Ashish Report Intern Summer'13

8/13/2019 Ashish Report Intern Summer'13

1/23

1

A Summer Internship Project Report

On

Analysis of Variation of Brake Reaction Time in SimulatedConditions on the Basis of Human and Traffic Factors

Submitted By

Abhishek Ashish

10CE30001

Dual Degree in Civil Engineering

Under The Supervision

Of

Dr. Neelima Chakrabarty

Co-Guide:

Ms. Kamini Gupta

Traffic Engineering & Safety Department

Central Road Research Institute,

Mathura Road, New Delhi -110025

July, 2013


2/23

2

Acknowledgements

I express my profound sense of gratitude to Dr. Neelima Chakrabarty , Traffic

Engineering & Safety Department, for giving me the opportunity to carry out

this study and for her systematic guidance, valuable advice and constant

encouragement throughout this work.

I am indebted to Ms. Kamini Gupta , Senior Technical Officer, Traffic

Engineering & Safety Department, for her valuable suggestions and supervisionduring the course of this work.

I express my sincere thanks to Mr. Ankit Bhatnagar, Research Intern, for the

valuable help and teachings rendered by him throughout this work. I am very

much thankful to Prof. Sudeshna Mitra, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT

Kharagpur for encouraging and providing me with an opportunity of summer

internship.

I would like to express my sincere thanks to all my friends and all the CRRI

Staffs who helped me directly or indirectly in completion of this study.

Finally, I would like to place on record my gratefulness to my Parents

who gave me constant encouragement throughout my career.

CRRI, New Delhi Abhishek Ashish

July 2013


3/23

3

CONTENTS

S. No. Topic Page no.

Acknowledgment 2

Abstract 4

1.0 Introduction 4

1.1. Factors Affecting Brake Reaction Time 5

1.2. Methods of Measurement 7

1.3 Need for the Study 10

2. Objective(s) of the Study 10

3. Methodology 11

4. Tools Used 11

5. Results and Inferences 12

5.1. Reaction Time of Individual

Driver in Respective Terrains 13

5.2. Variation Analysis of Reaction

Time in Different Terrains 15

5.3. Brake Reaction Time Variation with Age 16

5.4. Variation Analysis of Reaction Time

For Different Age Group 18

5.5 Brake Reaction Time for Casual Drivers 20

6. Conclusions of the Study 21

7. Validation of the Study 21

8. Limitations of the Study 21

9. Recommendations 22

10. Bibliography 22


4/23

4

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to take into account the various humanand traffic factors that play a pivotal role in the determination of the

brake reaction time, that is, the period from the time that a threatappears to the moment a driver takes certain actions on vehicle controlsto avoid an accident, and to consequentially develop a database for driver

brake reaction time in simulated conditions analyzed on the basis of suchaccounted for human factors and traffic conditions.

Methodology: In the study various tests were conducted on 35 driversunder simulated driving conditions in simulated arterial and highwaytraffic conditions.

Results: The brake reaction time of the drivers calculated came out to be

quite varied from a value as low as 0.6 seconds to as high as 1.8 secondsin simulated conditions. The differences due to the factor of terrain wereinsignificant and can be discarded as mere chance however, the agegroup if accounted for above 40 shows significant variability but, it wasinsignificant below the age of 40.

Keywords : BRT= Brake Reaction Time, Simulated Conditions, Driving Simulator.

1. IntroductionThe growing road network, motorization and urbanization, as evident by

the 10% compound annual growth of motor vehicle population during the2000-2009, were inevitable if India were to sustain its growing economyand be in the race to pursue its dream of being a developed nation.

Table 1.1 Accident Statistics of Past Few Years 1*

Year No. Of Accidents Death Toll Injuries

2008 4,84,704 1,19,860 5,23,193

2009 4,86,384 1,25,660 5,15,458

2010 4,99,628 1,34,513 5,27,512

2011 4,97,686 1,42,485 5,11,394

1 Statistics Issued by Ministry of Road Transport and Highways


5/23

5

Table 1.1 represents the skyrocketing accident statistics of past few yearsin India. If the statistics of year 2011 alone are to be considered; it can besaid that one road accident is occurring per minute, resulting in a loss ofat least Rs. 1 lakh crore per year. So it has become imminent thatimmediate measures be taken, rules be formulated and devices beimprovised so as to reduce the probability of such unfortunate eventsand for this to happen, enormous amount of research has to be done toget the essentials of the whole phenomenon of road traffic incidentsfrom the nature of the road to the working mechanism of the automobile,weather conditions and behavioral, physiological and psychologicalworkings of the drivers.

