Murerezi footbridge, Zaka Rural District Council, Zimbabwe

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ADVISORY SUPPORT INFORMATION SERVICES AND TRAINING FOR LABOUR-BASED PRACTITIONERSA programme of the Employment-Intensive Investment Branch (EMP/INVEST) of the International Labour Organisation (ILO)

Technical issues and newsEditorial ................................................. 2Rural accessibility planning .................. 3,4Footbridge construction .....................4,5,6Engineering standards for low-volume roads ....................................... 7,8Labour-based road surfacing ............... 9-11Urban infrastructure standards ..........12,13Urban transport .................................... 14Contracting out roadworks ................15-18Employment-intensive investmentnews .................................................... 19ASIST news .....................................20,21Regional seminar news ......................... 22Information services news .................23,24Training ...........................................25,26Project news .....................................26-36

Contents

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Design and construction of suspensionfootbridgesBy Eng V E Chipuru, Heart Geotechnical Engineers, Zimbabwe

Proper access to social and eco-nomic facilities and services, suchas clinics, schools, and commercialcentres, is amongst the highestdevelopment priorities for manypeople living in rural areas. Shortspan footbridges are one of theaccess interventions aimed atimproving rural access. When theyare carefully placed at strategiccrossings, the bridges improverural access and can considerablyreduce the time it takes people totransport their farm produce to themarket and reach other servicesand facilities they need. InZimbabwe such interventions haveproven to be of life savingimportance for children walking toschool, while providing all yearround access to other services atthe same time. This article, while

addressing rural access problems,focuses on the technical aspects ofdesign and construction of shortspan footbridges.

In 1997 a rural travel study wascarried out in Zimbabwe, withfinancial backing from Sida(Swedish InternationalDevelopment Cooperation Agency)and technical and advisory supportfrom ILO/ASIST. Subsequentinterventions involved mainlyconstruction of footbridges in ruralareas. The Government has ablueprint for standard suspensionfootbridges; however, these stand-ard designs need to be adapted toeach site. ILO/ASIST wasrequested by the Government todevelop standard designs for spans

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editorial

Advisory Support, InformationServices and Training (ASIST)The Employment-Intensive Invest-ment Programme (EIIP) of theInternational Labour Organisation(ILO) is a large-scale technical co-operation programme promoting theuse of local resource based tech-nologies in infrastructure works indeveloping countries, and strength-ening their capacity to apply suchtechnologies, while creating employ-ment with fair working conditions.ASIST is a programme of advisorysupport, information services andtraining, within the EIIP.

ASIST currently comprises tworegional support programmes inAfrica and Asia working within theframework of the EIIP. Their objec-tive is to increase the use of cost-effective local resource basedstrategies in the provision of sus-tainable infrastructure, and in sodoing create employment with fairworking conditions for men andwomen.

Advisory SupportASIST provides comprehensivepolicy, planning, and technicaladvice. ASIST advises on projectand programme design, co-ordina-tion, monitoring, and review ofurban and rural labour-basedprogrammes; Access and RuralEmployment (ARE) and IntegratedRural Accessibility Planning (IRAP)programmes.

Information ServicesASIST actively gathers,synthesises, and disseminatesrelevant published andunpublished information on andrelated to rural and urban labour-based technology and ARE. ASISTprovides a Technical EnquiryService to respond to specificrequests for information. ASISTmaintains a database of contactpersons and institutions involvedin the promotion and developmentof labour-based technology and ARE.

TrainingASIST provides support to nationaltraining institutions and universi-ties in the development and provi-sion of training. This involvessupport in the development of

curricula, training programmes andmaterial, training techniques, andmethodology. ASIST also supportsthe international labour-basedroadworks training courses forengineers, senior technicians,contract supervisors, and trainers,organised by the Ministry of Roadsand Public Works (MoRPW), KisiiTraining Centre, in Kenya.

ASIST AfricaHarareGraham Johnson-Jones: ProgrammeDirectorFatemeh Ali-Nejadfard: Senior TechnicalAdviserDejene Sahle: Senior Technical AdviserGamelihle Sibanda: Technical AdviserTomas Stenström: Technical AdviserJan Sakko: Technical AdviserAngela Kabiru-Kang'ethe: InformationCoordinatorIda Tsitsi Chimedza: Information OfficerElias Madondo: Programme OfficerPhillipa Tsiga: Administrative AssistantLuna Katiza: Senior SecretaryMercy Nyamanhindi: SecretaryMichael Murapa: DriverPO Box 210, Harare, ZimbabweTel: +263-4-369824-8Fax: +263-4-369829Email: asist@ilo.orgorasist@ilosamat.org.zw

NairobiStephen Muthua: Technical AdviserPO Box 39493, Nairobi, KenyaTel: +254-2-713028/719413/719313/715293Fax: 254-2-710083Email: asist@itdg.or.ke

ASIST Asia-PacificGeoff Edmonds: Programme CoordinatorChris Donnges: Senior DevelopmentPlannerBjørn Johannessen: Senior RuralInfrastructure EngineerPaul Munters: Technical AdviserJohn van Rijn: Technical AdviserSupaporn Runtasevee: ProgrammeAssistantPrerksapob Poontaweska: ProgrammeAdministratorPO Box 2-349, Rajdamnern Nok Avenue,Bangkok 10200, ThailandTel: +66-2-288-2303Fax: +66-2-288-1062Email: asist-ap@ilo.org

ASIST website: www.ilo.org/asistEIIP website: www.ilo.org/employment/eiip

Editorial

In this edition of the Bulletin wehave tried to include articleswith a more technical contentthan usual. This is in the beliefthat, after 25 years of applyinglabour-based technology,readers want hard informationon what works and whatdoesn't. There is still a lot ofnews, since one of the mainobjectives of the Bulletin re-mains to keep you informed ofdevelopments in the field.However, you will also findtechnical articles on planningtools, footbridge construction,the development of appropriateengineering standards, andsurfacing options for roads. Inaddition there are useful point-ers on what to look out for inplanning infrastructure improve-ments in informal urban settle-ments, and in developingcontractors.

Now that the ASIST AsiaPacific Programme is firmlyestablished, you will notice anincrease in contributions fromthat region in this issue.

You will find quite a lot ofemphasis on bottom-up plan-ning and community capacitybuilding, and in particular therole that the IRAP tool has toplay in this. This is an increas-ing and necessary trend; how-ever, it is yet to be matched byan accompanying investment inemployment-intensive works bygovernments and donors. Oneof our main challenges in thisnew millennium remains how toconvince governments anddonors that labour-basedmethods and planning tools areworth investing in. They need tolearn their ABC: be Aware oftheir advantages; have Belief intheir effectiveness; and beCommitted to their application.

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Strategies for povertyalleviation and ruralemployment creationBy Chris Donnges, ASIST Asia-Pacific, Thailand

The main objective of the ASISTprogramme is to mainstream itspoverty alleviation strategies. Theprogramme has no capital invest-ment funds of its own but targetsexisting capital investments ofgovernments and donors with theaim of maximizing the impact ofthese investments on poverty andemployment. Strengthening locallevel planning capabilities is a primearea of potential impact. If re-sources are allocated according tothe real needs of the people, thelikelihood of these investmentscontributing to poverty alleviationincreases.

Local level planning —where it all starts

Planning is essential to ensurethat local and nationalgovernments, and donors, allocatetheir resources according to thereal needs of rural people, and thatthe investments made serve theseneeds. Local level planninginvolves local governmentsidentifying priorities for resourceallocation. In the Asia-Pacificregion, responsibilities for ruralinfrastructure development havebeen decentralized in a largenumber of countries. It is the local

governments that have the respon-sibility to decide what should bebuilt where and how. Local plan-ning systems, procedures, andpractices are evolving to allocatethe resources available accordingly.In many countries however, localcapacity to effectively assume thenew decentralized responsibilitiesis insufficient, and planningsystems, procedures, and practicesare rudimentary, often highlypolitical, and not transparent. Thisoften results in an inefficientallocation of the already scarceresources for poverty alleviation ingeneral and rural infrastructuredevelopment in particular.

Integrated RuralAccessibility Planning(IRAP) — the coreIRAP operates within a local-levelplanning environment. IRAP is aplanning tool and not a planningsystem. It does not seek to replacean existing system no matter howrudimentary this system may be. Itintroduces a number of planningtools that have the potential tostrengthen local level planningpractices. The tools vary fromsurvey instruments, mappingprocedures, indicators,

prioritization tools, project identifi-cation techniques, to monitoringand evaluation tools. These are allapplied during different stages ofthe planning cycle.

The tools are limited in scope inthat they only have a bearing onrural access and rural infrastruc-ture sectors. The tools cannot beused for rural development plan-ning at large. Ironically, this hascontributed to the successfuladoption at the local level in anumber of countries where IRAPactivities have been introduced.Often, the first tasks to be decen-tralized are the responsibilities forrural infrastructure development.

Participatory approach

Local level planning in mostcountries, in theory, is based on aparticipatory approach. Communitypriorities generally include a fairamount of infrastructure works. Itbecomes obvious that a set ofplanning tools that have the poten-tial to improve the identification andselection process, based on atransparent participatory approach,is in high demand. IRAP involvescommunities in the different stagesof the planning cycle.

Training

Applying IRAP involves training.Local government officials trained inthe use of IRAP acquire planningskills that can eventually be appliedin areas beyond rural infrastructureplanning. Thus, IRAP is an entrypoint for strengthening local levelplanning processes, procedures,and practices.

Implementation

IRAP links planning to implementa-tion. One of its main features isthat the immediate outputsproduced are in terms of prioritiesand investment proposals. Theseare ‘ready-made’ to enter thepolitical arena for resourceallocation, and often result ininvestment allocations according tothe real needs of the people. Thepriorities identified, andinvestment proposals designed,seek to maximize the use of localresources, including labour, andhave therefore an incrementalimpact on poverty and employment.

rural accessibility planning

Local levelplanning

Sustainablerural infra-structure

Rural infrastructuremaintenance sys-

tems

Small scale con-tracting

Labour-basedtechnology

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rural accessibility planningSince it all starts with planning,

implementing IRAP paves the wayfor introducing the other povertyalleviation strategies. ASIST Asia-Pacific (ASIST-AP) promotes:u labour-based technology to

optimize the impact of invest-ments on employment

u small-scale contracting (includ-ing community contracting) tomaximize the involvement of theprivate sector, and

u infrastructure maintenancestrategies to preserve the invest-ment made, and to sustain theimpact on poverty and employ-ment.

In conclusion, plainly put, introduc-ing and applying IRAP tools is a sinequa non if ASIST-AP wants to besuccessful in mainstreaming itspoverty alleviation strategies withina decentralized or decentralizingenvironment.

Creating an impactTo ensure an impact, ASIST-APworks at four different levels.

Micro level

The programme introduces itsconcepts at the micro level throughdemonstration and pilot projects.For IRAP purposes, demonstrationprojects are now being developed forIndonesia, India, and Nepal. Dem-

onstration and pilot projects arenecessary in countries that are notyet familiar with the differentASIST-AP approaches. Past experi-ences have shown that it is almostimpossible to mainstream proce-dures and techniques if they haveno track record of success, adop-tion, and appreciation in a particu-lar country.

Meso level

ASIST-AP works at the meso levelby integrating its poverty alleviationstrategies into regional large-scaleinvestment programmes financed bymultilateral institutions such as theAsian Development Bank and theWorld Bank. An agreement hasbeen signed with the Asian Develop-ment Bank to link the IRAP outputsin the Philippines to a 150 millionUSD capital investment programme;and in Cambodia, IRAP tools arelikely to be used in a World BankProvincial Rural InfrastructureProgramme.

National level

The ultimate objective of ASIST-APis to mainstream its approaches atthe national level. In the case ofIRAP, progress in this respect hasbeen made in:u the Philippines, where IRAP is

applied with support from theDepartment of Interior and LocalGovernment in all Local Govern-ment Units in the country

u Laos, where IRAP has beeninstitutionalized as the preferredtool for rural road planning

u Cambodia, where the Ministry forRural Development has adoptedIRAP as a tool for rural infra-structure planning

u Thailand, where the IRAP proce-dures are being included in atechnical manual for local gov-ernment officials.

