vedic civilization arose

sometime after the end of the last ice age (~12,000 BCE) and after the very ancient

city of Mehgarh (6000BCE), declined ~3700 BCE, then was *followed* by the

Indus River civilizations of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro (3000 BCE). (Never mind

that the oldest known settlement of Jerico does not appear in their chronology even

though it is dated to 7000 BCE, nor that there is no known relationship between

Harappan & Sanskrit languages.) While it is refreshing to read someone so

thoroughly versed in ancient Sanskrit literature, especially the Puranas and variousmathematical treatises, the emphasis throughout is on literary sources. And it is

precisely the over-emphasis on literary sources that is the problem here. If Muller

et al. were wrong in drawing up their time-tables based on undatable Vedic (and

Biblical) chronologies, why should it be right to merely turn the tables by drawing

up a different time-table based on some other chronology drawn from similarly

undatable documents? That's just the same game played in reverse and susceptible

to the same criticisms. Why not try something new? There are some strong and

interesting points: varna did not originally mean "color," hence race, but referred

instead to the guna predominant in a person's personality (as we know from the

Gita and the Manu-smriti). Hence, Vedic battles between "Dark" (asuras) and

"Light" (devas) did not refer to light-skinned Aryan invaders conquering dark-

skinned native Dravidians but to the metaphoric struggle of good over evil. The

authors are certainly correct in saying that this racial theory has prejudiced many

discussions of ancient India and the relationship between the Indus River and the

Vedic civilizations (see, for example, Joseph Campbell's surprising put-down of

Dravidian culture in his "Masks of God: Oriental Mythology.") But one of

downsides is the thorough thrashing of Max Muller (not to mention Tharpar, the


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Indian historian whom everyone love to hate), whose "ignorance of science

prevented his understanding the mathematical treatises interpreted here, and who

was not only "an agent of the British Empire [p. 10]" but "a Protestant missionary

(Never mind that this demon single-handedly invented modern comparative

philology or that his "Sacred Books of the East" introduced the whole of the

modern world--India included--to our Vedic heritage.) Now if some Westerner

were to base a chronology purely on textual evidence (for example, Bishop Usher,

who dated Creation to 23 October 4004 BCE [p. 6] on the basis of Old Testament

genealogies), we would likely consider him a fundamentalist kook out of touch

with contemporary geology and scientific dating methods. But when done using

Vedic source material, we are supposed to shrug off disbelief. Thus, despite

numerous interesting highpoints--including the development of Tilak's thesis that

sidereal precession is symbolically coded in the Vedas and allows astronomical

dating--this work is, in motivation, a manifesto of contemporary Hindu

fundamentalism that merely turns the tables on the old Aryan invasion arguments

without offering either credible new data or substantially new ways of seeing

things. All the while, they fail to heed Mallory's warning to not over-extrapolatefrom literary evidence. To their credit, they do not (like other authors) argue that

Vedic culture dates back 4,320,000 years 'cause that's how long a yuga is & the

Mahabharata says so. Yet the proselytizing and sometimes shrill tone contributes

little to informed debate on the interesting and important topic of the origins of

civilization.

In my opinion, the problem here involves a misunderstanding of the Vedicrevelation and an unconsious idealization of literality and historicity. That is, the

Vedas aren't eternal because they were revealed to some Indian Aryan in Meghar

or Kashi or Ayodhya in 6000 or 4000 or 2000 BCE, but because the knowledge is


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eternally accessible to the sincere spiritual seeker through the trance states and

other yogic practices of ancient India. Isn't that what's truly important?

Furthermore, as I indicated earlier, the book's overt political agenda distracts from

the real issues. Rather than harping about how awful Muller and Tharpar are, why

not tell readers that the seals from Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa have not yet been

deciphered and that we still do not understand their language. Tell them that

Mohnejo-Daro is now buried in a sea of silt and saline and cannot be further

excavated without a huge investment of money, time and labor. Tell them that

Mohenjo-daro and Harappa are in modern-day PAKISTAN and, rather than nuking

Kashmir, these 2 countries should actively cooperate in uncovering the roots of

their glorious past. Well, but that would be too overtly political...