Previous studies and statistical data [1] [2] have affirmed that most of the

accidents could be attributed to the action of the person driving thevehicle and chiefly among them that holds the most prominence is thereaction time, that is the period from the time a threat appears to themoment a driver takes certain actions on vehicle controls to avoid anaccident [3], or rather put as a summation of perception time and footmovement time [4] [5], with values, that could vary from as low as 0.15seconds to as high as several seconds depending on the task andconditions. This plays an important role in the understanding of thetranslation of driver behavior into road accidents. The brake reaction

time is constituted from components such as mental processing time,movement time, and device response time [6].

The reaction time was further classified as brake reaction time andacceleration and deceleration time by [7]. The brake reaction time occurswhen the lead vehicle is braking and its brake light is on, while theacceleration deceleration time occurs when the driver reacts to adjusthis/her speed using the gas pedal only. The focus of this study was brakereaction time which is used as design parameter for highway and arterialroads to provide safe stopping sight distance and headlight sightdistance.

1.1. Factors Affecting Brake Reaction Time

There are several factors that affect the brake reaction time [6], such as,expectancy, urgency, cognitive load, visibility etc . It was also


6/23

6

suggested by [8] that the operational coefficients and delaycharacteristics of humans can vary rapidly due to changes of factorssuch as task demands, motivation, workload and fatigue. Testsperformed in this study focused on the dependency of brake reactiontime upon human factors that includes age and experience and trafficconditions consisting of highway and arterial traffic simulatedconditions.

1.1.1. Influence of Age

It might appear superficially that the growing age is detrimental tothe brake reaction time, but various studies done on the subjectmatter fails to bring any concrete proof to this presumption. In fact,studies give mixed insight on the significance age holds in variation

of brake reaction time, as can be seen in the study conducted by [9]that found no effect of age on reaction time on the other handsimilar study conducted by [10] concluded that older drivers reactslowly in some cases. [11] Also found differences between theaverage reaction time of the elderly persons age and others werevery large especially under stationary mental calculation scenarioand driving mental calculation scenario.

Such variations in the results of similarly conducted studies on the

viability of the age factor on the brake reaction time as suggested by[6] could be work of: biased sampling, old people with better healthdrive like young people, and experience and more practice whichcompensate for the age factor. It was found that older driverscompensate for their poorer braking response time by driving slower[12]. Older drivers also compensate for their slower mentalprocessing time by considering an obstacle a high urgency one,which when confronted by young drivers; they would treat it as a lowurgency obstacle.

In spite of these mixed findings, it could not be altogether ignoredthat aging causes vision loss and slower mental processing time thatresults in slower braking response especially in low visibilityconditions like night and poor weather conditions.


7/23

7

1.1.2. Influence of Predictability

It has been proven in various studies [13] that the brake reactiontimes for expected and unexpected stimuli are different. A study [14]also concluded that perception-reaction time increased significantlyas uncertainty increased. A recent study using both a real drivingenvironment and a simulator [15] shows that reaction time of driversis much lower in case of anticipated stimulus as compared to theirreaction time in unanticipated scenarios.

After careful observations of the tests performed, it was found thatclassifying the obstacles into three groups would result in a much

better characterization of brake reaction time:

a) Predictable b) Unpredictablec) Long distance visible obstacles

1.2. Methods of Measurement

As suggested by recent studies, [3] [6], there are three general methodsfor the measurement of brake reaction time:

Measurement of Brake Reaction Time (BRT) in laboratory setting

Measurement of B.R.T on roads or research/test tracks Measurement of B.R.T under simulated conditions

1.2.1. Measurement of Reaction Time in Laboratory Setting

Tests for evaluating reaction time in the CSIR-CRRI Traffic PsychologyLaboratory are aimed at assessing psycho-motor capacity of a driverwithin the scope of driving a vehicle. These tests are characterized bya standard methodology and norms for assessment their results.


8/23

8

Fig. 1.2.1 Driver Performing on Simple Reaction Time Tester

As shown in the Fig. 1.2.1, a driver is performing on a SimpleReaction Time Tester, in which the driver has to react for only onestimulus at a time by pressing brake pedal attached with theequipment.

Fig. 1.2.2 Discriminative R.T. Tester


9/23

9

The Discriminative Reaction Time tester (Fig. 1.2.2) is used tomeasure reaction time for multiple or more than one stimuli. Thisequipment is used to measure eye to hand and eye to footmovements of the driver. The driver has to complete the preliminaryand final test phase simultaneously.