Regional level

ASIST-AP in addition works at theregional level through its RegionalUniversity Network. Information,research, and experiences areshared between different universi-ties in the region through a net-work, which includes an electronicdiscussion group. Universities willalso be involved in the furtherdevelopment of the procedures, andin rendering them more countryspecific. This is presently the casein Indonesia, Thailand, and India.n

from 20 m to 160 m (at 20 mintervals), and guidelines for siteinvestigations and construction ofsuspension footbridges based onthe actual construction of at leastone pilot suspension footbridge.Standard designs and guidelineshave been developed. Theguidelines are based on previousexperience and knowledge, andinformation gained from interview-ing the user societies offootbridges, plus notes and observa-tions made during constructionof the pilot suspension footbridge.

The standard designs were to beused by rural district councilengineers with minimal designalterations on site. The ultimategoal was to build district levelcapacity for construction ofsuspension footbridges, either in-house or by out-sourcing theconstruction to the private sector.

Following is a summary of theissues that need to be considered when designing and constructingfootbridges covered in theguidelines developed by ILO/ASIST.

Cable stayed footbridges:Suspension and suspendedTwo cable-supported footbridgesare commonly used, namely theSuspended Footbridge and theSuspension Footbridge.

Some major features of thesuspended footbridge are that thedeck walkway is sagging in shape,the deck walkway takes the sameshape as the main cables, and thevertical cable hangers are of thesame height throughout the spanlength. Whenever freeboard isachievable and founding conditionspermit, the suspended footbridge is

a more economical option than thesuspension footbridge.

On the other hand the majordistinguishing features of thesuspension footbridge are that themain cables are supported onelevated towers, with the deckwalkway being horizontal or with aconvex upward camber. Towersgenerally consist of two legsinterconnected by lateral bracingfor stability. The towers may be ofsteel sections or reinforcedconcrete construction. Thereinforced concrete option isdeemed easier to handle on siteand requires less long-termmaintenance. The suspenders(hangers) are of varying heightsalong the span. The hanger heightsvary with the variation in the sag ofthe main cables along the span.

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Design considerations forsuspension footbridgesThe live load to be considereddepends on the load capacityexpected and the materials to beadopted. The human occupancy onthe bridge is determined by twocriteria. Either the number ofpeople allowable on the bridge atany one time is limited by theassumed safety of the main cablesagainst breaking, or the main cablesize is chosen to accommodate acertain assumed human occupancyof the bridge. Design economicsand safety requirements normallydictate the live load to be adoptedat any site. It is not necessary toprovide a high bridge carryingcapacity for a bridge with lowpedestrian traffic. On the otherhand it is not prudent to providean expensive structure whosecapacity to service the trafficrequirements is limited.

For larger spans (greater thanfifty metres), the wind effectsshould be considered because ofthe serious sway and longitudinaloscillations resulting from windvibrations. Temperature changescause changes in the main cablelength, hence changes in the cabletension. Therefore temperatureeffects have to be considered atthe design stage.

Choice of materials

The choice of materials for thebridge elements has a bearing onthe final project cost and construc-tion methodology. The choice ofmaterials should be governed bylocal availability, transportation tosite, degree of workmanship to beemployed, degree of supervision(quality control), safety, durability(maintenance), and availablefunding. However, the engineershould make sure that allmaterials to be used meet thebasic minimum requirements ofsafety and performance.

Siting of footbridgecrossing pointsThe siting of a bridge crossing isdetermined by several considera-tions which include, but are notnecessarily limited to, width ofriver, highest flood level, flowdirection and water flow speed, sitegeology and bank stability,presence of tributaries, andexisting trail system.

Adapting standard designs

The bridge deck length and heightof towers for each bridge span isfixed from the standard drawings.The dimensions and layouts of thedeck structure will not change,

irrespective of site subsoil condi-tions. This part of the bridge istherefore adopted from the stan-dard drawings, and no major altera-tions to the design need be donefor each site. Minor changes mayneed to be done on the connectiondetails to suit available materialsand expertise. The bridgefoundations were designed with anassumed height above groundlevel. Freeboard requirements maydictate that this height beincreased such that the totalheight of footings and towersabove ground level will beincreased. The tower foundationswere designed makingassumptions on the groundstrength, the subsoil activitycharacteristics, and the freeboardrequirements; hence the elevationof the footing top above groundlevel. For each site thesecharacteristics vary such that thesubstructure has to be redesignedto suit local conditions.

Construction ofsubstructures

The footbridge should freely dis-charge the fifty-year return floodand remain undamaged by higherfloods. The bridge must extend thefull width of the river to a pointeither side of the channel bankswhere the footings and embank-ments are not continuously inun-dated by water. The embankmentsshould be well protected. Allcorners of the footings oranchorage blocks need to besufficiently embedded into theexisting ground.

When excavating in decomposedrock or firm ground, only the planarea of the footing or anchor blockshould be excavated to save onexcessive spoil material as well asto avoid the use of shutters forconcrete casting. For unstablesides, the excavation dimensionsmay be increased from bottomoutwards by stepping (berming) orsloping the excavation sides.Excavations deeper than one and ahalf metres (especially in unstablesoils) should be braced or shoredusing an approved method. Theslopes may be banked if shoring isnot possible but a safe back slopemust be maintained.

Concrete must meet therequired specifications accordingto applicable standards. Riverwater (especially flowing) may be

Lifting of the deck platform using chains and tensioners during the construction ofthe Murerezi suspension footbridge, Zaka Rural District Council, Zimbabwe

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used for concrete works. Generally,water that is suitable for drinkingis suitable for concrete. Thevarious concrete constituents maybe mixed in proportions defined bymasses. For remote sites, it maybe difficult to use this method ofmix proportions on site. The mixproportions may be specified percubic metre of concrete in whichcase the mix proportions are givenas volumes to make up a specifiedtarget strength. This method is notideal because of uncertainties ingetting exact volumes, especiallywith the implements to be used onsite for volume batching. Thoughthe uncertainties are greater, thismethod of mixing may be the onlyappropriate method for isolatedbridge sites.

Erection of cablesCables are the most importantparts of suspension bridges;therefore great care needs to betaken on handling to avoid kinksand splicing. Kinks and splicesreduce the cable breaking tension.Before the cables are pulled acrossthe river, control points should bemarked on the cables, preferablywith paint. The cables may becarried across the river either bywalking across the riverbed in drybed rivers, across temporarybridges if any, or by paddle boats inflowing or deep-water rivers. If nobridge exists, the cable may bepulled through the river by the useof ropes attached to the cable end.The cables may be hoisted onto thetowers by one of two methods, i.e.hoisting from the tower sides orhoisting from the tower front.Taking the levels of the markedmaximum sag position with alevelling machine or theodolite inrelation to the tower top canmonitor the sag during and aftercable hoisting.

Erection of deckThe suspenders (hangers) and deckmay be erected by either starting atmidspan and working outwards orby starting at the ends and workingtowards the centre from both ends.The deck is erected by using fitterplatforms, which should be ap-proved by the engineer before use.The distance between the sus-penders should be measuredcarefully and the distance from thetowers confirmed after every tenthsuspender.

Source of labourThe skilled labour required for

bridge construction are steelfixers, concrete mixers and pokervibrator operators, cabletensioners, drivers, and qualitycontrol checkers. It is not likelythat this manpower can beobtained within the locality of theproject, except maybe drivers. Thecontractor usually has to bring hisor her own skilled manpower. Thefootbridges are likely to be erectedin areas where there are abundantunskilled labour resources.

Maintenance of footbridgesIt is recommended to use standardinspection forms for monitoring thesteel bridge components. The useof standard forms is meant tosystemise the maintenance ofsteel parts and to set out properprocedures for inspection andacceptance of steel components.Inspection of the steel and fillingin of the forms must be carried outcarefully by a qualified person.

The anchorages will be inspectedfor rusting of the turnbuckles andhooks, functionality of the threads,and integrity of the individualmembers. The anchorages areexposed to vandalism and may beadversely affected by misuse. Thesteel cables, especially the maincables, may not be easy to inspect,especially between the towers. Theerection platform may be used asan inspection platform if it is stillavailable. The cables should bechecked for rusting, spalling of thesteel threads, and general loss oftension. The loss of tension is noteasily quantifiable but is apparentfrom loss of structural integrity ordeformation of the bridge. Handfeeling may also be used as ageneral check for cable tautness.

The live load from pedestriantraffic and wind effects tends toimpose stresses in theconnections. The connections maylose functionality by shearing ofbolts and rivets, unscrewing ofnuts, slackness in grips and studs.Each joint should be examinedvisually for any such failures andthe defects made good. The cableseating over the deck is exposed tomovement of the rope over thesaddles. This movement may leadto deterioration of the saddleseating. The saddles may be movedout of position and the anchorbolts may be sheared. Greasing thesaddle seating enhances themovement of the cable over thesaddle.

The vertical hangers are subjectto vertical and horizontal oscilla-tions as well as to human activityat supports. The hangers may thendeteriorate in tautness and may bedisplaced from their vertical orien-tation. It is easy to recognise amalfunctioning suspender by theloss of straightness and alignment.The deck is prone to normal wearand tear from human activity suchthat the deck connections will wearand the steel componentsdeteriorate. The deck is also proneto rust action and should beinspected for any signs of rusting.The side wire mesh is the mostvulnerable component of the deckdue to the flexibility of theconstruction materials. The wiremesh may be vandalised by pedes-trians. In some cases portions ofthe wire mesh may actually beremoved for use by local people.The wire mesh is also prone tonormal rusting and todisfigurement due to deteriorationof the other adjoining bridgecomponents.

The guidelines are available fromILO/ASIST for US$ 6.00 a copy. n

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Increased application oflabour-based methodsthrough appropriateengineering standardsBy Tony Greening, Transport Research Laboratory (TRL), Zimbabwe

Soils testing kit used for in-situ materials testing on site

The need for improved knowledge ofthe lifetime costs of low-volumeroads of different standards hasbeen evident for some time butwas specifically identified bypractitioners at an ILO/ASISTseminar in Uganda in 1997.Following the recommendationsfrom the regional seminar, aconcept note was developed for aproject, which would provideguidance on:u the selection of appropriate

construction standards for lowvolume roads

u selection criteria andcompaction standards that arerealistically achievable fortypical soils using lightequipment

u appropriate quality assurancetechniques and site approvalprocedures

u the impact of different standardsand techniques on maintenanceneeds and strategies

u the interaction between thesevarious components and thelikely impact on engineeringperformance and lifecycle costs.

Although a considerable amount ofresearch has already beenconducted addressing standards forlow-volume unpaved roads con-structed by conventional methods,

very little research has beencarried out on unpaved roadsconstructed using labour-basedmethods. The need for informationon the life-cycle costs of theseroads has become more pressing inrecent years with donors fundingmany rural road projects in supportof development programmes toimprove livelihoods. Theinvolvement of many different roadagencies, NGOs, consultants, andcontractors in these schemes hasled to a proliferation of diversestandards and practices, thelifetime cost implications of whichare largely unknown. There is littlequantitative evidence available toassist practitioners in makingappropriate decisions, many ofwhich have a substantial impact onperformance and total costs.

Country and donor supportIn response to the identification ofthis need, ILO/ASIST, the Trans-port Research Laboratory (TRL),and the Swedish consultantSwedish National Road ConsultingAB (SweRoad) prepared a consulta-tion document for a project fordiscussion with potential collabo-rating country organizations anddonors. ILO/ASIST also commis-

sioned missions by TRL andSweRoad to visit some of thecountries that declared an interestin the project, and there has beenwidespread support for the projectboth at country level and amongstthe donor community.

The complete project is expectedto be multi-donor funded. Thecountry components have alreadybegun in Ghana and Zimbabwewith support from the Departmentfor International Development, UK(DfID) and the DanishInternational Development Agency(DANIDA) respectively. The Ugandacomponent funded by DfID isexpected to start soon. TheSwedish InternationalDevelopment Cooperation Agency(Sida) and the Norwegian Agencyfor Development Cooperation(NORAD) have expressed interestin supporting other countrycomponents. Most of the countriesin the region have planned orongoing projects, which couldcontribute to meeting the technicalobjectives of the project.Negotiations will continue withsome of these and with donors foradditional support for the country-specific field studies and for thefinal consultation/disseminationphase.

