‘Savoir Fare’: Are cooking skills a new morality? · place to the longevity of traditional recipes and cooking techniques as an indication of not only the integrity of food and

Australian Journal of Adult Learning Volume 52, Number 3, November 2012

‘Savoir Fare’: Are cooking skills a new morality?

John CoveneyPublic Health, School of Medicine, Flinders University

Andrea Begley

School of Public Health, Curtin University

Danielle Gallegos Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology

There has been a recent surge of interest in cooking skills in a diverse range of fields, such as health, education and public policy. There appears to be an assumption that cooking skills are in decline and that this is having an adverse impact on individual health and well-being, and family wholesomeness. The problematisation of cooking skills is not new, and can be seen in a number of historical developments that have specified particular pedagogies about food and eating. The purpose of this paper is to examine pedagogies on cooking skills and the importance accorded them. The paper draws on Foucault’s work on governmentality. By using examples from the USA, UK and Australia, the paper demonstrates the ways that authoritative discourses on the know how and the know what about

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food and cooking – called here ‘savoir fare’ – are developed and promulgated. These discourses, and the moral panics in which they are embedded, require individuals to make choices about what to cook and how to cook, and in doing so establish moral pedagogies concerning good and bad cooking. The development of food literacy programmes, which see cooking skills as life skills, further extends the obligations to ‘cook properly’ to wider populations. The emphasis on cooking knowledge and skills has ushered in new forms of government, firstly, through a relationship between expertise and politics which is readily visible through the authority that underpins the need to develop skills in food provisioning and preparation; secondly, through a new pluralisation of ‘social’ technologies which invites a range of private-public interest through, for example, television cooking programmes featuring cooking skills, albeit it set in a particular milieu of entertainment; and lastly, through a new specification of the subject can be seen in the formation of a choosing subject, one which has to problematise food choice in relation to expert advice and guidance. A governmentality focus shows that as discourses develop about what is the correct level of ‘savoir fare’, new discursive subject positions are opened up. Armed with the understanding of what is considered expert-endorsed acceptable food knowledge, subjects judge themselves through self-surveillance. The result is a powerful food and family morality that is both disciplined and disciplinary.

Introduction

Inhisbook,The omnivore’s dilemma,MichaelPollan(2007)beginsbyaskinghowwasitthat,almostovernight,theAmericanideaofeating‘healthily’wasrevolutionised?Referringtonewspaperstoriesabouttheroleofhighprotein,lowcarbohydratedietstopromoteweightloss,PollandescribeshowthisideamovedrapidlythroughtheUSfoodsystem,garneringsupportfromexpertsandindustryalike,

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creatingnewmarketsforso-called‘lowcarb’foods,increasingsalesofbooksbasedonDrAtkin’s-stylehighproteindiets.Theprocessalsosawarapiddeclineinthestatusofso-calledtraditionstaplefoods,likebread,potatoesandpasta,whichwerenowdeemeddetrimentalto health.

Pollanbelievesthatthisdevelopmentwasonlypossiblebecauseaculture,likethatoftheUS,hasnofoodtraditionofitsown.Inotherwords,whentherearenolongstandingrulesandritualsaboutwhattoeatandwhentoeatit,people’sdietsareatthewhimofwhateverpopulardiscourseisservedupwhetherthisbefromscience,commerceorevenjournalisticwisdom.IntheAustraliancontext,SymonsmakesthesamepointwhenhedescribesAustralianfoodcultureasbeingindustrialcuisineandhaving“ahistorywithoutpeasants”(Symons,1982:10).

Pollan’spointisthat‘deep’foodcultures–forexample,thoseofFranceandItaly,whichhavebeendevelopedoveralongperiodoftime–areresilienttochange,oratleastchangeslowly,suchisthecaseoftheso-called‘Mediterraneandiet’.Thisresiliencetochangecomesfromanumberofsources,includingstronganchoringintheecologicallinksaboutwhatfoodscanbegrownandwhen,andhowfoodsaretransformedforhumanconsumptionusingappropriatefoodprocessingmethods.Embeddedin‘deep’foodculinarywisdomisknowledgenotjustaboutwhattoeat,butalsohowtofindfood,prepareittocreateadishandthereforemakeameal.Thustheprovisioningoffood–foodprocurement,processingandcooking-isattheverycentreoffoodcultures,andmanycuisinesgiveprideofplacetothelongevityoftraditionalrecipesandcookingtechniquesasanindicationofnotonlytheintegrityoffoodandeatingpatterns,butofthecultureitself.Attheheartoftheseprocessesareskillsincooking.Thebeliefthatcookingskillsarepasseddownfromonegenerationtothenextsupportsaconfidenceinparticularsocialandculturalstructureswhichseethedomesticsphereascentral.

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Thepurposeofthispaperistoexaminethesalienceofcookingskillsandtheimportanceaccordedthem.Itwillarguethatthecentralitygiventocookingbecomesmostvisiblewhencookingskillsarethoughttobedeclining,orfoundwanting,limitedorinadequate.Aswillbeshown,aconcernforcookingskillsinmanywesternculturesoftenemergesasa‘moralpanic’attimeswhenquestionsareraisedaboutbasichumanskills,andevensurvivalitself.Partofthispanicspeakstoabeliefthatwithoutatraditionofcookingfamilyharmonyisatriskandfamilylifeisprecarious.