In the test phase the visual as well as auditory stimuli are provided bythe system through automatic display. To measure the alertness ofthe driver also false stimuli are given between the presentations oftrue stimuli. Total sixteen trails are given in final test phase.

1.2.2. Experiment on roads or research/test tracks:

When testing on roads or test tracks, measured reaction times areresults of multiple and complex stimuli as well as the way driverreacts is also beyond prediction as he has to work perceive,identify, recognize (volition) and react with the vehicle controls(pedal brake, hand brake lever or steering wheel).In many cases whenthe driver reacts slowly than the desired reaction time or heunderestimates the speed and overestimates the distance then theaccident chance increases. So it is very difficult to measure thereaction times for complex stimulus such as the case in most of theroad accidents, reason being the danger to the life of the driver. Withthe help of sophisticated inbuilt or fitted equipment, e.g. V Boxsome reactions of the drivers are possible to measure.

Fig. 1.2.3 Screenshot from a Video Box Monitoring


10/23

10

Video Box is one of the methods of analyzing driver behavior in reallife scenario, in which all the required movements and actions ofdriver as well as the vehicle is recorded and the video footage isanalyzed later on to get essential results. Fig. 1.2.3 shows ascreenshot of drivers leg work in a vehicle from Video Box footage.

1.2.3. Measurement of Brake R.T under simulated conditions

With the development of simulation techniques computerproductivity has increase of to generate images; has notablyincreased the use of virtual research environment for testing drivers driving simulators.

Their use increases the independence of weather conditions,promotes the growth of reproducibility of results and test conditions[3], [16]. The use of driving simulator also allows us to implementvirtually any scenario without jeopardizing safety of the driver whichcannot be achieved on real life scenarios.

1.3. Need for the Study

Timely brake reaction is an important factor to avoid collision or roadaccidents. Present study not only highlights the impact of humancharacteristic and environmental factors on brake reaction time but alsoanalyzes the variation of the brake reaction times under various trafficscenarios. The study will be helpful to find out different perspectives of brakereaction time for future study.

2. Objective(s) of the Study

The major objectives of this study were:

To analyze the impact of human and traffic factors on the brakereaction time under simulated traffic conditions.

To compare the brake reaction time of specially and normally traineddrivers.


11/23

11

Analyzing and developing the data bank to determine the variation inreaction time across human and traffic factors.

3. Methodology

The tests for this study were conducted on a Zen driving simulator, installedat CSIR- CRRI with a total sample space of 30 specially trained and 5 casualdrivers within age group 23 - 41. The simulated environment brought toexistence by the simulator with clear weather conditions in both highwayand arterial terrain having high traffic density was used to measure thereaction time of drivers by jotting down the instant of onset of an obstacleand the moment the drivers applied brakes as the counter-action andanalyzing the difference in these two instants. The obstacles werecharacterized as predictable, unpredictable and long distance visibleobstacles to get a better perspective of driver behavior. The recordedreaction times were analyzed to determine the variation across terrains andhuman factors.

4. Tools Used

4.1. Zen Driving Simulator

For this study a Zen Driving Simulator, a product of Zen Technologies wasused. The simulator provides a driving station with a seat for the driver,safety belt and realistic controls. Zen DS key features essential for thisproject were:

Offers realistic operating environment and ergonomics. Intelligent Traffic Models in driving scenes. Provides a variety of terrains and driving conditions. Record/playback facility can be used to detect errors of each driver.


12/23

12

Fig 4.1.1 a Driver on the Simulator Installed at CSIR-CRRI

5. Results and Inferences

The obstacles classified into three groups were distributed among highwayand arterial terrain with the following frequency:

Table 5.1 Obstacle Distribution in Different Terrains

S.No.

TrafficCondition

SuddenObstacles

LongDistanceVisibleObstacles

PredictableObstacles

1 Highway 53 32 92 City Area 26 26 0

Total 79 58 9


13/23

13

As the table suggests the frequency of predictable obstacles areconsiderably less as compared to sudden and long distance visible obstacles.The reason being that predictable obstacles occur only in the case of longqueues or jam conditions which were absent in other cases.

A total of 30 specially trained drivers were studied, out of which data for 7drivers were inadmissible in both terrains, either because they were veryunfamiliar with simulated environment or felt uncomfortable driving on thedriving simulator or due to lack of any braking instance in their driving. Outof the 23 drivers left 6 drivers data in arterial terrain and 6 in highwayterrain were inadmissible due to lack of braking instances in their drive.