Project aimsThe main aim of the project is toimprove the cost-effective provisionof roads in rural and peri-urbanareas in Africa. Thus the project istargeted at the populations inAfrica that tend to be mosteconomically and sociallydisadvantaged, and that often havethe poorest road infrastructure,which hinders their participation indevelopment.

Field studiesInformation from this project willfacilitate investment decisions,improve opportunities for theapplication of appropriate designsand construction methods and forthe allocation of resources foranticipated maintenance needs.This knowledge is particularlyimportant in adverse conditionswhere construction materials arepoor, and where the prevailingenvironment is harsh at certaintimes of the year and rapiddeterioration can be expected, evenat very low levels of traffic.

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There have been some studieson the relative costs of using plantand labour but these have nottaken into account the differentconstruction standards or howthese might impact on performanceand total engineering costs.Deterioration due to environmentaland climatic effects on these verylow-volume roads can be greaterthan the effects of traffic. This isthe important difference betweenthese and more highly traffickedroads.

This project aims to quantify andbuild an understanding of theeffects of the main controllingcomponents (construction stand-ards, climate, soils, traffic, etc.)likely to affect performance andlifecycle cost implications of lowvolume roads. Although a consider-able amount of research has beenconducted to address standards forlow-volume unpaved roads, this hasbeen on more highly traffickedroads and has concentrated ontraffic-induced deterioration. Thereremains a real need to developappropriate standards for low-volume roads that promote appro-priate technology choice.

Appropriate engineering stand-ards, reflecting the needs of therural road user, can be compatiblewith both equipment and labour-based methods. This research is setin the context of developing appro-priate standards and lifetimecosting for the cost-effective provi-sion and maintenance of low-volume unpaved roads, whilstpromoting flexibility in the choice ofconstruction technique (equipmentor labour-based methods) used toachieve the required standard.

Therefore, the engineering stand-ards developed from this researchwill alsofacilitate decisions to be made ontechnology choice.

The field studies in the variousparticipating countries will beaimed at providing data to satisfycountry-specific needs whilst alsoproviding information for theregional research matrix.

Sustainability andtechnology transferThe main international partners inthe project are ILO/ASIST, TRL, andSweRoad. Whilst TRL are providingthe research expertise, ILO/ASISTpersonnel include international andregional engineers who are experi-enced practitioners in labour-basedtechnology. The project is designedto maximise the benefits of localpartnerships. Where possible,countries have been selected notonly to cover the range of variablesbeing studied but also to benefitfrom the wide local knowledgeavailable from practitioners inlabour-based technology.

The project also has substantialsustainability, technology transfer,and capacity building components.It is designed to increase the viabil-ity of small-scale local contractorsthrough the development of appro-priate standards and methods forthe rapid approval procedures ofroadworks. Technology transfer willbe achieved through the involve-ment of local partners includingconsultants, contractors, academicand research institutions, and roadauthorities. These local partnerswill play an active role in

developing, teaching, and imple-menting appropriate cost-effectivedesigns, standards, and practices.Through participation in theproject, collaborating organizationswill develop improved capacity toidentify, carry out, and obtainfunding for research in support ofthe road sector in the region. Theirinvolvement is essential for thesustainable development of roadinfrastructure.

OutputsThe project will, therefore, producethe much needed guidance on likely‘best practice’ for particular sets ofcircumstances, and will combinefield evidence from different coun-tries into a regional guideline. Themain outputs from the study will bethe country and regional guidelineson recommended standards for thecost-effective construction of lowvolume roads. The country reportswill be based on the analysis of theresults of the in-country research,and will make country-specificrecommendations. The regionalguideline will provide recommenda-tions and advice on the selection ofappropriate standards from per-formance-based relationshipsdeveloped from the roads studied,with the aim of using approachesthat optimise lifecycle costs. Theproject will also link to parallelunpaved road research initiativesbeing conducted elsewhere in theregion and worldwide. n

engineering standards for low-volume roads

ASISTDOCBibliographic Database on Labour-

Based TechnologyThe ASIST bibliographic database of over 9000employment and technology related publicationsis now available online on our website http://www.ilo.org/asist. You may browse the databaseand order publications from ASIST online. Youcan also download the database.

The database is also available for distribution oncomputer diskette or CD-ROM. You can order aread-only version.

Price: US$25.00 for a one year subscription withquarterly updates sent by airmail (this includes aset of diskettes or a CD-ROM and a user

manual).

CONTACTSDatabase of Labour-Based Technology

PractitionersASIST maintains a network database of people andorganisations concerned with alleviating povertythrough employment intensive infrastructural worksand through access and rural employment pro-grammes.

If you would like to be registered on this database,please complete the registration form inserted inthis bulletin and return it to the ASIST InformationService. If you are interested in consultancy work,please also send an up-to-date version of your CV.

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Labour-based roadsurfacing trials inZimbabweBy the Department of Roads, Labour-Based Advisory Unit, Zimbabwe

Background of labour-based technology inZimbabweZimbabwe has an agro-basedeconomy and most of the popula-tion lives in the rural areas. Thecountry has an extensive roadnetwork of major and feeder roads.

Most of the rural communitydepends heavily on the feeder roadnetwork, which has historicallybeen given less priority than theprimary and secondary road net-work, and is in a state of disrepair.

In 1991, the Department ofRoads (DoR), through the Labour-based Development Unit (LBDU),introduced labour-based technol-ogy, which promotes the use oflocal resources and is lessdependent on imported heavymachinery. The main objectives ofintroducing this technology wereamong others:u to improve accessibility in areas

historically neglectedu to empower the local population

by creating job opportunitiesu to ensure the continued mainte-

nance of rural feeder roads.

This pioneer work, undertaken byDoR, was later reviewedpositively both in terms of fulfillingits set of objectives and itssuitability to the local conditionsof Zimbabwe. As a result, the DoRexpanded labour-based works andcontinued training engineers andtechnicians in the technology.

After further developing thetechnology in-house, the DoR/LBDU started the Small-scaleContractor DevelopmentProgramme in January 1997. Theaim of the programme was toencourage private entrepreneurs totake part in the provision ofrehabilitation and maintenance ofpublic infrastructure. To date about19 small-scale contractors havebeen successfully trained (out ofwhich 16 have been equipped) andare engaged in the improvement ofrural feeder roads in various partsof the country. More than 100small-scale maintenance contrac-tors were also trained and engagedin carrying out routinemaintenance operations on DoRroads.

Currently the LBDU is imple-menting the second phase of thecontractor developmentprogramme, which started in April

2000 and is scheduled to continueto December 2004. The mainobjective of this phase is toconsolidate the achievements inthe previous activities under thelabour-based programme, and toexpand the technology into othersectors, such as Rural DistrictsCouncils, Urban Councils, etc. Theprogramme is funded jointly by thegovernments of Denmark andZimbabwe.

The LBDU is still responsible forthe co-ordination of the labour-based programme activities. Theunit has been renamed the‘Labour-based Advisory Unit(LBAU)’, which reflects the changesin its role.

As part of its responsibilitiesunder the second phase of thelabour-based programme, the LBAUis carrying out labour-based roadsurfacing trials with the aim ofascertaining the viability andeffectiveness of the technology inZimbabwe.

Why labour-based roadsurfacing?Historically, when initiating alabour-based project, the majoremphasis has been on the assess-ment of potential social benefitsand on minimising the initial costof construction. Little or no consid-eration has been given to theengineering lifetime, cost andbenefits. This has led to theprescription of standard designs forall types of roads irrespective ofthe climate, material types,terrain, and traffic levels they areexposed to. In Zimbabwe, mostroads covered by the labour-basedprogramme are secondary roadswith traffic volumes of above 50 vpd(vehicles per day). The LBAU wouldlike to ascertain whether this typeof road could justifiably beupgraded to a low-cost surfacedroad.

Suitable road construction gravelis becoming a scarce commodity inmost parts of Zimbabwe makingroad building expensive. Therefore,there is need to look for alternativeways of making use of locallyavailable materials, e.g. blendingusing stabilisers or buildingrubble.

Provision of funds for roadmaintenance is reducing in realterms and the DoR maintenancecoverage is decreasing every year.Eventually the DoR will be forcedto concentrate on the core road

Labour-based road surfacing trials in Inkosikazi, Zimbabwe

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network (primary roads), and therural feeder roads will be left todeteriorate. Surfacing of these roadswould reduce the maintenancerequirements and considerablyreduce the maintenance workload ofthe DoR.

The LBAU is therefore carryingout surfacing trials to develop anappropriate design and workmethod that will address the aboveconcerns.

The main objectives of thesurfacing trials are:u to come up with an appropriate

mix of designs for the differentcombinations of inexpensivelocally available materials andbinders, in this case emulsion,and

u to ascertain the viability andcost effectiveness of labour-based surfacing in Zimbabwe.

In general, the intention is todevelop a simplified method ofsurfacing roads using as muchlabour as possible with minimalequipment.

The first phase of surfacingtrials was done on a section ofInkosikazi Road in MatebelelandNorth in December 2000. The roadis a low standard road (i.e.designed for traffic equivalent to0.05 million standard axles) withabout 25 vehicles per day of which30% are heavy. Trials with foursurfacing types have been planned,i.e. double seal, single seal, sandseal, and slurry seal. To date twotypes have been laid.

During the trials conducted todate the handling and applicationof surfacing materials has beenaccurate and conformed to thestandards of Ministry of Transportand Communication for similarroads. Aggregate and binder appli-cation was done manually usingsimple but controlled mechanisms,and application rates wereachieved within ± 5% of specifica-tions. This successful constructionis attributed to intensive trainingand good planning. Planning hasbeen found to be one of the criticalaspects in labour-based surfacing.

The equipment used is verysimple and light such as wheelbar-rows, a sit-on roller, shovels, atractor, and a tar baby. Some of thetools used were improvised to suitthe works.

The second phase of trials is inprogress and is expected to becompleted this year. n

labour-based road surfacing

A South African productfor building labour-basedroads and drainsBy G J R van der Meulen, Consulting Engineer, South Africa

Mrs Sally Hall developed a tech-nique to weld a sort of large honey-comb-like geomat out of floppyplastic. This product has beenmarketed under the trade nameHyson cells® and has been found tobe useful for infrastructural work.

Hyson cells®

The geomat has 150 or 200 mmsquare rather than hexagonal cellsand is usually made 7 m wide and30 m long, in thicknesses rangingfrom 75 mm up to 2 m.

For water retaining structuressuch as canals and sewerageponds it has been found that themost common thickness specifiedby the engineers in South Africaare 75 and 100 mm. For trafficablepavements ranging from lightlytrafficked low volume roads up toheavy-duty container yards thethickness specified ranges between75 and 150 mm.

The plastic is merely 0.2 mmthick. The geomat is stretchedtight to prevent the cells fromcollapsing and is supported bystrings, which are threadedthrough the mat in the factory andform part of the patents coveringthe Hyson cells®. The strings havethe task of holding thecells up but also prevent the matfrom floating in wet concrete.

To support and anchor the mat,10 mm diameter steel pegs arehammered into the sub-layer andare used at roughly one per squaremeter, except at the edges wherecloser spacing is used.

Once the cells have been posi-tioned they are filled with asuitable fill material. Soil is usedfor building retaining walls, smalldam walls, and vegetatedcoverings. For water retaininglinings and trafficable pavementscement based concrete or mortar ismost suitable.

The amount of cement deter-mines the strength of thehardened blocks, which form insidethe individual cells. Thecompressive strength isdetermined with cubes and isexpressed in million Pascal units(MPa).

Whereas for some pond liningsor slowly flowing canals weakconcrete/mortar/grout of 10 MPawill suffice, the strength for a roadsurface should never be less than20 MPa. The stronger the concretethe longer the road will last. It isgenerally accepted in South Africathat for important roads theconcrete strength must not be lessthan 33 Mpa. A useful life of about30 years can then be expectedbefore major maintenance work isneeded.

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ASISTTechnicalEnquiryService

ASIST offers a Technical EnquiryService (TES), which providestechnical information uponrequest on labour-based technol-ogy and access and rural employ-ment to projects, consultants,policy makers, donors, traininginstitutions, and others interestedin labour-based methods andmanagement.