Overall, the book is about equally disappointing as Feuerstein et al's "In Search of

the Cradle of Civilization" but with a more scholarly feel and with fewer (i.e., no)

illustrations. For a broader view of Tilak's thesis, see de Santillana's superb

"Hamlet's Mill" (Sidharth's "Celestial Key to the Vedas" has also gotten some good

reviews). For similar books having a more balanced perspective, see Mallory's

excellent "Origins of the Indo-Europeans," Bryant's "Quest for the Origins of

Vedic Culture" which promises to be far less partisan, and Time/Life's "Ancient

India: Land of Mystery" which is sound historically and archaeologically.Vedic

"Aryans" and the origins of civilization_ arrives at far-reaching conclusions about

ancient history and civilization by combining new insights into the meaning of the

Vedas and other ancient Indian scriptures with scientific analysis of ancient

sources. By systematic comparisons of Indian, Egyptian, and Babylonian science,

it shows that Harappan civilization corresponds to that of the Sutric period, which

came after the Vedic period. From this, it follows that the Rg Veda is the product

of an earlier layer of civilization (before the rise of Egypt, Sumer, and the Indus


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Valley). As a result, this book argues the currently held view of Mesopotamia as

the cradle of civilization is no longer tenable.

Another far-reaching consequence of this research is that the "Aryan" invasion of

India can be challenged by both science and literature. This book shows that the

Aryan-invasion theory is a product of European politics--notably German

nationalism and British colonial policy. It provides evidence that the demise of

civilization in Sumer, Egypt, and the Indus Valley was brought about by a three-

hundred-year drought that began in 2200 BCE.

The book also provides an explanation for the distribution of Indo-European

langauges from India to Ireland. Based on accounts of migrations found in ancient

Indian works, it offers a radically new perspective that no one interested in ancient

history can afford to ignore.

Rajaram and Frawley have produced an excellent, well researched set of arguments

against the long (and now increasingly tenuous) view that "aryans" invaded India

and destroyed the "dravidian" (i.e. Harappan-Saraswati) civilization.

The authors have used their innate belief in the "Scientific Method" and theirknowledge of Sanskrit literature (does Thappar know Sanskrit???) and

Mathematics to tell a story full of insight. They make extensive use of the most

contemporary results from research in Archeology, Geo Satellite imaging,

Mathematics, and linguistics and combine these with a holistic approach to

historical research. The result is a short, yet telling book, that sheds light on

important inter-relationships between the ancient cultures of the Nile valley,

Mesopotamia and India. The origins of a lot of humanity's culture are unfolded in

the process! The mode of argument is, if anything, careful, methodical and devoid

of arrogance. It is indeed refreshing to read History without the political baggage!


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Readers may wish to compare the output from established historians like Thappar,

who has, in a career spanning 40 or more years has done little than to parrot the

fallacies of Muller and other Eurocentric writers from the pre-scientific age. To

think that such rubbish is still taught in Indian Schools! Even my 11 year old's

class would not be allowed to buy into such unsubstantiated stuff as Thappar

produces! Unlike Rajaram & Frawley, poor Romila Thappar, in her book, History

of India Vol. 1, starts off by criticizing those who split Indian History into the

Hindu, Mozlem and British eras, but then she spends the remaining pages making

all types of communist inspired generalisations and accusations about the the

"Bhramanical" caste system (who are these "Bhramans"??? and is there a Freudian

condition for Thappar's fixation about caste?)whilst ignoring the 1000 year long

systematic ethnic cleansing perpetrated by mozlem invaders! (Note the contrast,

Thappar has few feelings and even less opinions on the so called divine injunctions

agianst non-believers in semetic religions!) A revision of history is necessary, not

only for Indians self awareness, but also to more cogently confront the injustices in

other parts of the world today.

Rajaram and Frawley lead the way as far as applying the scientific method to

history is concerned - they dilligently look for evidence from multiple sources, re-

visit original sources, avoid generalisations and prejudices and stick to evidence,

analyse it, synthesize it and draw conclusions!

The authors deserve credit for showing that one does not have to be a "Professional

Historian" to do excellent, comprehensive research. It would seem that for good

objective history, especially in the case of the Non-European world, one has to

look to subject experts outside of university history departments! Does this explain

the parlous state of history departments in Universities around the globe


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The Aryan civilization produced vast volumes of text, which not only have helped

us shed light on their life, but have also contributed significantly to Indian thought

and beliefs. The earliest literary source of the period is the Rig Veda. Besides the

Rig Veda, there is the Sama, Yajur and Atharva Vedas. The word Veda means

knowledge. The great Indian epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata were also

composed during this period. Besides these there a few more books like the

Brahmanas, the Upanishads and the Puranas along with the epics. The entire

collection is referred to as Vedic Literature. Vedic Literature remained unwritten

for a long time and was passed orally from generation to generation until several

centuries later it was finally written down. This literature is the oldest source of

information which we have for the period, and is a reliable source of information

about their civilization. We shall take a brief look at Vedic Literature.