5.1. Reaction Time Of Individual Driver In Respective Terrains

Table 5.1.1 Brake Reaction Time of Individual Drivers in City Area

S.No.

Age(yrs.) B.R.T(Seconds)

1 41 1.62 32 1.803 39 0.94 29 1.05 30 1.06 33 1.87 29 1.18 35 1.09 34 1.410 36 0.711 31 1.312 41 1.213 38 0.8

14 38 1.415 30 0.716 36 0.817 30 0.8


14/23

14

Table 5.1.1 shows the individual reaction time of drivers in arterialterrain along with their respective ages. As it can be observed that thereaction time varies within the bounds of 0.7 seconds to 1.8 seconds. Theaverage of these reaction times is 1.1 seconds.

Table 5.1.2 Brake Reaction Time of Individual Drivers on Highway

Table 5.1.2 shows the distribution of reaction time of individual driversin highway terrain with their corresponding ages. Here also reaction timevaried between the limits of 0.6secs and 1.7secs.The average of thesereaction times is 1.3 sec.

The average brake reaction time in both arterial and highway terrain are

all in the range of the reaction times determined by previous studies inthis field e.g. 1.3 to 1.4 sec [17]. Ranjitkar et al. also found the reactiontime to be varying between 1.27 to 1.55 seconds using a graphicalmethod in stability analysis of car-following behaviors, and based on car-following data collected on a test track [18]. Another car-following studyalso estimated the mean value of reaction time to be 1.34 seconds [19].

S. No. Age(yrs.) BRT (seconds)1 32 1.52 31 1.43 32 1.64 39 1.15 29 1.06 30 1.07 29 1.48 40 1.69 35 0.6

10 36 1.611 31 1.612 30 1.213 38 1.714 41 1.415 30 1.116 36 1.2

17 30 1.3


15/23

15

The following bar chart is the graphical representation of the brakereaction times of drivers for whom the data was available for bothterrains. This gives a better perspective of the variation of BRT within theterrains.

Figure 5.1.1 Bar Chart of Reaction Time in Different Terrains

Observing the bar chart at a glance, it can be said that the brake reactiontime in highways is higher as compared to its value in arterial terrain.

5.2. Variation of Analysis (ANOVA) of Reaction time in Different TerrainsTo gain further insight on the variation of reaction times F and t-testswere performed on the acquired data with the null hypothesis that thedifference in the reaction time was due to terrains and not due to merechance.

0.00

0.20

0.40

0.60

0.80

1.00

1.20

1.40

1.60

1.80

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

B r a

k e R e a c t i o n T i m e

Driver No.

BRT in City Area BRT in Highway


16/23

16

Table 5.2.1 Statistical Summary

Terrain Arterial HighwayMean 1.14 1.31

Sum 19.30 22.30

Table 5.2.2 Summary: Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

Source Df SS MS(V)B/W Means 1 0.26 0.26Within Traffic Conditions 32 3.46 0.11Total 33 3.72

F calculated has a value of 2.36 for the given data however F fromchart for the given degrees of freedom (1 & 32) at 0.05 level is 4.15 and at0.01 level is 7.52, and so the null hypothesis was not confirmed.

For further satisfaction t-test was executed and it was evident that t calc which was 1.54 was less than tabled t even at 0.10 level for the givendegree of freedoms which is 1.70. This confirmed that the differences inthe value of reaction time are merely due chance, although test doesshow that the difference of 0.17 seconds will occur more than 10 times in100 trials.

5.3. Brake Reaction Time Variation With Age

To evaluate the effect of age on the brake reaction times, driver ages weredivided into 4 groups of 5 years starting from 25 and up to 45:

Age Group Interval(yrs.)

A 25-30

B 30-35

C 35-40

D 40-45


17/23

17

Followings table and bar chart present the statistics of brake reactiontime variation with age:

Table 5.2.1 Brake Reaction Time with AgeAge

GroupBRT in City Area

(seconds)BRT in

Highway(seconds)A 1.0 1.2B 1.3 1.3C 0.9 1.3D 1.4 1.5

It is discernible that reaction time increases as the age increases exceptfor the anomaly in the case of age group C. This bar chart can make thedifferences more recognizable.