To support the technicalenquiry service, ASIST activelycollects both published andunpublished documents onaccessibility planning, localresource utilization and employ-ment-intensive technology forsustainable infrastructure con-struction and maintenance andsustainable livelihoods, andrelated topics. The collectionincludes techncial manuals,designs and specifications, textbooks, research reports, projectreports, training material, periodi-cal articles, etc. in both print anddigital formats. Most of thecollection is in English, with asmall number of documents inFrench and Portuguese. Thecomputerised bibliographicdatabase, ASISTDOC, is main-tained to facilitate quick and easyaccess to the collection of over9000 documents (see page 9).

ASIST also has links to otherinformation resources around theworld, and maintains contact withexperts in the field who can becalled upon to provide technicaladvice or information.

If you require technical adviceor information on labour-basedtechnology for infrastructuredevelopment and/or access andrural employment, contact theTES by mail, fax, telephone or e-mail at any of the ASIST ad-dresses.

You are also welcome to pay usa visit!

Research and experience

Professor Alex T Visser of theUniversity of Pretoria has beeninvolved with research on thereasons why roads built with Hysoncells® have out-performed conven-tionally constructed roads, inparticular those built with poorroad foundations. It is difficult formanual labourers with picks,shovels, and hand tampers tomaintain a consistently high qualityof compaction and grading of thefoundation layers. The secret of thesuccess of the Hyson cells® systemis the ability to build local accessstreets on in-situ soil withoutextensive earthworks. The evennessof the underlying layers is howeverparamount.

Even slight deformation of theplastic cell boundaries allows theadjacent faces of the hardenedblocks to form interlocking protru-sions. The result is that even aftereach individual block has shrunkabout 0.1 to 0.2 mm during harden-ing and drying out there still existsa 3D interlock between adjoiningand surrounding blocks. Conse-quently, it is impossible to force oneblock down through a pavementeven and in particular when thefoundation is soft.

Both conventional flexible tarredand rigid concrete roads are highlydependent on the quality of the roadfoundation layer work for both theirrideability and structural strength.Rideability refers to the evenness ofthe road surface and the corre-sponding comfort for the user. Thestructural strength is related to theformation of potholes, cracks, andravelling at joints and cracks.

In 1994 Princess Anne, thenPresident of the Chartered Instituteof Transport and a sponsor of theSave the Children fund, visitedSouth Africa and bestowed onProfessor Visser the award for thebest research paper, which dealtwith Hyson cells® pavements andwhich contributed to the transportdebate that year. During her speechshe stated that Hyson cells® was aremarkable product as it allowedboth unskilled men and women (withsome initial training by Hyson cells®

personnel) to construct durableroads in their neighbourhoods onceand for all, instead of continuouslyspending time maintaining poorroads. This frees time to tackle otherurgently needed projects.

Practical designconsiderationsParticularly for flexible tarredsurfaces it is very important toensure that the road foundationsstay as dry as possible (wet soil issofter than damp or dry soil). It hastherefore become good practice toconstruct roads higher than thegeneral surroundings and to providecambers or cross-falls to shedrainwater off the road as rapidly aspossible. This requires importationof soil or gravel into the roadwayand demands additional materials,transport costs, and labour. Inaddition the roads form shallowweirs, which impede the natural flowof rainwater.

However, with Hyson cells® minorroads and local access roads can bedesigned with flat tops or evenhollowed to act as shallow rainwatercanals. The low points (inverts) ofsuch shallow canals should gener-ally be in the centre of the road. InSouth Africa some local streets havebeen built with a side drain integralwith the roadway as only two 200 x200 mm edge beams, instead of fourif they had been constructed as twoseparate entities.

When cambered local accessstreets are raised, the dwellings areoften inundated while the roads aredry after rainstorms. If the roadsare designed to serve the dualfunction of road and storm watercanal then there is less likelihood ofthe surrounding dwellings beinginundated during rainstorms.

The reason why designers canand do successfully use these newdesign concepts is because Hysoncells® canal linings are sufficientlywaterproof. The South AfricanDepartment of Water Affairs hassuccessfully built irrigation canalscarrying substantial heads of water.The small head of water that flowsdown a road only allows minutequantities of water to reach thefoundations through the capillarygaps between the blocks. Further-more, any water that might pen-etrate to the foundation would notbe at the wheel tracks and thereforewould not be detrimental to the lifeof the road.

Further information can beobtained on the website:www.hysoncells.co.za or from theauthor’s e-mail address:maber@iafrica.com n

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'Standards in developing countriestend to serve more as a means ofsocial stratification than as a meansof reconciling the shelter needs ofthe population with the mainte-nance of a reasonable level ofenvironmental quality. They are sounrealistic that they are deservedlyignored by the majority of people intheir efforts to solve their ownshelter needs 2.'

Rapid urbanization, gallopinginflation, and the elusive quest forshelter for all are some of the majorconstraints to sustainable develop-ment in Africa. These factors andthe inter-related impacts havecaused insurmountable difficultiesto policy makers, developmentplanners, and political pundits. Dostandards, procedures, and regula-tions have a role in ameliorating thescenario?

During the 1980s, informalhousing in many African citiesreflected the total inability of mostnational or city authorities toprovide adequate serviced land andinfrastructure to their rapidlygrowing populations. In the 1990sand 2000s African cities havecontinued to transform in fourmajor ways, namely size, spatialarrangements, the quality anddelivery of services, but with ad-verse effect on low-income groups.

One of the factors that has beenrecognised as a hindrance to thedevelopment of and accessibility todecent and affordable shelter isoutdated and highly inappropriatebuilding and planning regimes. Theneed for review of standards,procedures, and regulations inAfrica has been eloquently ex-pressed by all stakeholders. Anumber of countries have tried toreview their standards and by-lawswith varying degrees of success.

The Kenyan case outlined belowis indeed an example of how not toreview1. A number of lessons havehowever been learnt from this case,such as the need to integrate theroles of various key stakeholders. Itis clear that there is an urgent need

Building code review: Alegacy that lives on

to develop a review methodologythat is simple, inclusive, and easilyenforceable by the communities.

The paradox of standards,procedures, andregulationsu The formulation of appropriate

building and planning standards,procedures, and regulations ismore of an institutional problemthan a technical one and hencemore difficult to deal with.

u Less than half of the urbanpopulation can afford to buildaccording to the prevailingstandards and regulations.

u Complicated and time consumingprocedures discourage the urbanpoor from investing in improvingtheir built environment.

u Regulations often restrict thechoice of materials and technolo-gies

u Regulations favour modern overindigenous technologies.

u The lack of standards coveringalternative materials and tech-nologies has prevented theirwider usage.

u Standards and procedures moreoften than not impair the liveli-hood of the poor.

u Procedures can be costly.u Regulation prevents the poor

from generating income inresidential areas.

u Standards and regulations areoften incomprehensible to all buta few.

u Knowledge and information onstandards and regulations isoften difficult to access.

So, to regulate or not to regulate?The debate goes on…

Need for changeCurrent housing standards in mostdeveloping countries are inappropri-ate to the needs of the poor, derivedas they are from European stand-ards for housing and infrastructure.Since the majority of urban resi-dents in developing countries live inunplanned and illegal settlements,there is a need for a new paradigm,

abandoning the colonial inheritanceand using a more flexible ap-proach2.

The existing legislation as con-tained in the building code does notadequately cover the provision ofinfrastructure services. The buildingcode has not been amended andlocal authorities have not compre-hensively amended their respectiveby-laws. There is, therefore, need toreview the entire building code andto adopt relaxed building andplanning standards, and simplifiedregulations. There is also an urgentneed to decentralize and institution-alize code administration in linewith increasing the role of thecommunity sector in shelter provi-sion. Needs and affordability-basedinfrastructural standards areurgently required for informalsettlements.

International as well as nationalhousing policies and strategiesincreasingly argue for the revision ofhousing standards, but until nowthere has been little accessibleinformation on how this can beachieved, or on what projects andcountries have learned from theirexperience.

National review processes andprogrammes have tended to favourthe rich and better-endowedstakeholders at the expense of thepoor. An exclusive 'expert-driven'process that does not involve keystakeholders (the poor and vulner-able groups) has characterized theformulation and review processes.The consequences of such policyformulation processes are grave andobvious and yet we continue withthe same processes and practices.

Is this the way forward into the21st century? It is essential to stop,think, and learn from local, home-grown review experiences.

1. Although Kenya was the first countryin the South to address its inappropriatebuilding standards, this early action didnot lead to early results. It took the hardwork of the non-government sector inKenya to bring the need for change backonto the political agenda, and to follow itthrough..

2. Recently launched book: Yayha, S. etal. 2001. Double Standards SinglePurpose. Reforming housing regulationsto reduce poverty. ITDG Publishing

By Elijah Agevi, Intermediate Technology Development Group, EasternAfrica (ITDG-EA), Kenya

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ConclusionsIt is clear that policy formulationand review processes are out oftouch with reality on the ground.The core questions we ought toaddress include:u How can we build on local

resources and indigenous knowl-edge in identifying key policyissues in building standards andregulations?

u How can we work together toinvolve community-based organi-zations in the policy formulationand review process?

u What alternative people friendlyand sensitive disseminationmethods can we put in place foreffective communication of thepolicies and review findings?

u How can we build effective andinclusive partnerships in theformulation and implementationof policies, standards, andregulations?

Building regulations have a majorbearing on the cost of shelter andservices for the majority of theurban population. They constitute amajor barrier to affordable housingand services.

In many countries, includingKenya, there is consensus that theprevailing building codes, statutes,and regulations are outdated andunrealistically high. Many countrieshave had only limited success in

reviewing their building and plan-ning standards due to inconsistentmethodology, which does notfacilitate meaningful and effectivelocal level participation. There areboth local and regional examples ofreview processes.

Implementation of reformulatedand relaxed standards has been onan ad hoc and on project-by-projectbasis, and has only been achievedafter costly and lengthy discussions.Dissemination of information onreformulated by-laws has beenpiecemeal, uncoordinated, andineffective. The building, planning,and engineering standards, stat-utes, and regulations are scatteredin many documents and are proneto a lot of individual interpretation.

Many public, quasi-public, andprivate sector groups have vested,and occasionally conflicting inter-ests in the field of standards. Thereusually is no single central bodyoverseeing the formulation andimplementation of building stand-ards, procedures, and regulations,and to co-ordinate and regularlymonitor the performance of buildingby-laws. There is machinery atlocal authority level to enableinitiation, adoption, approval, andimplementation of relaxed stand-ards, which affect provision ofhousing to the low-income earners.Some local authorities have indi-

cated willingness while others haveactually approved the implementa-tion of projects based on relaxedbuilding and planning standards.Some developers have initiateddesigns, which incorporated rela-tively relaxed planning, building,and engineering standards, whichshould be encouraged. Whererelaxed standards have been used,this has facilitated faster completionand consolidation. The reverse isequally true.

Establishment of a competentbroad-based enforcement team withadequate resources is needed if weare to take the gains of revisedstandards and regulations to thenext level of implementation andscaling up.

Finally, let us meaningfullypractise what we preach; partner-ship, involvement, and engagementof all key stakeholders in theformulation and implementation ofstandards and regulations thataffect all people. n

A case of too many actors?

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Transport and the urbanpoor — a case study,Karachi, PakistanBy Sohail Khan, Water, Engineering and Development Centre (WEDC), UKSummarised by Tomas Stenström, ASIST Africa, Zimbabwe

A bus stop in Karachi

Transport has long been recognisedas a critical element in pro-poorurban development, yet it hasreceived relatively little attentionin recent urban povertydiscussions. A study of Karachiseeks to address the relativeneglect of transport and equityissues by looking at how transportinfluences the quality of life ofsome of the poorest in the city.

In Karachi, transport is impor-tant for the livelihood strategies ofmany of the urban poor. Transportis also important for the long-termprosperity and development of thecity. The cheapest form of 'formal'transport is privately operatedbuses providing services alongroutes defined by local government.Hence this has been the focus ofthis study.

Thirty to forty per cent of thepoor in the city use buses forlivelihood related activities. Thepoor have to use what is availableand affordable despite the dangersand difficulties. There are anestimated two deaths and scores ofinjuries every day as people crowdonto infrequent and poorlymaintained vehicles. At bus stops,there are many small tradersserving passengers, and theseactivities are an important sourceof livelihood, and provide essential

roadside maintenance for buses.However, with no formal provision,these traders have to make do withthe little space that is available,and create street garbage as wellas considerable congestion forlocal residents.