Thepaperbeginsbydemonstratingsomeexamplesofwhereinrecenthistory,publicsentimenthasreactedtotheideathatcookingskills,especiallythosethatabidebyparticularstandards,havedeclined.Itthengoesontoexaminerecentcaseswherecookingskillshavebeenaddressedinpublicpolicy.Thisexaminationisimportantinviewofthecurrententhusiasmanduncriticalacceptanceofcookingskillsinhealth and education sectors.

Theoretically,thepaperdrawsontheworkofMichelFoucault,especiallytheideasrelatedtogovernmentality(Foucault,1991).Bygovernmentality,Foucaultreferstotheemergenceofaconcernforthegoverningofacomplexof‘menandthings’.By‘menandthings’,Foucaultisreferringtoindividualandcollectivewealth,resources,customsandhabits,aswellastheconsequencesofdrought,famineandothercalamities.Inotherwords,governmentalityhasamajorconcernwithpopulations,arolewenowattributetothestate.Indeed,Foucault’spointisthatgovernmentalitywasinfactanartaroundwhich crystallised the organising technologies and concepts of the modernstate.Withingovernmentalitytheredevelopedarangeoftechniquesforknowingthepopulation,andmanagingitthroughthatknowledge.Sostatisticalsurveys,demography,medicine,anddiscourses on sanity and reason were deployed in order to take care ofthepopulation’shealthandwelfare.Theknowledgearisingfromthese new disciplines are what Foucault describes as ‘technologies of


power’.Theydemarcatethenecessaryboundariesofunderstanding,endorsing particular certainties and dispelling others. In so doing theycreatewhatFoucaultcalls‘regimesoftruth’.

However,governmentalitydoesnotonlymeanthegovernmentofothers;italsomeansthegovernmentofoneself.Inotherwords,individualscometoknowthemselvesthroughdisciplineandtrainingthatarerequiredbyappreciationofparticularformsofknowledgeactingasdiscourse.These‘technologiesoftheself’,constitutethemodernsubjectasonewhoknowshimorherself;theself-reflective,self-regulatingindividual.Theappropriateformsof‘technologiesoftheself’madeavailableduringtheemergenceofgovernmentalitywasthatadministeredbytheChristianchurch.AccordingtoHunter(1994:37),whathappenedwasthatthestateinheritedthemoraltraining of the church because of “the cultural scarcity of pedagogical relationshipsanddisciplines”.Inotherwords,thestateadoptedandpromotedChristianpracticesoftheselfbecausetherewasararityofpedagogicalmodelsavailableatthetime.Foucault’spoint,anditisoneamplifiedbyMitchell(1994)andHunter(1994),isthatthenewformofpoliticaltechnologyusheredinbygovernmentalitycomprisedtwoadjacentbutautonomousformsof‘technologiesforliving’.Thesewere“thegovernmentofthestate,andtheChristian(soontobehumanist)spiritualperfectionoftheself”(Hunter,1994:42).Thepracticesof‘spiritual’orethicalperfectionmultipliedandspreadoutsideoftheecclesiasticalinstitutionandbecameavailableinmanymoderninstitutions,thefamily,theschoolandtheclinicwheretheywerepractisedintermsoftheethicalcomportmentofindividuals(Foucault,1982).Inotherwords,thetechnologiesoftheself,whichconstitutethemodernsubject,wereappropriatedfrompracticesoftheformationoftheChristiansoul-practicessuchasself-observation,self-examination,confession,andself-renunciation(Petersen,2003).

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Itiswithinthissetofpossibilitiesofferedbygovernmentalitythatwecanseetheemergenceofanewsubject:thefoodchoosingsubject-one who needs to acquire particular cooking knowledges and skills to chooseonepathoveranother.Asweshallseediscoursesgeneratedthroughnutritionandhomemanagementpedagogiesproducedtechnologiesofpowerprescribingwhatistobepracticed,howandwhen.Theterm‘power’isnotusedheretodescribesomeformofoppressionordomination.Itisusedtodenoteamorepositiveproperty;onethatprovidesthenecessaryrationaletoachievepositiveendsprescribedandendorsedbyexpertunderstanding.AccordingtoRose(1990)expertunderstandinginfusesandshapesthepersonalinvestmentsofindividuals,inthewaysthattheyform,regulateandevaluatetheirlives,actionsandgoals.However,inorderto“form,regulateandevaluatetheirlives,actionsandgoals”individualsneedtoactivelyapplythemselvesasself-reflexivesubjectswithrespecttoexpertunderstandings.Thatistosay,theyneedtosubjectthemselvestoitsauthority,itscredibilityanditsintegrity.Asweshallsee,theimperativeofknowinghowtoprepareandcookfoodhasbeenproblematisedatvariousstagesinanumberofwesterncultures,providinganopportunityforpedagogicaladviceandcorrectiononcooking.

What’s (not) cooking?

Therecentinterestincookingskillsbyanumberofscholarshaveraisedquestionsabouttheexactnatureofcooking.Whilethereissomeagreementaboutthefactthatcookinginvolvesthetransformationofthestateoffood–forexample,fromrawtocooked–numerousotherpossibilitiespresentthemselves.Doesreheatingamounttocooking?Doesputtingtogetheramealfrompre-preparedingredientscountas‘real’cooking?Oristhismerelyassembling?Thesequestionsarenotofmajorconcernforthispaper,butpointtothefactthatcookingandtheskillsrequiredtocompletecookingtasksarecurrentlybeingproblematised.Thisproblematisationisusually


undertakenbyexpertswhoprivilegecookingfromscratch–thatisfrombasicorrawingredients–asthegoldstandard,especiallywithrespecttofosteringimprovementsineatingbehavioursandultimatelydietquality(Huntley,2008:97).