Rig Veda: This the oldest piece of work in Vedic Literature. It is a set of ten books

which contain a thousand and twenty eight hymns. It has many hymns dedicated to

God, many of which are still recited in Hindu households. It is an important source

of information on the Vedic religion and their Gods as well as presents a detailed

account of the life of the people at that time.

Sama Veda: This Veda takes many of the hymns from the Rig Veda and is set to

music. It focuses mainly on Soma sacrifice, and was used solely by priests in

performing the relevant rituals. It is an important source of the music of the ancient

Aryans.

Yajur Veda: The Yajur Veda focuses mainly on hymns that concern sacrifices. It

tells about the knowledge the Aryans had acquired about sacrifices. Since it is of a

later date then the Rig Veda, it reflects the changes in society that have taken place

since that period.


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The Puranas: The word Purana means 'Ancient Lore'. They are an in depth

historical account of the time, spanning eighteen volumes. They are an important

source of historical information. They talk about various spheres of the ancient

world, including the origin of the world, the Gods and the historical and

mythological information of the period. They act as an important source for

understanding the history of ancient dynasties and cultures of India.

The Vedangas: This is known as the six limbs of the Vedas. They were written a

later stage by scholars who had studies the Vedas. They discuss the Vedas in

simpler language and also deal with topics like the pronunciation of words,

grammar, astronomy and rituals.

The Upvedas: These are set of books that deal with secular subjects. The most

famous of these are the Ayurveda, the ancient form of Indian medicine that is

gaining increasing acceptance and popularity today. There are a few more like the

Dhanurveda that deals with the art of warfare, the Gandharva Veda which deals

with music and the Shilpa Veda that deals with architecture.

Sutras: This deals with the later Vedic period and focuses on the customs of that

period, including the rituals and sacrifices. It also deals with civil, criminal and

moral laws.

Ramayana

The Ramayana, an epic written by the poet Valmiki, is centered around the Rama,

the heir to the throne of the kingdom of Kosala. He was married to Sita, the

princess of Videha. Rama's stepmother however wanted her own son to succeed tothe throne and by skilful plotting she got Rama, Sita and his brother Lakshmana

banished from the kingdom for fourteen years. Their exile took them all over the

country, where they spent years wandering and living like hermits. Ravana, the

demon king of Lanka (what is now the country of Sri Lanka) however kidnapped


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Sita and took her away across the sea in a flying chariot, to his island kingdom.

Rama then with the assistance of Hanuman organized an army and successfully

defeated and killed Ravana. Sita was re-united with Rama, and with their fourteen

year exile over, they returned to the kingdom of Kosala, where he was welcomed

as the new king. The arrival of Rama back home is marked by Diwali, the festival

of lights. Rama's reign was associated with great prosperity and justice.

TheRamarajya (the reign of Rama) is used till this day to describe a Utopian state.

The epic tells us of the geographical expansion of the Aryans. Not only had they

conquered the Ganges plains but had also gone as far South into peninsular India to

be aware of the island of Sri Lanka.

Mahabharata

The great epic, Mahabharata is written in a long series of couplets and has the

unique distinction of being the longest poem in the world, totalling a mind

boggling 106,000 verses. The Mahabharata is based on a struggle for the control of

a kingdom called Kuru in the fertile region around Delhi. On one side were the

Kauravas, who were the hundred sons of the Dhritrashtra and the Pandavas, their

five cousins. The Pandavas were to become the next kings since Dhritashtra was

blind and therefore not eligible to rule. The accession of the Pandavas to the throne

of Kuru, ws, their five cousins. The Pandavas were to become the next kings since

Dhritashtra was blind and therefore not eligible to rule. The accession of the

Pandavas to the throne of Kuru,

The Vedic period (or Vedic age) was a period in history during which the Vedas,

the oldest scriptures ofHinduism, were composed. The time span of the period is

uncertain. Philological and linguistic evidence indicates that the Rigveda, the

oldest of the Vedas, was composed roughly between 1700 and 1100 BCE, also

referred to as the early Vedic period.[1]The end of the period is commonly
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estimated to have occurred about 500 BCE, and 150 BCE has been suggested as

aterminus ante quem for all Vedic Sanskrit literature.[2]

Transmission of texts in the Vedic period was by oral tradition alone,[3]and a

literary tradition set in only in post-Vedic times. Despite the difficulties in dating

the period, the Vedas can safely be assumed to be several thousands of years old.