Transport problems in any cityare related to past planning anddevelopment decisions. In the caseof Karachi, transport networks andsystems have grown in an ad hocmanner with no attempt at compre-hensive planning. Transportrelated infrastructure such asroads, bus stops, and terminalshas been neglected, and providersand users alike have to make dowith no formal facilities.

Experiences on the buses areuniversally negative. Getting spaceon a bus is so difficult that menrisk their lives travelling on theroofs of buses during rush hour.Crowding means that clothes areruined and stress levels are high.In addition to lack of bus stops andlimited services, some routes stopcompletely in the early evening.The time lost and the limitedtimetables affect the quality of lifeand social and self-developmentopportunities. Women sufferparticular problems with the lack ofspace and harassment on and offbuses. An estimated ten per cent

of income in an urban poorhousehold is spent on transport.

The providers complain that theregulated low fares mean thatrevenue is insufficient to cover thecost of maintenance and repair, letalone any improvements to theservices. They also complain thatstaff from administrative agenciesfrequently stop them and demandirregular payments for any numberof bureaucratic regulations. Thereis an elaborate system of bribespaid to the authorities bytransporters and hawkers.

The providers would like to seelower import duties on largevehicles, the provision ofinsurance facilities, fewer minibusproviders, lower fuel prices, im-provement of infrastructure, andthe implementation of existingplans. In the absence of analternative, the providers haveorganised a mutual compensationfund to assist with thereplacement of damaged vehicles.

The regulators have littlecapacity to manage the situation.As noted above, there are majorproblems with non-enforcement ofregulations, in part, due to illegalpayments. Attempts have beenmade in the past to bring togetherthe interested groups in order tomake improvements. However,these have failed, partly becauseparticipants do not believe thatother groups have either the will orthe capacity to do anything aboutthe problems. Nevertheless, thereis a broad consensus on a fewcritical issues that need to beaddressed.

A consultative process involvingusers, providers, and regulatorsresulted in a long list of recom-mendations. On the basis of theserecommendations, the UrbanResource Centre in Karachi hasagreed to some of them. Amongthose, to initiate an advocacy lobbyfor the required policy decisions, tocollect and update information thatwould be required by the proposedtransport agency, and to conveneforums and workshops to enablesmall-scale partnerships betweenusers, providers, and regulators.

The full report, Urban PublicTransport and SustainableLivelihoods for the Poor. A CaseStudy, Karachi, Pakistan by SohailKhan is available from WEDC at acost of £14.95. It is also availableat http://www.lboro.ac.uk/publications. n

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Small-scale contracting: LessonslearntBy Bjørn Johannessen, Senior Rural Infrastructure Management Specialist, ASIST-Asia Pacific, Thailand

Labour-based roadworks technologyhas been firmly established inseveral nationwide rural roadworksprogrammes during the last twentyyears. In more recent years, therehas been a desire to move fromworks directly executed by projectsor government agencies (forceaccount) to the engagement of theprivate construction industry tocarry out the works. The firstsuccessful project of this naturecommenced in Ghana in the late1980s — a programme that is nowwell established in several regionsof the country with a significantpart of the domestic constructionindustry involved. Since then, anumber of similar programmeshave been established in othercountries, amongst others inLesotho, Zambia, Malawi, SierraLeone, Tanzania, Mozambique, andCambodia.

It has often been suggested thatone way of promoting the localcontracting industry was to havesmall contractors involved throughthe use of labour-based methods.The emphasis on small contractorswas based on the idea that theyhad a limited amount of equipmentand would therefore adapt easily tothe use of appropriate technology.For the contractor, the only issueof real importance is whether hisor her operations are profitable.Therefore, in order to successfully

introduce labour-basedtechnologies in the private sector,it is necessary to (i) demonstratethe cost-effectiveness of thesemethods, and (ii) convince themthat there are long-term marketprospects using this technology.

Since the small-scalecontracting programme commencedin Ghana in the 1980s, a numberof alternative approaches havebeen tried out in terms of involvingthe private sector in ruralinfrastructure development. At-tempts have been made toestablish contracting at villagelevel, combined with self-help

initiatives using communities ascontractors, involving small con-tractors through targeted procure-ment and sub-contracting, convert-ing force accounts units intocontracting organisations, etc.

Based on the experience andperformance of the various types ofprogrammes that fall under thebroad concept of small-scalecontracting for rural infrastructuredevelopment, the Ghanaian modelhas proven to be most effective andsustainable. Although such astatement can be disputed for anumber of reasons, it is clear thatthis setup has been quite appropri-ate when developing programmes ofthis nature in other countries.

Type of worksThe ILO's involvement in small-scale contracting for rural infra-structure works has been centeredaround rehabilitation and mainte-nance of rural roads. In mostcases, these roads form part of thepublic road network, consisting ofsecondary and tertiary roads. Inother words they can be regardedas a public asset, and for thisreason the work is funded by theregular government budgets. Often,donor agencies are involvedthrough financial (and technical)

contracting out roadworks

Culvert construction, Svay Rieng Province, Cambodia

Bridge works, Kandal Province, Cambodia

Photo by Rural Infrastructure Improvement Project ©

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assistance. However, the funds arestill regarded as part of theresources made available to thepublic sector.

This issue has clearimplications on who is in charge ofthe maintenance of therehabilitated assets. Since thework is taking place on sections ofthe public road network, andimplemented by the government,the maintenance obligations wouldnaturally remain with thegovernment. This maintenancework could provide contractors withadditional long-term workprospects when funding isavailable.

Experience shows that the sameapplies to other types of ruralinfrastructure works such asrehabilitation of markets, schools,irrigation structures, small bridges,culverts, etc.

In most developing countries,there is a large demand for thefurther development and mainte-nance of rural infrastructure. Thissector can therefore provide signifi-cant market prospects for the localconstruction industry.

Implementation capacityOne of the strengths of the Ghana-ian model is that the contractmanagement procedures followbasic contracting principles andconcepts. Rather than reinventingthe entire system, existing con-tracting systems are simplified,and only the parts which arerelevant for a specific type and sizeof work are included.

In most public works organisa-tions, there has always been somecontracting activities and as aresult the staff will have somevarying degree of experience andunderstanding of the basic con-cepts of contracting. At aminimum, the staff will be aware ofthe fundamental roles of theclient, the supervising engineer,and the contractor.

Furthermore, theseorganisations will have carried outsome form of contracting using aset of contract documents, carriedout a bidding competition, andsupervised works carried out byprivate sector entrepreneurs.

In line with the basic concept ofutilising local resources to thegreatest extent possible, thechances of success are furtherenhanced when building on thecapacity of already establishedorganisations, which may even berepresented at the local levelwhere the actual physical worksare taking place.

Decentralisation and goodgovernanceDeveloping local contractorsthrough their involvement in ruralinfrastructure works requires anefficient contracts managementorganisation that can properlysupervise works, as well as takecare of all financial and adminis-trative responsibilities.

As part of developing governmentagencies' capacity to efficientlymanage and implement ruralinfrastructure works carried out bythe private sector, systems andprocedures need to be installedwhich provide a certain level oftransparency in the procurement

process. Equally, efficient financialmanagement systems need to beestablished which ensure thatcontractors are paid on time.

The decentralisation of respon-sibilities and authority, which isalso essential for local decision-making, is a key factor for thesuccessful implementation ofgeographically dispersedprogrammes, such as ruralinfrastructure works. It isparticularly important in relation tosmall-scale works, for which themanagement resources of centralgovernment departments areseldom sufficient to provide propersupervision. Genuine decentralisa-tion also enables localorganisations to 'exert pressure'and therefore to defend theirprojects better because, at thatlevel, the negotiating partners andthe needs of the population arebetter known. This enables

contracting out roadworks

When contract documentsof varying degrees of

detail are used for the varyingscale of projects, it is essentialto maintain continuitythroughout the differentdocuments. This will enableany contractor developmentprogramme to operate in anorderly sequence as contractorsmove through the variouscategories of contractsof increasing complexity andvolume. Thus a contractor orcontracts manager, with anunderstanding of the conceptsof a contract document in itssimplest form, will find afamiliarity with the moredetailed documents used forlarger projects.

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Completed rural road, KampongCham Province, Cambodia

VillageDevelopmetCommittees

VillageDevelopmetCommittees

Small-scalecontractors

Small-scalecontractors

Work Suprintendent

DistrictDevelopmetCommittees

Local AuthorityLA

reportsto DDC’son work

performanceLA approves work

programme,awards work andappoints WS as

ContractsManager

WS requestsLA to carryout paymnentsas indicatedin paymentcertificates

submitprioritiesto LA

LocalFinanceOfficecarriesoutpaymentof SSC

inspect andcertify works

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Types of Contractors

Type Description Type of WorksPetty v single person v routine road maintenanceContractors v labour only v labour only sub-contracts

v limited skills v spot improvement worksv not registered

Small-scale v local builders v building constructionContractors v possess some basic v sub-contracts for special

equipment and hand tools skillsv registered as tradesmen v construction and repairv capital security low of simple structuresv possess some technical skills v rural road rehabilitation

but limited managerialexper i ence

Medium sized v registered v road gravelling worksContractors v possess some equipment v major rehabilitation works

v capital security limited v bridge and culvert worksv entrepreneurial skills v construction of gravelv technical and managerial skills r o a d s

Large-scale v registered v large-scale infrastructureContractors v good access to equipment p r o g r a m m e s

v good capital security v complex building projectsv proven entrepreneurial skills v works appropriate forv good technical and equ ipment- intens ive

managerial skills work methods

Over a three year periodthe Rural Infrastructure

Improvement Programme inCambodia engaged 67different local builders toconstruct 977 culverts, and 36local contractors to build 108small bridges. For most ofthese contractors, this type ofwork was new to them, whenthey were awarded their firstcontracts. Therefore, theywere provided on-the-jobtraining and close supervisionwhile executing the works toensure good quality of worksand timely completion ofworks.

beneficiaries to have a greaterinfluence on the technical choices,methods of implementation, andoperation and maintenance aspectsof the project. In addition, the userswill then know who in the commu-nity is responsible, and whom theymust turn to in case of difficulties.

All the above are key issues fordeveloping good governance withinthe civil service. For small-scalecontracting these are not onlydesired goals, they are actuallyprerequisites, and need to be inplace at an early stage of pro-gramme development. Also, withsmall-scale contracting pro-grammes, the issues of goodgovernance are placed into apractical and useful context, andare immediately tested for theireffectiveness.

Decent workAs mentioned earlier, there isconsiderable scope for applyingsmall-scale contracting in severalsectors in the rural areas. Bypackaging work to appropriatevolumes, contracted work can bemanaged and supervised by localgovernment offices close to thesites, and executed by localbuilders and entrepreneurs basedin the project area.

Establishing efficient mecha-nisms, which allow the localprivate sector to participate inlarge-scale rural infrastructuredevelopment programmes, is notonly a boost to local economies,but also a major source of jobcreation and further skillsdevelopment. The development ofthe capacity of this segment of thelocal industry may enable them totake on similar job challenges in

the future, and thus provide newlong-term employmentopportunities in the rural areas.

Types of contractorsThere have been many miscon-strued ideas of how small-scalecontractors are recruited into arural infrastructure works pro-gramme. One idea is to retrench

civil servants and convert them intoprivate entrepreneurs. Another is tocreate contractors from variousinterest groups at village level; andyet another is to make contractorsout of the future users of thecreated assets. None of theseapproaches is viable for large-scalepublic civil works programmes.

contracting out roadworks

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Earthworks, Prey Veng Province, Cambodia

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The main advantage of involvingalready established contractors isthat this group can provide evi-dence of entrepreneurial skillsthrough the works they are cur-rently involved in. Although themajor share of their works hasusually been building works, theycan provide a business entity, andan established organisation withadministration, financial andtechnical staff, which could befurther trained and developed tocater for the specific requirementsof a rural infrastructure worksprogramme (such as labour-basedroadworks).

At the same time, it is importantto acknowledge that the govern-ment, which is the formal owner ofthe assets to be constructed andmaintained, needs to build onorganisations with competent andexperienced staff that will take onthe management responsibilities ofa civil works programme.

When surveys of the localconstruction industry have beencarried out in relation to preparingfor small-scale contracting pro-grammes, there has never beenany difficulty in finding appropriatesize entrepreneurs for the type ofworks to be carried out.