Thisproblematisationcanbeseeninanumberofhistoricaldevelopmentsthathaveinvolvedareconsiderationofthequalityoffoodeatenbyindividualsandcommunities.Someoftheearliestexamplesofanalmostevangelistic19thCenturymovementpromotingtheneedtoimprovecookingskillscanbefoundintheworkofWilburAtwaterintheUSA(Coveney,2006:61).Atwaterisregarded to be the founding father of nutritional science. Building upon the popularity of newly arising facts about nutritional foodcomponents,especiallyenergyandprotein,Atwater’sworksupportedcommunitycrusadestospreadnewknowledgeaboutfoodandcookingtohouseholdsandcommunities(Crotty,1995:16).Community-basedmovementsralliedtotakethisknowledgeofcookingtotownsandcitiesacrosstheUSA.Withlatergovernmentinvolvement,thenewknowledgewasintroducedintotheschoolcurriculum,becomingpartofUSnationaldomesticscienceinitiatives(Berlage,1998).ThepedagogicalpriorityofdomesticsciencealsobecameembeddedintheschoolcurriculumintheUK(Mennell,Murcott,andvanOtterloo,1993:89)andAustralia(Reiger,1986:57).

MovementsintheUKandAustraliaweregivenparticularimpetuswiththefindingfromsurveysthat,bythestandardsofthenewnutritiondiscourses,populationswereoftenpoorlyfed(Coveney,2006:63).Moreover,themonitoringandsurveillanceofschoolchildren’shealth(NewSouthWalesDepartmentofPublicInstruction,1908)andtheexaminationofphysiqueofarmyrecruits(Winter,1980)–allofwhichwerebelievedtobelessthansatisfactory–gavestrengthtotheimportanceofspreadingnewknowledgeofcooking.

Anumberofpublicationsspranguptoprovideknowledgeofcookingwithnutritionprinciplesinmind.IntheUSAamonthly

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magazine,Century Illustrated,providedadviceaboutwhattoeatandhowtoprepareit.Atthetime,nutritionprinciplesconcernedonlytherequirementsforso-calledmacronutrients,protein,fatandcarbohydrate.Byrelatingnutrientintaketonutrientneed,Atwaterwasabletoestimatethewisdomoffamilyfoodpurchases.Herelatedhisfindingstocalculationsofspendingpowerandhouseholdbudgeting.ThusAtwaterwasabletocalculatenutritiousandeconomicalmenusforfamilies,whichwerepublishedforpopularaudiences(Crotty,1995:18).Atwaterregardedfruitsand‘waterrich’greenvegetablesasunnecessarilyextravagantpurchasessinceatthetimetherewasalimitedunderstandingoftheneedforvitaminsandminerals(Coveney,2006:61).

Atwaterwasveryoutspokenabouttheimportanceoflearningthecorrect‘domesticpecuniaryeconomy’forpreparingandeatingfood,saying:

ThetrueAnti-povertySocietyistheSocietyof‘Toil,ThriftandTemperance’.Oneofthearticlesofitsconstitutiondemandsthattheprinciplesofintelligenteconomyshallbelearnedbypatientstudyandfollowedindailylife.OfthemanyworthywaysinwhichthecharityweshallcallChristianisbeingexercised,noneseemstomemoreworthyofappellationthanthemovementinindustrialeducationofwhichteachingthedaughtersofworking-peoplehowtodohouseworkandhowtoselectfoodandcookitformsapart.(Atwater,1888:445).

Inthesameedition,Atwaterstrengthenshisstandbypointingout“IfChristianityistodefendsocietyagainstsocialismmustitnotmakesuchhomely,non-theologicalteachingsasthesepartofitsgospel?”(Atwater,1888:445).Inotherwords,shouldnotthehome,thehearth,andeventhestovebeattheverycentreofChristianpedagogy?

Animportantspin-offfromAtwater’sworkwasthedevelopmentofthefieldofdomesticscience,laterknownashomeeconomics.AccordingtoRossiter(1980)Americancitiesattheendofthe


nineteenthcentury,likemanyinEurope,hadmajorpublichealthproblems,whichaccountedforalargepercentageofmortalityandmorbidity.Halfofalldeathswerechildren.Theneedforfamiliestobetaughtbetterhygieneandnutritionappearedtobeself-evident.Thusbeganatraininginscienceforwomenwho,uptothattimehadbeenpreventedfromdoingscientificresearch,anddomesticsciencebeganasatertiarydegree.Trainingprogrammestaughttopicssuchascookery,nutrition,hygieneandmothercraft,thepre-requisitesforwhichwereoftenscienceslikechemistry,bacteriologyandpsychology.Crotty(1995:23)showshowinAustralia,theseideasspawnedanumberofcookingandfoodpreparationmovements,suchastheAustraliaHealthSocietywhichfurtherpopularisedfoodandnutrition.