The associated culture, sometimes referred to as Vedic civilisation, was probably

centred early on in the northern and northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent,

but has now spread and constitutes the basis of contemporary Indian culture.

After the end of the Vedic period, the Mahajanapadasperiod in turn gave way to

the Maurya Empire (from ca. 320 BCE), the golden age ofclassical Sanskrit

literature.

TheRig Veda contains accounts of conflicts between the Aryas and the Dasas and

Dasyus. TheRig Veda describes Dasas and Dasyus as people who do not perform

sacrifices (akratu) or obey the commandments of gods (avrata). Their speech is

described as mridhra which could variously mean soft, uncouth, hostile, scornful

or abusive. Other adjectives which describe their physical appearance are subject

to many interpretations. However, many modern scholars connect the Dasas and

Dasyus to Iranian tribes Dahae and Dahyu and believe that Dasas and Dasyus were

early IndoAryan immigrants who arrived into the subcontinent before the Vedic

Aryans.

Internecine military conflicts between the various tribes of Vedic Aryans are also

described in theRig Veda. Most notable of such conflicts was theBattle of Ten

Kings which took place on the banks of the river Parushni (modern day Ravi). The

battle was fought between the tribeBharatas, led by their chiefSudas, against a

confederation of ten tribes

Puru, Yadu, Turvasha, Anu, Druhyu, Alina, Bhalanas, Paktha, Siva,
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Vishanin.[6]Bharatas lived around the upper regions of the riverSaraswati, while

Purus, their western neighbours, lived along the lower regions of Saraswati. The

other tribes dwelt northwest of the Bharatas in the region ofPunjab.[7]Division of

the waters of Ravi could have been a reason for the war.[6]The confederation of

tribes tried to inundate the Bharatas by opening the embankments of Ravi, yet

Sudas emerged victorious in the Battle of Ten Kings. Purukutsa, the chief of Purus,

was killed in the battle and the Bharatas and the Purus merged into a new

tribe Kuru after the war.

In the 11th century BCE, asRig Veda took its final form, the Vedic society

transitioned from seminomadic life to settled agriculture. This transition led to

increased competition and conflicts over resources such as land and water.

The Gangeticplains had remained out of bounds to the Vedic tribes because of

thick forest cover. However, after 1000 BCE, the use of iron axes and ploughs

became widespread and the jungles could be cleared with ease. This enabled the

Vedic Aryans to extend their kingdoms along the Gangetic plains and ushered the

later Vedic age. Anga (in modern day West Bengal), a small kingdom to the east

ofMagadha, formed the eastern boundary of the Vedic culture. Yadavas expanded

towards the south and settled in Mathura. To the south of their kingdom

was Vatsa which was governed from its capital Kausambi. The Narmada Riverand

parts of North Western Deccan formed the southern limits.

With the expansion of settlements the centre of the Vedic civilisation shifted east.

Many of the old tribes coalesced to form larger political units. The newly formed

states struggled for supremacy and started displaying imperial ambitions.[

The

most famous of new religious sacrifices that arose in this period was

theAshvamedha(horse sacrifice). This sacrifice involved setting a consecrated

horse free to roam the kingdoms for a year. The horse was followed by a chosen

band of warriors. The kingdoms and chiefdoms in which the horse wandered had
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to pay homage or prepare to battle the king to whom the horse belonged. This

sacrifice put considerable pressure on interstate relations in this era. By the sixth

century BCE, the political units consolidated into large kingdoms

called Mahajanapadas. The process of urbanization had begun in these kingdoms

and commerce and travel, even over regions separated by large distances became

easy. The end of Vedic India is marked by linguistic, cultural and political

changes. The grammar ofPinimarks a final apex in the codification of Sutra

texts, and at the same time the beginning of Classical Sanskrit.[17]The invasion

ofDarius I of the Indus valley in the early 6th century BCE marks the beginning of

outside influence, continued in the kingdoms of the Indo-Greeks.