Equally, it is important to ac-knowledge that contractors are inmost cases willing to move to wherethe markets for their services arelocated. Rather than training abatch of new contractors when newprojects commence in differentlocations of a country, it

would be more appropriate toutilise proficient contractors fromother parts of the country.

TrainingSeveral projects that have tried toreplicate the success of the Ghanaprogramme have focused theircapacity building efforts entirely onthe contractors and their ability tocarry out the physical works atreasonable standards and produc-tivity rates. In order to obtain therequired sustainability of a small-scale contracting programme, thereis an equal, if not larger, capacitybuilding requirement on thegovernment side.

For an effective training pro-gramme the following key issuesshould be taken into account:

u The need for training and devel-opment is not only limited to thecontractor, but equally, or insome cases more importantly,the organisations bearing theroles as supervising engineer andclient need careful attention.

u Training must be provided inthese four major subjects: (i)roadworks technology, (ii)contracts management, (iii)preventive maintenance andoperation of equipment, and (iv)business management.

u Training should be carried out ina real situation, focused onpurpose-oriented skills. In mostprojects of this nature, sometraining is required beforephysical works can take place.This pre-construction periodneeds to be as short andeffective as possible, focusingonly on the roles and responsi-bilities the staff will assumeafter graduation.

u Training should be provided toall cadres of staff involved in theprogramme.

u Training is more effective ifconducted with real examples,and best in an environment oflearning by doing. For thisreason the training should belinked up with full-scale demon-stration sites and an apprentice-ship period (trial contracts).

u Client organisations need to bestreamlined and re-organised ina manner which produces aconducive environment in whichthese contracting firms will beable to survive. Staff of theclient organisation will requiretraining in the new roles andresponsibilities. n

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Setting out culvert pipes, Prey Veng Province, Cambodia

Bridge works, Kandal Province, Cambodia

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employment-intensive investment news

The Employment-Intensive Invest-ment Programme (EIIP) is theumbrella programme for the ASISTprogramme operations in Africa andAsia-Pacific. The ILO has placedrenewed emphasis on the EIIP overthe recent past and is supportingthis programme from its ownresources at the level of US$ 2.0million per year. This includes somenine professional positions and twosupport staff, out of which fourprofessional staff are based outsideILO headquarters.

ASIST makes the programmereally operational in manycountries. This setup means thatthe ILO can undertake a sizeableprogramme development,backstopping, and monitoringoperation. The two ASIST teamsare coordinating and implementingEIIP activities in their respectiveareas (East and Southern Africaand Asia-Pacific). However, EIIPheadquarter-based staff are alsoinvolved with project development,implementation, and backstoppingin some countries, particularly inthe areas where ASIST is not yetestablished. This means mostly inFrench-speaking Africa, LatinAmerica, and Eastern Europe.

News from theEmployment-IntensiveInvestment Programme

Among the new country projects ofparticular interest is the US$ 7.0million NORAD funded programmein Madagascar for smallenterprises development, withroads and schools as the maininfrastructure outputs. Otherprojects include work in Hondurasand Nicaragua following thehurricane Mitch devastation.

Initial work is also being done toset up a regional programmesupport in Latin America; a Danidafunded programme in the Andeancountries is making some progressin this respect. A recent workshop(Lima, May 2001) involving anumber of partner representatives(mostly in a consulting role) hasenhanced the capacity of employ-ment-intensive programme formu-lation with governments, donors,and financial institutions.

The development of new docu-mentation for the EIIP is still at theheart of the activities inGeneva. The two EIIP Guides, theblue guide called Employment-intensive infrastructure programmes:Labour policies and practices andthe green guide called Employment-intensive infrastructure programmes:Capacity building for contracting in

the construction sector have nowbeen made available in three majorlanguages (English, French andSpanish). There is a leaflet seriesavailable for the ‘Labour Policiesand Practices’ guide and a new setof 14 leaflets are just beingfinalised for the ‘Contracting’guide. Other documents include anew Employment-intensivereconstruction works in countriesemerging from armed conflicts, andthe entire road sector trainingmaterial is being worked into aFrench version (adapted forlanguage and cultural barriers!).

With the arrival of Wilma vanEsch (April 2001) and MarieWinsvold (June 2001), bothformerly with ASIST Nairobi, theEmployment-Intensive InvestmentBranch (EMP/INVEST) has beenable to strengthen the focus oncommunity-based infrastructuredevelopment. Wilma is sharing hertime between EMP/INVEST andthe sister unit on SmallEnterprises Development (SEED).She will be working on community-focused employment creationwithin public private partnershipsand low-income settlement upgrad-ing. Marie will focus on the trainingcomponent and will continuedeveloping the Urban SiteSupervisors course with the KenyaInstitute of Highway and BuildingTechnology (KIHABT) and theKenya Water Institute (KEWI inKenya.

For further information on EIIPcheck the website: www.ilo.org/employment/eiip. n

By Terje Tessem, Employment-Intensive Investment Programme (EMP/INVEST),ILO, Switzerland

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ASIST news

ASIST Africa newsASIST Africa, Zimbabwe

During the past few months, ASISTAfrica has gone through somemajor changes, mostly related toorganisational setup and staffchanges.

ASIST Africa 2001-2004ASIST Africa phase III ended inJune 2001, giving away to a newphase which will run to June 2004.The team will expand the work onpoverty reduction, pro-pooremployment generation and use oflocal resources through thepromotion of labour-based methodsin rural and urban infrastructuredevelopment. Mainstreamingstrategies will continue for ruralaccess, participatory planning,community contracting, and thedevelopment of a labour friendlyprocurement contracting, andfunding mechanisms. A keyobjective is the institutionalisationof relevant parts of the programmeand the development of a tool forintergrated urban accessibilityplanning to complement theSuccessful IRAP (Intergrated RuralAccessibility Planning) tool.Technical fields will include roads,water supply sanitation, solidwaste mangement, drainage, andirrigation.

Staff ChangesWe would like to welcome GrahamJohnson-Jones, who joined theteam as Director in July. Hereplaces Jane Tournée who left theprogramme in April to join herhusband in Germany. Fatemeh Ali-Nejadfard was acting Director inthe interim period, for which weare very grateful. We take thisopportunity to thank Jane for theexcellent work done under herleadership.

David Mason, who has been thelongest serving member of theASIST team left the programme inJuly. He has been working as aSenior Technical Adviser andmanaging the office in Nairobi. Weappreciate his valuablecontribution in the fields of labour-based infrastructure development,training, information services andoffice administration.

Wilma van Esch (Senior Techni-cal Adviser) and Marie Winsvold(Technical Adviser) have movedfrom Nairobi to take up posts inthe ILO Headquarters. We thankthem for their contribution to theASIST programme, particularly inthe area of urban infrastructuredevelopment, and look forward tofruitful co-operation with them intheir new posts. Angela Kabiru-Kang'ethe (Information Co-ordinator) has been assigned tothe Harare office.

The Nairobi office has beendown-sized to a satellite office inan effort towards the institutionali-sation of ASIST services. Theoffice is housed at theIntermediate TechnologyDevelopment Group, EasternAfrica (ITDG-EA) regional offices inNairobi. ASIST services will con-tinue to be provided as linksbetween the two organisations arestrengthened.

We also welcome to the teamStephen Muthua, who joined theASIST team in June as TechnicalAdviser. He will be managing theASIST satellite office in Nairobi.

We would also like to take thisopportunity to acknowledge thevaluable contribution of the follow-ing Nairobi team members who leftASIST at the end of March whenthe Nairobi office was down-sized:Annabel Chite (Information

Officer), Violet Kwanda(Administrative Assistant), FelisterGitau (Secretary), Irene Njoroge(Library Assistant) and PeterNgoha (Clerk/Driver). They deservea lot of credit for the effectiveoperation of ASIST in Nairobi. Wewish them success in their futureendeavours.

New contact detailsThe Harare office has re-locatedfrom the city centre office atKarigamombe Centre, to ArundelOffice Park, which is situated in thesuburbs north of Harare. Thepostal address remains the same:ASIST HararePO Box 210Harare, ZimbabweThe physical address is as follows:Block 8, Arundel Office ParkMount PleasantTel: +263-4-369824/8Fax: +263-4-369829Email: asist@ilosamat.org.zworasist@africaonline.co.zw

The new contact details for Nairobiare:ASIST NairobiPO Box 39493Nairobi, KenyaPhysical address:

Second Floor, AAYMCA BuildingState House Cresent, Off StateHouse AvenueTel: +254-2-713028, 719413,719313, 715293Fax: +254-2-710083Email: asist@itdg.or.ke n

Visit the ASIST website

http://www.ilo.org/asist

for

news and full text publications on

local resource based strategies for sustainable ruraland urban infrastructure provision including

„ Labour-based technology

„ Small-scale contractor development

„ Community contracting

„ Rural Access and Employment

„ Integrated Rural Accessibility Planning

„ Development of employment-intensive friendlycontract, procurement and funding mechanisms

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ASIST Asia-Pacifc newsThe original ASIST Asia-Pacific(ASIST-AP) programme documentwas formulated at the time of theAsian financial crises in 1997.Unemployment sharply increasedduring this time and the number ofpeople living in poverty grew drasti-cally in a short period of time. Theactivities of the ASIST-AP pro-gramme were therefore primarilygeared towards measures to alleviatethe effects of the crisis.

The financial crises caused aneconomic slowdown in the region,but now three years later, althoughthere are promising signs of recov-ery, not all countries are doingequally well, mostly due to internalfactors. In early 2001 therefore, theASIST-AP set out to review itsprogramme and the premises onwhich it was formulated. The mainconclusions of the review were:u Poverty and unemployment in

the region are still persisting andwidespread. However, this isprimarily due to a combination ofinternal and external factors andnot just the Asian crisis of 1997.

u ASIST-AP now has a betterunderstanding of the actualrequirements of the differentcountries in the region.

u The programme needs to developan internally coherent approachwith clearly defined deliverableoutputs, and establish lastingcollaboration with countries anddonors to be effective inmainstreaming the programme'spoverty alleviation strategiesthrough sustainable infrastruc-ture development.

After revisiting the programme'sgoal, objective, and outputs, it wasdecided to take a broader concep-tual view and time frame, and berealistic in terms of the institutionalchanges promoted by the pro-gramme.

ASIST-AP's overall goal wasredefined as ‘access of rural popula-tion to employment opportunitiesand to economic and social goodsand services improved through theeffective provision of rural infra-structure’. The approach remainspeople centered.

The immediate objective is tointegrate ‘local resource basedstrategies’ for sustainable ruralinfrastructure provision into

country and donor capital invest-ment programmes. Local resourcebased strategies are inherent in theprogramme's four pillars of work:u Integrated Rural Accessibility

Planning (IRAP)u Labour-based technologyu Small-scale contracting develop-

mentu Rural infrastructure mainte-

nance strategiesTogether, these four pillars form acoherent group of activities, whichcover all stages of the project cyclefrom identification, formulation,implementation, and monitoring, tofinal review and evaluation. Theyenable the programme to deliver acomplete and comprehensivepackage, which is more attractive togovernments and donors.

FundingOne major development over thelast six months is that funds havebeen allocated to the programmefrom the regular ILO budget. Notonly does this provide evidence ofthe institutionalization of theprogramme, but also provides astrong argument when solicitingfunds from donors. We have alsomoved office from the far-flungannex of the United Nations build-ing to the main building, four floorsbelow the corridors of power in theILO regional office.

StaffGeoff Edmonds took over from MikeShone as Programme Coordinator inJanuary this year. BjørnJohannessen became a full timemember of ASIST-AP as SeniorRural Infrastructure Engineer, andin early May John van Rijn joinedus from ILO Dar es Salaam asAssociate Expert.

Country activitiesIn the Philippines , we are

finalizing an agreement with theAsia Development Bank (ADB) andthe Department of Agriculture toprovide support with ADB funds tothe local level planning and labour-based aspects of a large ruralinfrastructure development pro-gramme. We are working with theDepartment of Interior and LocalGovernment, in developing

ASIST news

documentation on labour-basedmethods for the decentralized localgovernment units. We have alsocontinued to support the successfulDutch funded IRAP project.