Interestincookingandrelatedskillsalsoreachedapeakduringtimesofnecessarythriftandfrugality,notonlybasedonhouseholdincomebut,inthecaseofWorldWarTwo,onnationalfoodsecurity.IntheUKinparticular,large-scalegovernmentinformationcampaignswerelaunchedtoremindthepublicabouttheneedforbasiccookingskills(Hammond,1954).Manycampaignswerefullofinformationonwiseuseofingredients-manyofwhichwereinlimitedsupply–and,aspartofthis,aneedtoreducefoodwaste(DrummondandWilbraham,1994:454).Arangeofmeanswasusedtoeducateandprovidenecessary instructions for preparing what were often ingredients unfamiliartoBritishconsumers,includingaregularmorningradioprogramme The Kitchen Front that wouldpresentinformationaboutcookinginalight-heartedfashion(Coddingham,2011:392)

The effects of restraint and rationing of ingredients like fat and sugar wereintheendtobeofbenefittotheBritishpublic,eventhoughthehardshipofrationscontinueduntiltheearly1950s.Indeed,itisnowbelievedthatthepopulationinBritainwasatitshealthiestduringthesetimes.Thetransformationisregardedtoberesponsibleforapolicyturnaround.UnlikeGermany,theBritishgovernmententered

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thewaryearsbelievingthatthestatehadnoroletoplayinchangingpeople’seatinghabits.Butbytheendof1945ithadchangeditsmindbelievingthatgovernmenthadaprimaryresponsibilitytochangeattitudestofoodandenhancewell-being(Coddingham,2011:385).

Cooking skills in decline

Duringthelatterpostwaryearsofthe1960sand1970s,anationalemphasisoncookingskillsfellintodecline.Thiswasinpartduetotheincreasedcredibilityandavailableofso-called‘conveniencefoods’,whichwererapidlybecomingfeaturesinhouseholddietsasquickwaystoserveupmealstofamilies,andtheincreasingriseofcommentarieswhichwerecriticalofwomen’sdomesticroles(Attar,1990;Shapiro,2004).

Itshouldbenotedthatthemoralisationaroundwomenemergingfromthekitchentopaidemploymentisnotarecentphenomenon.Walton(1992)describestheincreasedavailabilityofpreparedfood(inthiscasefishandchips)waswellreceivedbywomenbutcriticisedbyhealthprofessionals.Theconsumptionoffoodpreparedoutsidethehomewasreadaspoormothering,andabreakdownintheprocessofpolicingof‘proper’families(Walton,1992).Thesamemoralpanicscanbeseentodaywherethedemiseofcookingskills,andoffamilymealsarelinkedwithariseinfastfoodandconveniencefoodconsumption,andariseinchildhoodobesity.Indeed,theriseinobesityinchildrenhasbeenlinkeddirectlywithcookingskills,orrather,lackthereof(Pidd,2008).

InAustraliatheneedtoteachstudentsaboutcookingskillswasdemotedduringthe1960sand1970s,evidencedbyadecisioninmanystatestostopthetrainingofhomeeconomicsteachers,whohaduntilthattimebeenthetraditionalcustodiansoftheknowledgeandteachingoffoodandcookingskills(Pendergast,GarvisandKanasa,2011).Thepositioningofhomeeconomicsasfeminine,practicalandunpaidmeantthatithadbeenandcontinuestobe


marginalisedparticularlyinsecondaryschoolcurriculawhereastrongfocusisretainedonthe‘science’.Eveninthedevelopmentofnational curricula the practical art of cooking is noticeably absent (ACARA,2011).Theseeventsareviewedasleadingtoadeclineordeskillingincookingskillsandamoveawayfromcookingfromscratch(BegleyandGallegos,2010).However,theprominenceofalossofcookingskillswashighlightedinthelaunchofAustralia’sNationalFoodandNutritionPolicy(FNP)in1992.Thepolicystates‘Theroleofmanywomenas‘gatekeepers’oftheirfamily’shealthrequiresspecialattention.Womeninpoverty…mayneedimprovedfoodskillstoobtaingoodnutritionfromfoodswhichtheycanafford’(CommonwealthDepartmentofHealth,HousingandCommunityServices,1992:5).Thusweseedirectreferencetotheneedtoimprovecookingknowledgeandskillsbytargetingofthe‘nutritiongatekeeper’.Theprominenceofthenutritiongatekeeperastheperson,usuallyfemalewhohasprimaryresponsibilityormoraljudgmentforhouseholdfoodchoices,originatedfromUSresearchduringthe1940s(Mead,1943).ItgainedfurtherattentioninworkundertakenbyMurcott(1982)andCharlesandKerr(1988)whodescribedtheroleofwomeninensuring“good”foodmadeittothetable.WomenhavecontinuedtobethetraditionaltargetsinmanyFNPssincethattimeviainterventionsaimedatmakingmothersmoralguardiansoffamilyfoodchoices.However,asthequoteabovesuggests,itislow-incomegroupswhoareconsideredmostinneedoftutelagewherecookingskillsareconcerned.Thisarisesfromtheobservationthatdiet-relateddiseasesaremorecommoninlow-incomepopulations(AustralianInstituteofHealthandWelfare,2010),andbyimplication,arearesultofadeficitinnutritionandcookingknowledge.Thus,fromwhathasbeensaidalready,women,asgatekeepersbecometheprimaryfocusforpedagogicalinterventionsdesignedtoimprovecookingskillsandthusthequalityoffamilymeals.