Political organisation

Vedic aryans were organised into tribes rather than kingdoms. The chief of a tribe

was called a rajan. The autonomy of the rajan was restricted by the tribal councils

calledsabha andsamiti. The two bodies were, in part, responsible for the

governance of the tribe. The rajan could not accede to the throne without their

approval. The distinction between the two bodies is not clear. Arthur Llewellyn

Basham, a noted historian and indologist, theorises thatsabha was a meeting of

great men in the tribe, whereas,samiti was a meeting of all free tribesmen. Some

tribes had no hereditary chiefs and were directly governed by the tribal

councils.Rajan had a rudimentary court which was attended by courtiers

(sabhasad) and chiefs of septs (gramani). The main responsibility of the rajan was

to protect the tribe. He was aided by several functionaries, including

thepurohita (chaplain), thesenani (army chief), dutas (envoys)

andspash (spies)Purohita performed ceremonies and spells for success in war and

prosperity in peace.
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In the later Vedic period, the tribes had consolidated into little kingdoms, which

had a capital and a rudimentary administrative system. Rajan was seen as the

custodian of social order and the protector ofrashtra (polity). Hereditary kingship

started emerging and competitions like chariot races, cattle raids, and game of dice,

which previously decided who was worthy of becoming a king, became nominal.

Rituals in this era exalted the status of the king over his people. He was

occasionally referred to assamrat(supreme ruler).Rajan's increasing political

power enabled him to gain greater control over the productive resources. The

voluntary gift offering (bali) became compulsory, however, there was no organised

system of taxation. Sabha andsamiti are still mentioned in later Vedic texts,

though, with increasing power of king, their influence declined. By the end of the

later Vedic age, different kinds of political systems such as monarchical states

(rajya), oligarchical states (gana orsangha), and tribal principalities had emerged

in India.

Economy

Ceramic goblet from Navdatoli, Malwa, 1300 BCE.

Economy in the Rig Vedic period was sustained by a combination

ofpastoralism and agriculture. There are references, in theRig Veda, to leveling of

field, seed processing, and storage of grains in large jars. War booty was also a

major source of wealth. Economic exchanges were conducted by gift giving,

particularly to kings (bali) and priests (dana), and barter using cattle as a unit of

currency. While gold is mentioned in some hymns, there is no indication of the use

of coins. Metallurgy is not mentioned in theRig Veda, but the wordayas and

instruments made from it such as razors, bangles, axes are mentioned. One verse

mentions purification ofayas. Some scholars believe that ayas refers to iron and

the words dham and karmara refer to ironwelders.
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Panis in some hymns refers to merchants, in others to stingy people who hid their

wealth and did not perform Vedic sacrifices. Some scholars suggest that Panis

were semitictraders, but the evidence for this is slim. Professions of warriors,

priests, cattlerearers, farmers, hunters, barbers, vintners and crafts of chariot

making, cartmaking, carpentry, metal working, tanning, making of bows, sewing,

weaving, making mats of grass and reed are mentioned in the hymns ofRig Veda.

Some of these might have needed fulltime specialists. There are references to

boats and oceans. The book X of theRig Veda refers to both eastern and western

oceans. Individual property ownership did not exist and clans as a whole enjoyed

rights over lands and herds. Enslavement (dasa, dasi) in the course of war or as a

result of nonpayment of debt is mentioned. However, slaves worked in

households rather than productionrelated activities.

The transition of Vedic society from seminomadic life to settled agriculture in the

later Vedic age lead to an increase in trade and competition for

resources. Agriculture dominated the economic activity along the Ganges valley

during this period. Agricultural operations grew in complexity and usage of iron

implements (krishnaayas orshyamaayas, literally black metal or dark metal)

increased. Crops of wheat, rice, and barley were cultivated. New crafts and

occupations such as carpentry, leather work, tanning, pottery, astrology, jewellery,

dying, and vintnery arose. Apart from copper, bronze, and gold, later Vedic texts

also mention tin, lead, and silver

Culture

Society

Rig Vedic society was relatively egalitarian in the sense that a distinct hierarchy of

socioeconomic classes orcastes was absent. However, political hierarchy was

determined by rank, where rajan stood at the top and dasi at the bottom. The
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wordsBrahamana andKshatriya occur in various family books of theRig Veda,

but they are not associated with the termvarna. The words Vaishya and Shudra are

absent. Verses of theRig Veda, such as 3.44-45, indicate the absence of strict

social hierarchy and the existence of social mobility.

O, Indra, fond ofsoma, would you make me the protector of people, or would you

make me a king, would you make me a sage who has drunksoma, would you

impart to me endless wealth.