In Indonesia, we have initiatedan accessibility planning exercise todemonstrate the technology. We arealso setting up the Regional Univer-sities Network in Gaja MadhaUniversity. Whilst the project forADB funding has not taken off, itnow seems that funds from theDepartment for Interna-tional Development, UK (DfID) willallow us to link onto a major ADBrural road rehabilitation project.

In Thailand, we are working withthe Public Works Department of theMinistry of Interior to prepare amanual for local government offi-cials on labour-based work andaccessibility planning.

In Cambodia, we have workedwith the successful Upstreamproject in all areas of the ASISTwork programme. We have alsobeen asked by the World Bank toprepare parts of a forthcoming ruralroads project.

In Lao PDR, the accessibilityplanning project is coming towardsan end after five years in which theplanning tool has been operating inmost of the Provinces of the coun-try. We are going to be funded byADB to provide support on labour-based contracting in a provincialrural development project.

In Bangladesh, we have providedinput into the preparation missionof an ADB funded rural infrastruc-ture development project.

In India, we are in the process offinalizing the arrangements forcarrying out accessibility planningwork in the states of Orissa andRajastan.

In Nepal, we participated in thereview of a rural infrastructuredevelopment project. We are alsofinalizing arrangements for anaccessibility planning exercise. Wehave also been asked by the Depart-ment of Local Government todevelop the institutional capacity ofthe Department in relation to theimplementation of a large number ofrural infrastructure programmes.

We are alos busy developing andpublishing both promotional andtechnical material in user friendlyformats, particularly for the web,which is the preferred means ofcommunication in this part of theworld. n

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The eighth regionalseminar for labour-based practitioners,Cairo, Egypt, October2000By Elias Madondo, ASIST Africa, Zimbabwe

The 8th Regional Seminar forLabour-Based Practitioners wasrecently held in the Egyptiancapital, Cairo. The five daymeeting, which ran from 15th-19th

October, drew more than 200participants from 27 countries,mainly from Africa, but also fromAsia and Europe. The EgyptianSocial Fund for Development (SFD)hosted the seminar, supported byILO/ASIST.

The scope of the regional semi-nars has broadened over the yearsfrom the initial focus on rural roadsto other sectors such as urbaninfrastructure development throughlabour-based technology, ruraltransport and accessibility plan-ning, and water infrastructuredevelopment. This was reflected inthe papers presented at the semi-nar, and in the profiles of theparticipants who came from avariety of backgrounds.

The theme for this seminar was‘The new millennium — challengesfor labour intensive investments’.The seminar was officially opened

by Dr Mokhles Abou-Seida, Direc-tor General of the Public WorksProgramme, SFD who stressed theneed to explore ways to maximisethe social and economic benefitsassociated with labour-basedtechnology. In the opening remarksof the Director of the ILOMultidisciplinary Advisory Team forNorthern Africa, Cairo, Ms Lorettade Luca underscored the impor-tance of this seminar in thecontext of linking investmentstrategies and employment policiesin order to seriously fight poverty.ILO/ASIST presented a paperhighlighting some of the challengesfacing labour-based technology andits practitioners. Geoff Edmonds,Director of IT Transport, UK (nowProgramme Coordinator of ASISTAsia-Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand)presented the keynote paper to theseminar, which provided anexcellent overview of presentissues and challenges foremployment-intensive investmentprogrammes.

regional seminar news

Other papers presentedfocused on the following issues:urban communities, ruralinfrastructure, policy, capacitybuilding, rural travel and transport,and implementation. The paperswere presented in parallel groupsessions, and the participants hadthe opportunity to discuss thepapers in the groups. There werethen presentations anddiscussions on the group recom-mendations in plenary.

The participants spent a day outon site visits to three SFD projectswithin Cairo. These covered the:u rehabilitation of a water supply

network, Cairo Governorate,u rehabilitation of a canal retain-

ing wall, Giza Governorate,u water and waste-water system,

Cairo Governorate (Old Cairo).

Seminar ConclusionsThe overall conclusions from theseminar were presented as the‘Cairo statement’, which wasformulated as a set ofrecommendations covering thefollowing eight areas:u Perceptionsu Policy supportu Education and trainingu Procurementu Technical standardsu Ensuring participationu Planningu Implementation and monitoring

capacities.These recommendations aretargetted towards nationalgovernments, international fundingagencies, and other bodies involvedin or with an interest in labour-based technology. They are aimedat promoting and institutionalizingthe technology. Therecommendations will be reviewedat the next seminar when theextent to which they have beenachieved or implemented will beassessed.

The ninth regional seminar isscheduled to take place in May2002 in Mozambique. The themeand exact date will be announcedsoon and details will be posted onthe ILO/ASIST website.

Papers and proceedings from theseminar are available from ILO/ASIST and proceedings will also bepublished on the ILO/ASISTwebsite: www.ilo.org/asist. n

Rehabilitation of a water suppy network in Cairo Governorate

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IST

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Urban infrastructuredevelopmentinformation surveyBy Angela Kabiru-Kang’ethe, ASIST Africa, Zimbabwe

The Information Services of ASISTactively gathers, synthesises, anddisseminates relevant informationon and related to employment-intensive technologies and localresource utilization for rural andurban infrastructure development.

The urban component of theASIST programme is involved inintroducing and promoting the useof labour-based community man-aged approaches in the upgradingof urban low-income settlements. Inorder to keep abreast with theASIST clientele information needs,the Information Services carries outsurveys from time to time. Last yeara survey was carried out to identifythe need of those involved in urbaninfrastructure development.

MethodologyA questionnaire was developed andsent out to 92 recipients drawnfrom the ASIST CONTACTS data-base of people and organizationsinvolved in employment-intensivetechnologies and local resourceutilization for rural and urbaninfrastructure development. A totalof 39 responses was received, i.e. aresponse rate of 42%. Thanks to allof you who responded!

ResultsThe respondents came from avariety of areas of specializationincluding planning, technical,training, policy, community mobili-zation and organization, technicalassistance, and contracting.

Information requirements

The information needs werecategorised into the following areas:

Infrastructure: Information onroads and housing, followed bydrainage and solid waste manage-ment, water supplies and sanita-tion, is required. Other areas ofneed indicated include environmen-tal conservation, afforestationand erosion control.

information services news

Policy: Within the area ofpolicy, contracting (i.e. the creationof an enabling environment) andenvironmental issues were rankedas the highest areas of need, fol-lowed by technology choice, costbenefit analysis, labour andemployment issues, public privatepartnerships, and gender issues.Good governance also came up asan area where information isneeded.

Planning: Information oncommunity participation andconsultation is in high demand,followed by technology choice, datacollection and analysis, and infor-mation management.

Designs and specifications:Information on community contractdocuments is required most, fol-lowed by labour-based technicalspecifications, contract documentsand tender procedures for privatecontractors, and lastly topographi-cal surveying, hydrological analysis,etc.

Implementation issues: When itcomes to implementation issuesinformation on the management ofcommunity contracts is in highdemand, followed by labour man-agement, appropriate technology,site management, tools and equip-ment, and contract management forprivate contractors.

Monitoring and evaluation: Themonitoring and evaluation informa-tion most required is on evaluationand impact assessment methodolo-gies, then monitoring methodolo-gies, environmental impact analy-sis, and reporting systems.

Training: Information on plan-ning, management, and capacitybuilding for training is requiredmost, followed by technical trainingon labour-based methods, aware-ness creation, and contract man-agement.

ASIST focusThe respondents felt that ASISTshould focus on collecting anddisseminating information related topolicy, implementation, monitoringand evaluation, planning, designand specifications, and training.

Target groupsThe target groups ASIST shouldfocus their information and dis-semination activities on wereranked in the following order(highest to lowest): planners, policymakers, trainers, communities,practitioners at the professionallevel, technicians, undergraduates,researchers, postgraduates, acad-emicians, and those at vocationallevel. (Engineers were not includedas a separate target group as theyfall under planners, policy makers,and professional practitioners.).

MediumPrint is still the preferred medium(32% of the respondents) for receiv-ing information, followed by email(30%), CD-ROM (20%), and finallythe Internet (18%).

Main conclusionsThe results validate the currentcollection development and informa-tion dissemination policy of theASIST Information Services in thearea of urban infrastructure devel-opment. Information on urbaninfrastructure, policy, and imple-mentation of labour-based workswere found to be in the highestdemand, and also the areas mostrespondents felt that ASIST shouldfocus its information collection anddissemination activities. This closelyreflects the current focus. Thetarget groups selected are also thoseASIST has tended to focus itsinformation activities on, particu-larly planners, policy makers, andtrainers. The need for informationsuitable for communities is an areaof need that we recognize and onwhich we hope to place moreemphasis.

We will continue to publish inprint and will also continue to buildup our digital collection of full-textpublications for distribution byemail, on CD-ROM, and theInternet. n

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information services news

Newpublications

Double standards, singlepurpose. Reforminghousing regulations toreduce poverty

Saad Yahya, Elijah Agevi, LuckyLowe, et al.

ITDG Publishing. 2001. ISBN 185339 525 0. 192pp. US$22.50

Current housing standards in mostdeveloping countries are inappro-priate to the needs of the poor,derived as they are from Europeanstandards for housing and infra-structure. Since the majority ofurban residents in developingcountries currently live in un-planned and illegal settlements,there is a dire need to reviewcurrent practice and adopt a moreflexible and realistic approach.This book provides developmentworkers, planners, and decision-makers with information andadvice on the revision of housingstandards at a national, local, andproject level.

Labour-based technology:A review of currentpractice. Proceedings ofthe eighth regional seminarCairo, Egypt 15th - 19thOctober 2000

Compiled by Catherine Allen,Scott Wilson Kirkpatrick. Editedby ASIST

Volume 1. CTP 161. ILO/ASIST.2001. ISBN 92-2-112538-6.A summary of the proceedings ofthe eighth regional seminar, thetheme of which was 'The newmillennium — Challenges forlabour intensive investments'.

The seminar presentations anddiscussions covered issues relatedto urban infrastructure, ruralinfrastructure, communityparticipation, policy, capacitybuilding, rural travel and transport.The report provides summaries ofthe papers presented and discus-sions held.

Volume 2, a compilation of thepapers presented, is also availableas CTP 162. The seminar washosted by the Egyptian Social Fundfor Development.

Increasing employment withdecent working conditions:Workshop report 21- 25August 2000, Victoria Falls,ZimbabweILO International Training Centre.2001. 200pp.This is a workshop report from atripartite workshop that wasattended by workers, employers,and government representatives.Participants were drawn from fivecountries, namely Lesotho, Malawi,Namibia, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.

The objectives of the workshopwere to promote the use of labour-based technology where viable, andto promote decent working condi-tions within labour-based works.The eight papers presented at theworkshop are included in thereport, together with the conclu-sions and recommendations fromthe workshop.

Lessons learned: FeederRoads Programme,MozambiqueFeeder Roads Programme,Mozambique. 2001. 70pp.The Feeder Roads Programme (FRP)is a labour-based road programmein Mozambique that started in1981.Under extremely difficultcircumstances it continuedthroughout the civil war, andexpanded during the rebuilding ofthe country with the return ofpeace in 1992. During its lifetime,the FRP achieved many things,among which were its incorporationinto the National Road Authority(ANE), the rehabilitation of nearly6000 km of unpaved roads, theprovision of nearly 5000 personweeks of training, and the creationof over seven million worker daysof employment.

Now, 20 years after itsinception, the lessons learnedduring this programme have beencompiled into a booklet, includinginstitutional, technical, social, andeconomic aspects. This bookletintends to show some of thebreakthroughs made by the FRP, aswell as some of the mistakes. Forexample, although the FRP startedwith full rehabilitation of roads,they achieved great reductions incosts by using spot improvementmethods and partial re-gravellingwhere possible, as well as adaptingdesign standards for low trafficroads. The booklet explains thedifferent systems of roadmaintenance experimented with bythe FRP (lengthmen, gangs,contractors). Each had its ownadvantages and disadvantages,with the best option depending onthe local situation.

The booklet pays much attentionto the labourers employed by theFRP. For instance, there were nowomen employed at the start of theFRP. The involvement of womenlater became a priority, and womenare now employed as labourers andtrained to be tractor drivers andsupervisors. A gender unit wasalso formed within the FRP, whichwas recently integrated into themain structure of ANE.