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Thepurporteddeclineincookingskillsisoftenconflatedwithanotherobservationinmanywesterncultures:thedeclineinthefamilymeal.Inpopulardiscourse,thisreferstothefeweroccasionsforfamiliestoeattogether.Anumberofclaimshavebeenmadeabouttheroleoffamilymealsinthehealthandwelfareofchildren,notleastofwhichistheassertionthatchildrenfromfamiliesthatdonotsharemealsaremorelikelytohaveunhealthyeatinghabits,morelikelytosmokeordrink,andmorelikelytotakepartinillegalactivities,suchasdrugtaking(CASA,2011).Theassociationoffamilymealsandcookingskillsisbeingcomplicated,however,bytheuseofconveniencefoodsthatfacilitatesthe‘doing’ofcookingtoproducefamilymeals(Beck,2007),andtheuseoffastfoodeatingoccasionsasfamilyoccasions(Brembeck,2005).Whetherfamilymealsproducedbyconvenienceactuallycountasfamily-orientedeventsisamatterofdebate,giventheimportanceaccordedtomealscookedfromscratch(BegleyandGallegos,2010).

Anumberofscholarshavequestionedthepurporteddeclineinfamilymealsandthedeclineincookingskills,mostlyonthebasisofpoordataorexaggeratedclaims.IndeedrecentAustraliandatapointstothemaintenanceofafamilymealideology,albeittransitioningintoarangeofdiverseforms(Gallegosetal2011).However,anemphasisonincreasingcookingskillscontinuesasamajorthemeinmanyhealthpromotionprogrammes.Forexample,intheAustralianGo for 2&5 fruit and vegetablecampaignthetargetingofthemainmealpreparerandpromotionofsuitablerecipeshavebeenkeyelementsintheinitiative(Pollard,2009).Also,therecentdevelopmentsofMeasure up,theAustralianCommonwealthDepartmentofHealthandAgeing’scampaigntoincreasehealthyweight,emphasisestheso-called‘CountryPantry’,wherefactssheetswithcookingskillsideasareacentralpartofmessage.Cookingskillsinterventionsarenowalsoseenasthenewpracticalmodalityforimprovingindividualeatingbehavioursasstand-alonetechniquescomingundertheremitofhealthagenciesandwelfareagenciesasthefocusonlowincome


familiescontinues.ExamplesincludeJamieOliver’sMinistry of food (Adams,2012),StephanieAlexander’s Kitchen garden (AustralianFederalGovernment,2011)andDiabetesAustralia’sNeed for feed (DiabetesAustralia,2011).

Insummingupsofar,cookingskillshavebeenatthecentreofanumberofconcerns–somewouldsay‘moralpanics’–notonlyabouteatinghabits,butalsobyimplication,thenurturingoffamilyandfamilylife.Theseconcernsoftenariseduringnationalprioritiesorcrises.Forexample,Atwater’sworkonfoodvalueswasusedextensivelybyindustrialistsintheUSA,whowantedtoshowthat,contrarytoclaimsforhigherbasicwagesbytradeunions,householdswereinfactbeingpaidenough;thesolutiontopovertywastheoptimisationofhouseholdexpenditurealongnutritionalguidelinesthatemanatedfromAtwater’sresearch(Aronson,1982).AsimilarcasewasmadeduringcourthearingsinAustraliaduringthedebatesin1920byunionsandemployersforabasiclivingwage(Reiger,1986).Cookingskillswerealsohighlightedduringtimesofnationalcrisis,forexampleduringtheworldwars.WhiledifferentinnaturefromtheAtwater-inspiredcauses,anationalobsessionduringtimesofconflictandthebattleonthe‘homefront’gaveemphasistocookingfrombasicsandavoidingwaste,andeveryonedoingtheirbit.Comingtothepresent,itcouldbesaidthatthenewbattleisthepreservationoftheenvironment–witharenewedfocusonthehomefront,growingyourownandreducingwasteemergingasimportanttechniquestolessentheimpactofclimatechange(Coveney,2011).

What is the problem?

TheworkofCarolBacchicanprovideausefulframeworktounpackthe preoccupations that underpinned concerns about food and cookingduringthesetimes.Bacchiseekstohighlightthediscoursesthatareembeddedintheproblematisationofsocialissuesandessentiallyask‘whatistheproblemrepresentedtobe?’(Bacchi,

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1999).Indoingso,Bacchiisnotaskingforarenderingofthereal problemorthetruthoftheissue.Instead,sheseekstofindouthowtheproblembeingaddressedispositionandhowthispositioningactstogarnerpublicorpoliticalsupport.Bacchi’sworkdrawsonFoucault’sunderstandingofthegovernmentofconduct,especiallyasitisaddressedintheseminalworkongovernmentality(Foucault,1991).