Fig. 5.3.1 Bar Chart of BRT for different age group

0.00

0.20

0.40

0.60

0.80

1.00

1.20

1.40

1.60

A B C D

B r a

k e R e a c t i o n T i m e

( s e c o n

d s )

Age Group

BRT in City BRT in Highway


18/23

18

This anomaly can be explained if it is considered that the experience ofthe drivers superseded the effect of age on mental processing assuggested by [6] and [12] in their studies.

5.4. Variation Analysis of Reaction Time for Different Age Group:To confirm that the variation was significant or not variation of analysistests were on the recorded data.First the analysis was performed on individual terrains separately.

Table 5.4.1 Statistical Summary of BRT in Arterial Terrain

Age-group A B C DSum 2.1 8.8 5.6 2.8Mean 1.05 1.26 0.93 1.40


Source Df SS MS(V)B/W Means 3 0.50 0.17

Within Traffic Conditions 15 1.60 0.11Total 18 2.10

Fcalc

for this variation was found to be 1.54 which is not comparable tothat of the F

table which are 3.29 at 0.05 level and 5.42 at 0.01 level for the

given degrees of freedom and so the difference in the reaction times ofdifferent age groups are not significant.

Table 5.4.3 Statistical Summary of BRT on Highways

Age-group A B C DSum 2.4 10.7 6.2 3Mean 1.20 1.34 1.24 1.5


19/23

19



Within Traffic Conditions 15 1.23 0.08

Total 18 1.36

In this analysis as well Fcalc

which was 2, is not comparable to that of theF

table values which are, 8.72 at 0.05 level and 26.91 at 0.01 level; for the

given degrees of freedom.

And finally analysis of variance test was performed on the cumulativedata from both the terrains on the basis of age:

Table 5.4.3 Statistical Summary of BRT (Cumulative)

Age-group A B C DSum 4.50 19.50 11.80 5.80Mean 1.13 1.30 1.07 1.45



Within Traffic Conditions 32 3.13 0.10Total 35 3.72

Even for this test the Fcalc

(1.9) value was insignificant as compared to Ftable

values (2.90 at 0.05 level and 4.47 at 0.01 levels). So, to determine if,there was any significant difference between two particular age groups t-

tests were performed. The results are as follow.


20/23

20

Table 5.4.4 t test on the Basis of Age

AgeGroups

SED Significant Mean Difference MeanDifference

D0.1 D0.05 D0.01

A & B 0.18 0.31 0.37 0.49 0.18B & C 0.12 0.20 0.24 0.33 0.23C & D 0.18 0.31 0.37 0.49 0.38

From the results we can say that reaction time variation among the agegroups of 35-40 and 40-45 only is significant at 0.05 level showing thatthe ages effect on mental processing time overrode the effect ofexperience and had an adverse effect on brake reaction time and for rest

of the age groups there was no significant variation in brake reactiontime.

5.5. Brake Reaction Time for Casual Drivers

A total of 5 private car owners performed tests on the simulator.Following are the brake reaction times for the casual drivers

Table 5.5.1 Brake Reaction Time of Drivers in Both Terrains

As it is apparent from the table 5.5.1, there is no significant variabilityacross the terrains. The average brake reaction time in arterial terrainwas found to be 1.2 seconds on the other hand it was 1.3 seconds forhighways which are not much different than that of the speciallytrained drivers which were 1.1 seconds and 1.3 seconds in arterial and

S. No. BRT onHighway(seconds)

BRT in CityArea

(seconds)1 1.4 1.32 1.2 1.23 1.3 1.54 1.3 0.9


21/23

21

highway terrain respectively. These similarities might be due to thereason that these drivers were significantly younger than the driverswhich were tested in the specially trained group.

6. Conclusions of the Study

The study concluded that the reaction time of the drivers varied froma value as low as 0.6 seconds to as high as 1.8 seconds in simulatedconditions.

Average brake reaction time for specially trained drivers was 1.1seconds and 1.3 seconds while for casual drivers it was 1.2 secondsand 1.3 seconds in arterial and highway terrains respectively.

Although, there was not a significant variability in brake reaction timein different terrains but there was a significant effect of age but thattoo only after an age of 40 years and not before that.

7. Validation of the Study

Brake reaction time is one of the major causes of generation of accident risk.So, it is necessary to determine as deft estimate as possible for the reactiontime.

The use of simulated environments was justified in the study performed by(McGehee et.al, 2002) that the mean values of reaction times in a simulatorand on a test track were almost identical in several instances and, morefrequently, were well within the confidence intervals. Also the results in thisstudy is well within the reaction time estimate that is currently in use by IRCfor road designs that is 2.5 seconds.