The Vedic household was patriarchal and patrilineal. The institution of marriage

was important and different types of marriagesmonogamy, polygyny and

polyandry are mentioned in theRig Veda. Both women sages and female gods

were known to Vedic Aryans. However, hymns attributable to female sages are

few and female gods were not as important as male ones. Women could choose

their husbands and could remarry if their husbands died or disappeared. While the

wife enjoyed a respectable position, she was subordinate to her husband. People

consumed milk, milk products, grains, fruits and vegetables. Meat eating is

mentioned, however, cows are labelled aghnya (not to be killed). Clothes of cotton,

wool and animal skin were worn. Soma andsura were popular drinks in the Rig

Vedic society, of whichsoma was sanctified by religion. Flute (vana), lute (vina),

harp, cymbals, and drums were the musical instruments played and a heptatonic

scale was used. Dancing, dramas, chariot racing, and gambling were other popular

pastimes.

The emergence of monarchical states in the later Vedic age, led to a distancing of

the rajan from the people and the emergence of a varna hierarchy. The society was

divided into four social groupsBrahmanas,Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras.

The later Vedic texts fixed social boundaries, roles, status and ritual purity for each

of the groups. TheShatapatha Brahmanaassociates the Brahmana with purity of
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parentage, good conduct, glory, teaching or protecting people; Kshatriya with

strength, fame, ruling, and warfare; Vaishya with material prosperity and

productionrelated activities such as cattle rearing and agriculture; Shudras with

the service of the highervarnas. The effects ofRajasuyasacrifice depended on

the varna of the sacrificer.Rajasuya endowed Brahmana with lustre, Kshatriya

with valour, Vaishya with procreative power and Shudra with stability. The

hierarchy of the top three varnas is ambiguous in the later Vedic

texts.Panchavamsha Brahmana and verse 13.8.3.11 of the Shatapatha

Brahmana place Kshatriya over Brahmana and Vaishya, whereas, verse 1.1.4.12

places Brahmana and Vaishya over the Kshatriya and Shudra. ThePurusha

suktavisualized the fourvarnas as hierarchical, but interrelated parts of an

organic whole.[31]Despite the increasing social stratification in the later Vedic

times, hymns like Rig Veda IX.112, suggest some amount of social mobility: "I am

a reciter of hymns, my father a physician, and my mother grinds (corn) with stones.

We desire to obtain wealth in various actions

Household became an important unit in the later Vedic age. The variety of

households of the Rig Vedic era gave way to an idealized household which was

headed by agrihapati. The relations between husband and wife, father and son

were hierarchically organised and the women were relegated to subordinate and

docile roles. Polygyny was more common than polyandry and texts like Tattiriya

Samhita indicate taboos around menstruating women. Various professions women

took to are mentioned in the later Vedic texts. Women tended to cattle, milked

cows, carded wool; were weavers, dyers, and corn grinders. Women warriors suchas Vishphala, who lost a leg in battle, are mentioned. Two female philosophers are

mentioned in the Upanishads.[34]Patrick Olivelle, in his translation of the

Upanishads, writes that "the fact that these women are introduced without any

attempt to justify or to explain how women could be engaged in theological
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matters suggests the relatively high social and religious position of at least women

of some social strata during this period."

Religion

Historical Vedic religion

A steel engraving from the 1850s, which depicts the creative activities ofPrajapati,

a Vedic deity who presides over procreation and protection of life.

The Vedic forms of belief are the precursor to modern Hinduism. Texts considered

to date to the Vedic period are mainly the fourVedas, but

the Brahmanas,Aranyakas and the olderUpanishads as well as the

oldest Shrautasutras are also considered to be Vedic. The Vedas record

the liturgy connected with the rituals and sacrifices performed by the 16 or

17 Shrautapriests and the purohitas.

The rishis, the composers of the hymns of the Rigveda, were considered inspired

poets and seers (in post-Vedic times understood as "hearers" of an eternally

existing Veda,rautameans "what is heard").