Inrelationtotheprioritygiventocookingskills,wecannoticeanumberoffeatures.CentraltheproblematisationofcommonfoodpracticesbothduringtheAtwatercampaignsinthelate19thCenturyandlatermovementsduringtheworldwarsisthebeliefthatacertainkindofknowledgeisdeficientorentirelymissing.Thatistosay,thereisalackofso-called‘savoirfare’,usedheretopointtopractical know how and know whataboutfoodandcooking.ForAtwaterandrelatededucationalmovementswhichwereseekingtoincreasepeople’sunderstandingofnutrition,thiswastosomeextentunderstandable;nutritiondiscourseitselfwasanewwayofthinkingaboutfood,onepredicatedonthebeliefthatwhatmatteredmostwasnottheflavourorthetraditionoffood,butbasicnutritionalconstituents.Essentially,peoplewerebeingaskedtore-calibratetheirpalatessoastonotappreciatefoodsforflavourortasteorpleasure,buttovalorisefood’snutritionalvalueinstead.Atwaterisfamousfornotingthatpleasureofeatingisunimportantbecauseevenbadtastingfoodcanbeshowntobedigestible,metabolisableandthereforeofnutritionalvaluetothebody.Ofcourse,unliketraditionalculturalunderstandingsoffoodandcookingwhichrelyonflavourandtastetoindicatequality,nutritionalqualitiesoffood-calories,proteins,carbohydratesetc.-arenotimmediatelyavailabletothesenses.Onecannottasteacalorie.Thustheroleoftheexpertinthisdiscourseiscrucial.Theexpertprovidesthenecessaryknowledgetorationalisefoodbyexploringandmakingvisibleitsessentialnutritionalingredients.Thisrationalityleads,literally,torationing:withinanutritionaldiscourse,


food is portioned out on the basis of calculated physiological needs whichhavebeencarefullymeasuredandquantified.

Atwater’sworkwasentirelyconsistentwiththeprioritiesofhisday.Theneedtounderstandthethermodynamicsofasystem,itsenergyflows,andmechanicaladvantageswerepartofthenineteenthcenturyindustrialisationofeverydaylife.Machinespoweredbysteamwereincreasinglyusedassubstitutesforhumanlabour,andthecalibrationofexpenditureofenergyconversionwasarequirementifcost/benefitsweretoberealised.Threeareasofresearchwereofimportance:first,establishrelationshipbetweengasexchangeandheatproduction;second,evaluatefoodsinrelationtoenergyrequirementsandexpenditure;andthird,establishthecausesofenergyexpenditure(Johnson,FerrellandJenkins,2003)

Atwater’sworkwasthefirsttoshowthatthehumanphysiologicalsystem,fuelledbyfoodenergy,obeysthesamethermodynamicprinciplesasthesteamengineandtheSpinningJenny:energyisneithercreatednotdestroyedbutisconvertedfromoneformtoanother.Inthiscaseitwasenergyinfood,releasedasenergyforphysicalwork.Atwater’sprojectswereabletoincluderesearchonprotein,pioneeredbyJustusVonLiebigandotherscientistsinGermany,whowereexaminingthecompositionfoods(Rossiter,1975).Thusthecreationofthisnewknowledgeofpopulations,anditsuseinmakingfeedingmoreefficient,wascentraltotheproblematisationofthewaysinwhichpeoplechosefoodatthattime.

ThefocusoncookingskillsintheUKandAustraliaduringworldwarsalsoemphasisedfoodandcookingpedagogy,butwithhaddifferentfocus.Heretheimportancewastoremindhouseholdsoftheneedtobefrugalandthrifty.DuringtheSecondWorldWarinparticular,aUKpropagandacampaignwaswagedbyaMinistryofFood(DrummondandWilbraham,1994:448)anditemphasisedcookingskillsthat‘mademorewithless’.Nutritionwasfeaturedaspartof

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this,aswaswaste.Indeed,reducingwastebecameanationalprioritywiththecreationoftheUKNutritionandFoodConservationBranch,FoodDistributionAdministration.TheroleoftheFoodDistributionAdministrationwastoreducewasteinthefoodsystemandconductpublicawarenesscampaignsthrough“…thepress,radio,civicandwomen’sorganizations,tradegroupsandotheroutlets.Theobjectoftheseeffortsistosaveeverysavablebitoffood”(Kling,1943).Apedagogydevelopedtoremindconsumersthatitwasatthelevelofthehouseholdthatwastesavingwasmostlypossibleand,withastrongreferencetoearlierVictorianvalues,itwasnotedthat“Inthistimeofneed,theNationmaywellagainpracticetheprudenceofitsforebears”(Kling,1943).

Cooking skills as governmentality

Thecommonfeaturethatbindstheexamplesgivenisthewayinwhich the discourses being propagated constructs subjects who are nowrequiredtomakechoices.Thatistosay,theuseofknowledgebeinggeneratedispredicatedontheindividualchoosingonepathoveranother,withrespecttothefoodtheyeat.Andwhilethischoicemaybeseenintheformofafreedomtochoose,infactitisaformofcontrolthatarisesdirectlyoutoftheproblematisationofwhat,atanearliertime,didnotrequireconsiderationorreflection.Peoplemostlyatewhathadbeenpartoftheirsocialmilieuandendorsedbytheirsocial class.

Thetechnologiesofpower,whichisonearmatureofFoucault’sconceptof‘governmentality’,weregeneratedthroughthedevelopmentthroughAtwater’sworkonnutritionaldiscourses.These discourses not only prescribed what foods were regarded to benutritiousbutthecookingskillsneededtomaximisehealthandwellbeing.ThedevelopmentofstatefundedprogrammestosupportdomesticeconomymovementsintheUSA,UKandAustraliain


theearlypartof20thCenturypromulgatedthenewknowledgeas‘regimesoftruth’.