8. Limitations of the StudyThe study was performed on a very limited sample of drivers due toshortage of time. Also drivers of all age group were not available for the

study which limited the availability of data even more.


22/23

22

9. Recommendations

This study can give much better insight on the variation of BRT with respectto age and traffic conditions if performed on a larger scale. Gender analysis

can also be done as sensitivity interpretations. As the results obtained fromsimulated conditions cannot be taken for granted as the correctrepresentation of drivers reaction time, so it is essential to validate theresults using surveys in field settings on same drivers so that there is lessroom for human error.

Bibliography

[1] J. Kisilowski and J. Zalewski, "Selected problems of analysis of the causes of road accidents in Poland

years 1995-2004," Eksploatacja i Niezawodnosc - Maintenance and Reliability, 2008.

[2] R. Krulec, M. Batista and Bogdanovic L, "The driver reaction time measurement experiences,"Innovative Automotive Technology, 2005.

[3] R. Jurecki, M. Jakiewicz, M. Guzek , Z. Lozia and P. Zdanowicz, "Driver's reaction time under

emergency braking a car - Research in a driving simulatory," Eksploatacja i Niezawodnosc

Maintenance and Reliability, 2012.

[4] I. Andrasson and M. Xiaoliang, "Estimation of Driver Reaction Time from Car-Following Data,Transportation Research Record Vol.1965," Transportation Research Board, Washington D.C, 2006.

[5] D. Gerlough and M. Huber, "Traffic flow theory, TRB special report 165," Nation Research Council,

Washington D.C, 1975.

[6] M. Green, "'How long does it take to stop?' Methodological analysis if perception-brake times,"

Transportaion Human Factors, pp. vol. 2, pp. 195-216, 2000.

[7] A. Mehmood and S. M. Easa, "Modeling Reaction Time in Car-Following behaviour based on human

factors," Internation Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences, 2009.

[8] E. Boer and R. Kenyon, "An approach to human operator adaptation in manual tracking tasks," IEEtransaction on system, Man and Cybernetics, 1997.

[9] N. Lerner, "Brake perception - reaction times of older and younger drivers," In Proc. of the Human

Factors and Ergonomics Society, pp. 206-209, 1994.


23/23

23

[10] N. Broen and D. Chiang , "Braking response times of 100 drivers in the avoidance as measured in

driving simulator," In Proc. of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, pp. 900-904, 1996.

[11] M. Hiroshi and M. Katsuya , "Difference of drivers' reaction times according to age and mental

workload," Accident Analysis and Prevention, pp. 567-575, 2008.

[12] H. Summala and I. Koivisto, "Unalerted drivers' brake reaction times: Older drivers compensate

their slower reaction times by driving more slowly," 1990.

[13] D. Fambro, R. Koppa, D. Picha and K. Fitzpatrick, "Driver perception-brake response in stoppingsight distance situations, TRR - 1628," Transportation Research Board, 1998.

[14] L. Warshawsky-Livne and D. Shinar, "Effects of uncertainty, transmission type, driver age and

gender on brake reaction time," Journal of Safety Research 33, pp. 117-128, 2002.

[15] T. Magister, R. Krulec, M. Batista and L. Bogdancovic, "The driver reaction time measurement

experiences," in Innovative Automotive Technology , Bled, 2005.

[16] D. McGehee, E. Mazzae and G. Baldwin, "Driver reaction time in crash avoidance research:validation of a driving simulator study on a test track," in 14th Triennial Congress of theInternational Ergonomics Association and the 44th Meeting of the Human Factors and Ergonomics

Society , San Diego, 2000.

[17] W. Winsum and W. Brouwer, "Time headway in car following and operational performance duringunexpected braking," Perceptual and Motor Skills, pp. 1247-1257, 1997.

[18] P. RAnjitkar, T. Nakatsuji, Y. Azuta and G. Gurusinghe, "Stability analysis based on instantaneousdriving behavior using car-following data," Transportation Research Record, pp. 140-151, 2003.

[19] K. Ahmed, "Modeling Drivers' Acceleration and lane changing behavior," PhD Thesis, MIT, 1999.

[20] V. McGehee and et.al, "Comparison of Driver Braking Responses in a High Fidelity Driving Simulator

and on a Test Track-National Highway," Traffic Safety Administration, 2002.

*Statistics from Road Accidents in India, Transport Research Wing, Ministry of Road Transport and

Highways, New Delhi, 2011

Documents

Ashish Report Intern Summer'13