The mode of worship was the performance of sacrifices (Yajna) which included

the chanting of Rigvedic verses (see Vedic chant), singing ofSamans and

'mumbling' of sacrificial mantras (Yajus). Yajna involved sacrifice and sublimation

of the havana smagri (herbal preparations) in the fire accompanied by the

chanting of the Vedic mantras. The sublime meaning of the word yajna is derived

from the Sanskrit verb yaj, which has a three-fold meaning of worship of deities

(devapujana), unity (sagatikaraa) and charity (dna). An essential element was

the sacrificial fire - the divine Agni - into which oblations were poured, as

everything offered into the fire was believed to reach God. People prayed for

abundance of rain, cattle, sons, long life and gaining 'heaven'.
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Vedic people believed in the transmigration of the soul and the peepul tree and

cow were sanctified by the time of the Atharva Veda. Many of the concepts of

Indian philosophy espoused later like Dharma, Karma etc. trace their root to the

Vedas.

The main deities of the Vedic pantheon were Indra, Agni (the sacrificial fire),

and Soma and some deities of social order such as MitraVaruna, Aryaman, Bhaga

and Amsa, further nature deities such as Surya (the Sun), Vayu (the wind), Prithivi

(the earth). Goddesses included Ushas (the dawn), Prithvi and Aditi (the mother of

the Aditya gods or sometimes the cow). Rivers, especially Saraswati, were also

considered goddesses. Deities were not viewed as all-powerful. The relationship

between humans and the deity was one of transaction, with Agni (the sacrificial

fire) taking the role of messenger between the two. Strong traces of a

common Indo-Iranian religion remain visible, especially in the Soma cult and the

fire worship, both of which are preserved in Zoroastrianism.

Ethics in the Vedas are based on the concepts ofSatya and Rta. Satya is the

principle of integration rooted in the Absolute. Whereas, ta is the expression of

Satya, which regulates and coordinates the operation of the universe and

everything within it. Conformity with ta would enable progress whereas its

violation would lead to punishment.

Vedic religion evolved into the Hindupaths ofYoga and Vedanta, a religious path

considering itself the 'essence' of the Vedas, interpreting the Vedic pantheon as a

unitary view of the universe with 'God' (Brahman) seen as immanent and

transcendent in the forms ofIshvara and Brahman. These post-Vedic systems of

thought, along with later texts like Upanishads, epics (namely Gita ofMahabharat),

have been fully preserved and form the basis of modern Hinduism. The ritualistic

traditions of Vedic religion are preserved in the conservativerautatradition.
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Literature

An early 19th-century manuscript ofRigveda(padapatha) in Devanagari.

The Vedic accent is marked by underscores and vertical overscores in red.

The reconstruction of the history of Vedic India is based on text-internal details.

Linguistically, the Vedic texts could be classified in five chronological strata:

1. Rigvedic text: The Rigveda is by far the most archaic of the Vedic texts

preserved, and it retains many common Indo-Iranian elements, both in language

and in content, that are not present in any other Vedic texts. Its creation must have

taken place over several centuries or millennia.

2. Mantra language texts: This period includes both the mantra and prose language

of the Atharvaveda (Paippalada and Shaunakiya), the Rigveda Khilani,

theSamaveda Samhita (containing some 75 mantras not in the Rigveda), and the

mantras of the Yajurveda. Many of these texts are largely derived from the

Rigveda, but have undergone certain changes, both by linguistic change and by

reinterpretation. Conspicuous changes include change ofvishva "all" bysarva, and

the spread of the kuru-verbal stem (for Rigvedic krno-). This is the time of theearly Iron Age in north-western India, corresponding to theBlack and Red

Ware(BRW) culture, and the kingdom of the Kurus, dating from ca. the 10th

century BCE.

3. Samhita prose texts: This period marks the beginning of the collection and

codification of a Vedic canon. An important linguistic change is the complete loss

of theinjunctive. The Brahmana part ('commentary' on mantras and ritual) of theBlackYajurveda (MS, KS, TS) belongs to this period. Archaeologically,

thePainted Grey Ware(PGW) culture from ca. 900 BCE corresponds, and the shift

of the political centre from the Kurus to the Pancalas on the Ganges.
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4. Brahmana prose texts: The Brahmanasproper of the four Vedas belong to this

period, as well as the Aranyakas, the oldest of the Upanishads (BAU, ChU, JUB)

and the oldest Shrautasutras (BSS, VadhSS).

5. Sutra language texts: This is the last stratum of Vedic Sanskrit leading up to c.

500 BCE, comprising the bulk of therautaand Grhya Sutras, and

some Upanishads(e.g. KathU, MaitrU). Videha (N. Bihar) as a third political centre

is established.
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Documents

Aryan Civilization With a Special Reference of Vedic Litterature