However,ashasbeenpointedout(Santich,1995),nutritiondiscoursestendtoproduceagood/baddichotomy,arisingoutofwhatisnutritionallygood,(i.e.,nutritionallysound)toeat,thuseatinghealthyfoodstendstobecomeavirtue,abettermoralchoice.Similarly,discoursesaroundfrugalityandparsimonyinfoodpreparationtendtoemphasiswhatisright,properandcorrectintermsofefficiencyandthrift.Conversely,withinthesediscoursesareinevitablenotionsof‘bad’,‘profligate’or‘wasteful’orlessmorallyworthypractices.Themoralitybroughttobearonfoodandeatingthroughthedichotomisationofgood/badhasalonghistoryinwesternculture.NineteenthcenturynutritionalproselytiserslikeSylvesterGrahamandJohnHarveyKelloggintheUSAusedtheideaofcorrecteatinghabitsasaplatformforpromotingafoodmorality:eatinggoodfoodleadstogoodcharacter.EventhefounderofMethodism,JohnWesley,usedhealthyfoodchoicetosupporthisministry(Turner,1992:191).Thusthesubjectifyingeffectsofdiscoursesonfoodperpetratedbeliefsaboutmoralityandtheself-worthofsubjects:the‘good’orthe‘bad’eater.AndsothesecondarmatureofFoucault’s‘governmentality’,thetechnologiesoftheself,isrealisedintheself-reflectionbyindividualsonwhatforthemisgoodtoeat,notonlyfromanutritionalviewpointbutalsofromamoralperspective.

Withinthepresentcontextwhichpromotesthedesirabilityofcookingskills,themoralisationofsubjectscontinueswithrespecttogoodandbadcooking;goodcookingiscookingathomefromscratchandbadcookingisreconstituting/reheatingandoutsourcingthecooking‘work’.Itshouldbeofnosurprisethatthemajorityofgovernment-sponsoredcookingskillsprogrammesareaimedatlowincome,sociallydisadvantagedpopulationswhoarerequiredtoimprove

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theirknowledgeofwhatisrightandpropertoeat.InAustralia,foodprogrammeslikeFood cent$ (FoleyandPollard,1998)targetlow-incomegroupsandfurnishthemwithideasaboutcookingonabudgetandarecommonlydeliveredbywelfareorganisations.Inmanywaystheseprogrammesrehearsethoseinitiallypropagatedmorethan100yearsagobytheAtwatermovement.However,modernprogrammesalsoemphasistheideathatcookingskillsandtheresultantfarecancreatecommunalityandthusbondfamilyunitstogether.

Thefundamentalnecessityofcookingskills,andrelatedtasks,havehoweverturnedtowardsabroaderaudience,supportedbyanunderstandingthatcookingskillsare,infact,lifeskills(LangandCaraher,2001).Theimportancegiventothisunderstandingcanbeseeninprogrammestargetingyoungchildren(Burgess-Champoux,2009).Forexample,theStephanieAlexanderKitchenGardenprogrammeinAustraliaisnationwide,supportedbyover12.5milliondollarsofpublicfunding.Accordingtothewebsite,theaimoftheprogrammeis“ThecreationandcareofaKitchenGarden[which]teacheschildrenaboutthenaturalworld,aboutitsbeautyandhowtocareforit,howbesttousetheresourceswehave,andanappreciationforhoweasyitistobringjoyandwellbeingintoone’slifethroughgrowing,harvesting,preparingandsharingfresh,seasonalproduce”(kitchengardenfoundation.org.au/).Thewebsitepointsoutthatbytakingpartintheprogramme,childrenlearnskillsingardeningandcookingthatwilllastthemalifetime.

InAustraliatherearealsopropositionstoreintroducehomeeconomicsintothenationalschoolcurriculumbypositioningcookingskillsaslifeskills(HomeEconomicsInstituteofAustralia,2010).Furthermore,anewdiscursiveelaborationofcooking-as-lifeskillshasdevelopedwiththearrivalof‘foodliteracy’,takentomean“thecapacityofanindividualtoobtain,interpretandunderstandbasicfoodandnutritioninformationandservicesaswellasthecompetence


tousethatinformationandservicesinwaysthatarehealthenhancing”(Kolasaetal,2001).

Thustheprimacyaccordedtocookingskills,oncetheprovinceofthehomemaker,orthe‘gatekeeper’,hasnowspreadtoincludechildrenandmen(Szabo,2011).Theactualpenetrationofthismoredemocraticrenderingremainstobeseen,however.Menandincreasinglychildrenstillretaincontroloverfoodpreferencesbutwomenstillundertakethebulkofthelabour(Santich,1995),eventhoughtheskillsofcookinghavesupposedlybecomeessentiallifelongskillsforall.Cookingskillshavethusacquiredasenseofmorality,withthemwebecomeethicalsubjects,withconcernforourhealthandwellbeing;withoutthemsurvivalisprecariousandlifeisrisky.Thisisparticularlytruewhenlowlevelsofskillincookingandthusfewerhome-cookedmealschallengestheassumedlossofcommensality,andsharedfamilytime.Theconsequencesforthehealthandwelfareofchildren,inparticular,arethoughttobedire.

Embeddingtheimperativeofcookingskillswithinthediscourseofhealthliteracyprovidesapowerfulleverforfurtherpedagogicalengagementwithwideraudiences.Nowthatcookingisseenasa‘lifeskill’,itfallsonabroadsectionofthepopulationtoacquirethenecessaryknowledgeandassociatedcompetenciestoprovidetheright and proper food. These pedagogies are not only needed to secure health,butalsotomaintainoverallhappiness.Thusgoodcookingbecomestheethicalresponsibilityofall,justastheacquisitionofgoodhealth–orasCrawford(1980)putsit,‘healthism’-hasbecometheresponsibilityofeachandall,notonlytosecureindividualwell-being,butalsoinordertosecureagoodsociety.Warin(2011)showshowforcookingthisisplayedoutinJamieOliver’sMinistry of food project,which,whileseekingtoempowerindividualsthroughtheprovisionofcookingskills,essentially‘responsibilisise’themwithina

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neoliberaldiscourseofmodel,andindeedmoral,citizenship.

WecanusetheworkofRose(1996:54)tosummarisethewaysinwhichtheemphasisoncookingknowledgeandskillshasusheredinnewformsofgovernment.Firstly,therelationshipbetweenexpertiseandpoliticsisreadilyvisiblethroughtheauthoritythatunderpinstheneedtodevelopskillsinfoodprovisioningandpreparation.Expertshaveshownhowlowlevelsofcookingskillsmayleadtoarelianceonpre-preparedfoodswhichputatriskhealthandwellbeingandfamilytime(Devine,2002).Thusthenneedtocreatedishesandmealsfrombasics,especiallyfreshingredients,isnowarequirementreceivingstrongsupportfromthestateandalignedgroups.Secondly,anewpluralisationof‘social’technologieshasopenedupwhichinvitesarangeofprivate-publicinterests.Theproliferationoftelevisioncookingprogrammesdemonstratesanintensepublicinterestincookingskills,albeititsetinaparticularmilieuofentertainmentandevencompetition(deSolier,2005).Thepartnershipbetweenbroadcastindustriesandsupermarketscreatesnewinvestmentofprivatecapital.Whilesupermarketchainsarenostrangerstotelevisionchannels,mostlythroughadvertisingandmarketing,theopportunitiesthroughendorsementoffoodsfromcelebritychefsopensupanewsetofprivatesectorpossibilities.Morebroadly,stateinvolvementincookingskillscanbeseenintheinvestmentinvariousprogrammesdesignedtoimprovediet.Televisedcookinghasprivilegedthemasculinityofcelebritychefsoverthedomesticfemaleconstructionofcooking(Swenson,2009;Hollows,2003).Theseareoftenmanifestedinthedevelopmentofcookbooksandrecipesthataccompanycampaignsthatareaimedtoimprovediet.Oftenthisrequiresthecollaborationofgovernmentwithprivateinterests,forexample,thefruitandvegetableorotherfoodindustrypartner.Lastly,anewspecificationofthesubjectcanbeseenintheformationofacookingsubject,onethathastoproblematisefoodchoiceinrelationtoexpertadviceandguidanceaboutwhatandhowfoodistobecooked.Aswehaveseen,thecookingsubjectwasoncegender


specific.However,withthebeliefthatknowledgeofcookingisanowa life skill for all there is an obligation to broaden the scope of who is requiredtocookandunderwhatcircumstances.

Agovernmentality‘lens’showsthatasdiscoursesaboutwhatisthecorrectlevelof‘savoirfare’,orfoodsavvy,abound,newdiscursivesubject positions are opened up. Thus while nutrition ushered inafoodchoosingsubject,onethathadtochooseonefoodoveranotheronthebasisofnutritionalcalibrationandcalculation,thedevelopmentof‘savoirfare’introducesanotherlayerofsubjectivity.Thatistosay,subjectswhoarefoodsavvynotonlyknowwhatisscientificallyinfood(nutrients,etc.),andproperties,butalsowhenand under what conditions food should be cooked. They are required tobefoodliterateineverysense.Armedwiththeunderstandingofwhatisconsideredexpert-endorsedacceptablefoodknowledge,bothqualitativelyandquantitatively,andwhatfoodisrightforhealthandwellbeing,subjectsjudgethemselvesthroughself-surveillance(Warin,2011).Theresultisapowerfulfoodmoralitythatisbothdisciplined and disciplinary.

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About the authors

John Coveney is Professor in the Discipline of Public Health and Associate Dean in the School of Medicine at Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia. His teaching and research includes public health nutrition, food policy, and health promotion. Most recently

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his research, funded by the Australian Research Council, has examined Australian consumers’ trust in the food supply.

Andrea Begley is Lecturer and program leader for Nutrition and Dietetics in the School of Public Health at Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia. Her recent research has focussed on the role of cooking skills in health promotion programmes in Australia.

Danielle Gallegos is an Associate Professor in the School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia. Her research interests concern public health nutrition, food literacy, food security and nutrition in the early years of childhood.

Contact details

John Coveney, Public Health, School of Medicine, Flinders University, Adelaide, SA, 5001.

Email: [email protected]

Andrea Begley, School of Public Health, Curtin University, Bentley, WA.


Danielle Gallegos, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Kelvin Grove, Queensland.


Documents

‘Savoir Fare’: Are cooking skills a new morality? · place to the longevity of traditional recipes and cooking techniques as an indication of not only the integrity of food and