The booklet discusses theselessons and many more, as well asgiving an overall picture of theprogramme. It is bilingual inEnglish and Portuguese, and willbe available from the ILO/ASISToffice in Harare in September 2001.

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training

Engineers course in labour-based road constructionand maintenance8 October - 17 November, 2001,Kisii Training Centre, Kisii, Kenya.Fees: US$ 4,200. The fees includetuition, field visits, practicaltraining, course materials,transport services during thecourse, meals and accommodation.

Supervising labour-basedcontracts4 - 30 March, 2002Kisii Training Centre, Kisii, Kenya.Fees: US$ 5,900. The fees includetuition, field practicals, coursematerials, transport servicesduring the course, safe travelinsurance, meals andaccommodation.

Contact:

The Resident InstructorKisii Training Centre (KTC)PO Box 2254, Kisii, KenyaTel/fax: +254-381-21634 orTel: +254-381-30699Email: courses@kihbt-ktc.com

BackgroundUrban poverty in Kenya isincreasing at an alarming rate. It iscentred in urban low-incomesettlements, most of which areunplanned, and characterised byextremely poor living conditions.Efforts to curb rural to urbanmigration have had little impact,and the trend has continuedunabated as people move in searchof employment. The attention ofthe Government and internationalbodies has been drawn to theappalling conditions characterisingunplanned settlements as a resultof the influx.Studies have taken place with theaim of finding sustainablesolutions to the environmentalproblems in these settlementswithin urban areas. Kisii TrainingCentre (KTC) has been offeringvarious training services intechnical areas of roadconstruction and maintenanceusing labour-based methods. Mostof their training sites have beenbased in rural areas. However itwas foreseen that the institutioncould play a key role by contribut-ing its labour-based technology andmanagement expertise to urbanunplanned settlements.

In view of the availablepotential, KTC, with support fromILO/ASIST and Kenya WaterInstitute (KEWI), developed atraining curriculum that can beused for training urban sitesupervisors. Other supportingagencies were Intech Beusch andTraining Engineering Services(TES).

A course was developed which iscurrently being piloted.

The curriculum for the pilotcourse is divided into two stages:1 Basic course for urban site

supervisors2 Skills course for urban site

supervisors

Training objectiveThe objective of the course is toequip the site supervisors withknowledge and practical skills inimplementing labour-based andcommunity-managed improvementand maintenance works in low-income settlements.

Course contentThe course is divided into variousmodules. The Basic course mod-ules include:u Urban environmentu Measurementu Community managed labour-

based approachesu Materials, tools and equipmentu Basic technical skillsu Work implementationu Work planning and reportingu Quality control.

The modules covered in the Skillscourse include:u Work managementu Labour issuesu Solid waste managementu Urban roadsu Urban water supplyu Urban sanitationu Quantities and costingu Contracting.

Basic courseThe pilot Basic course took placefrom 1 to 13 December, 2000. Theparticipants were drawn from localauthorities and CBOs. Twelveparticipants attended the course.The course was conducted at KisiiTraining Centre with somepractical sites situated within Kisiiand Kisumu towns respectively.

Skills courseThe Skills course is scheduled totake place in August 2001. Theparticipants who successfullycompleted the basic course areexpected to attend this course.

ParticipantsThe participants for the pilot Basiccourse were from Kenya. They hadvarious professional backgroundsand experience and included:u Work supervisorsu Foremenu Community foremen.

OutcomeThe participants were very muchimpressed with the course. Someindicated that the course was longoverdue. They felt that the coursewas relevant, and that supervisorsshould be encouraged to undergothe training. They indicated thatthe course addressed the trainingneeds for the urban sitesupervisors well.

For effective implementation ofupgrading programmes in urbanlow-income settlements, allstakeholders must be sensitisedon labour-based methods, gearedtowards community involvement.In future, participants from othercountries within Sub-SaharanAfrica will be invited to attend thecourse. n

Site supervisors course for labour-based and community-managedupgrading of urban low-incomesettlementsBy James Manyara, Kisii Training Centre (KTC), Kenya

KTC Training Diary

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The Maseru City Council is set torelease the first tranche of theallocation approved for the physicalworks under the ‘Labour-intensiveUrban Upgrading Programme’ beingexecuted by the United NationsVolunteers programme (UNV) withfunding from the Government ofJapan. ILO/ASIST provides techni-cal advice to the project team ofeight UN Volunteers. In 1999 ILO/ASIST participated in the formula-tion of the project, focusing on theinstitutional and technical as-pects.

This project is testing theefficacy of community-based urbanupgrading for poverty reduction andemployment relief, drawing on theperceived strengths ofdecentralized structures, includingmunicipal authorities.

The 1.3 km road on which theinitial physical works are to befocused is located in the HaThetsane community now being

Labour-based urbanupgrading programme,LesothoBy Obi Ajuruchukwu, United Nations Volunteers (UNV), Lesotho

upgraded by the Council to en-hance the living conditions in thislow-income settlement. This initialroad project will train a core oftechnical council staff for supervi-sory roles on other sites inMabote, Qoaling, and Motimposocommunities to be started later inthe year when more funds becomeavailable from the Lesotho Fund forCommunity Development.Preliminary surveys and costestimates have been completed fora total of 74.5 km of secondarycommunity roads that will berehabilitated to address access andemployment needs.

Since its official launch inOctober 2000, the project team hasmade significant progress incommunity identification andmapping processes, includingconducting a needs assessment todetermine the training needs forcommunity action, and carrying outtargeted training sessions at the

community level. A trainingmanual is being finalized thatfocuses on capacity building incommunity action planning.

Although project activitieshave been hampered by transportdifficulties, the project has madereasonable progress towardsmobilizing key partners andinputs crucial to project success.The project is also beingpropelled by the strong support itenjoys from the supervisingMinistry of Local Government,which continues to emphasizeits high policy relevance,especially in the context of thegovernment’s poverty reductionstrategies and on-going decen-tralization programme. TheGovernment is now exploringwith the United NationalDevelopment Programme (UNDP)and UNV, as part of theformulation of the secondCountry Cooperation Framework(CCF) for Lesotho, the possibilityof nationwide expansion of theassistance within the frameworkof the Sustainable CitiesInitiative in which the UnitedNations Centre for HumanSettlements (UNCHS) Habitat isexpected to play a role.

Helping you to improve infrastructurefor poor communitiesCall for informationBy Intech Associates, UK

Intech Associates has been ap-pointed by the UK Department forInternational Development (DfID)to compile guidelines on low costroad access for poor communities.

The programme will reviewinternational experiences inproviding ‘all-weather’ road accessusing labour-based constructionand maintenance techniques withsimple equipment. Guidelinesproduced will be freely available toorganisations such as yours andany communities and individualswho would like to improve thequality and effectiveness of roadaccess.

We would like to call uponorganisations and individuals who

may have an interest in the im-provement of road transport accessfor poor communities, and inparticular any persons who mayhave experience or knowledge ofproviding low cost, labour-basedroad surfacing. We are inviting you

to inform us of any information ordocumentation which may help inthe compilation of the guidelines.

We are particularly interested inthe following types of construction,which can provide a sustainable,and low-cost road surface for poor

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Dear Colleagues,We were all shocked early last

year with the news of the death ofColin Relf. For those closely involvedit was quite moving to realise thattheir personal loss was shared by ahuge and diverse number of peopleround the world. It was really quiteremarkable how many lives Colinhad touched.

Amongst many other interests,Colin was particularly involved withthe beginnings of the InternationalForum for Rural Transport andDevelopment (IFRTD). This startedway back in 1985 with a donorsmeeting that he and colleaguesorganised in Switzerland to presentthe idea of an international institutefor rural transport. Over the yearsthis idea was refined and revisedand eventually came to fruition asthe Forum. Colin was very muchinvolved in nurturing the whole ideaof the Forum. Some of us felt itwould be appropriate to have asimple memorial for Colin associ-ated with the Forum.

The idea for an annual Colin RelfAward for young professionalsengaged in work on rural transportemerged as a fitting tribute, givenColin's concern with promoting andmotivating the people with whom heworked, and his abiding interest inthe written word! This idea wasunanimously endorsed at theIFRTD's Advisory Committee Meet-ing in November 2000. The under-signed agreed to form a sub-com-mittee to help organise and directthis initiative.

The award will be worth £250and would be presented to a youngThird World professional whosestudy/project/proposal the panel ofjudges consider the most interestingand exciting in terms of furtheringthe current thinking on ruraltransport. The judges would be twoto three people. They would be self-selected but hopefully they would beknowledgeable enough to assess theentries, and again in keeping withColin's interest, pay particularattention to the language! We aim tomake the first award this year inSeptember, and would continue torun it as long as we have funds, andobviously interest from potential

winners. The competition for theaward will be announced throughthe Forum News (the IFRTD news-letter), and through newsletters ofthe ILO/ASIST programmes andthrough other means.

As people who respected ColinRelf and his contribution to devel-opment, we hope that you will makea donation towards this initiative,and that you will tell other friendsand colleagues of Colin about this.We will keep you informed on howthe initiative progresses. If you wishto contribute please send paymentby cheque to:

Intermediate TechnologyConsultantsThe Schumacher Centre for Tech-nology & DevelopmentBourton HallBourton-on-Dunsmore, RugbyCV34 4TT, UK

Or by bank transfer to:Account Name: IntermediateTechnology Development GroupAccount No: 70203890Sort Code: 20-73-48Bank Address: c/o Barclays BankPLC, PO Box 11, 36 North Street,Rugby CV21 2AN, UK

Intermediate Technology Con-sultants administer and manage theIFRTD's funds.

We look forward to your support.

Ashoke Sarkar, Birla Institute ofTechnology, Pilani, India

Fatemeh Ali-Nejadfard, ILO/ASIST,Harare

London

Tatenda Mbara, University ofZimbabwe, Harare

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communities using labour andsimple equipment:u Hand packed stoneu Mortared stoneu Stone setts (Pavé) or dressed

stoneu Concrete blocksu Clay bricksu Bamboo reinforced concreteu Steel reinforced concreteu Ottaseal (natural gravel bitumi-

nous)u Sand sealu Bituminous surface dressingu Bituminous slurry sealu Premixed bituminous macadamu Penetration macadamu Stone chipping blindingWe are also interested in the follow-ing road base construction tech-niques:u Water bound macadamu Emulsion or slurry bound mac-

adamu Mechanical stabilisationu Chemical or emulsion

stabilisationPlease respond if either:1. You may have information,

sketches, photographs, equip-ment details, costs, etc. or knowof documentation that may assistin compiling guidelines on thesetypes of road surface.

2. You or your organisation wouldbe interested in receiving Internetaccess to or a hard copy of theguidelines when they are com-pleted. There may also be interimguidelines and reports.

Please provide your contact detailsand advise regarding your possibil-ity to assist or interest in receivingthe guidelines.

Please respond (mentioning theLow Cost Surfacing Programme) to:Robert Petts, PrincipalIntech Associates53 The Park, Great BookhamSurrey, KT23 3LN, UKTel/Fax: Int.+44-1372-458955or within UK 01372-458955E-mail: rob@intech-consult.demon.co.uk n

Labour-based roadworks ‘one grain — four harvests!’

u creates employmentu invests money in the communityu provides new rehabilitated

infrastructureu improves quality of life and lowers

transport costs

Colin Relf Award for ruraltransport

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Evaluation of Hanna Nassifcommunity basedupgrading project phase IIBy Wilma van Esch, Small Enterprise Development (SEED)/Employment-Intensive Investment Programme (EMP/INVEST), ILO, Switzerland

This project started in 1993 follow-ing a request from a local commu-nity and the city council for assist-ance in upgrading an unplannedsettlement. Although other plansexisted to improve theenvironment by reducing thesevere flooding, these designswould have resulted in demolitionof a large number of houses. AsTanzania already had experience inthe use of labour-based methodsin rural areas, the ILO wasrequested to adapt thismethodology to the urbanunplanned areas.

After the evaluation of the firstphase in 1996, the second phase ofthe project was implemented bythe University College of Lands andArchitecture Studies (UCLAS) whoprovided the Technical SupportTeam (TST). The ILO played anadvisory role on the design andlabour-based communitycontracting. COWI (Tz) Ltd.provided the technical design.Funding was provided by the UnitedNations Development Porgramme(UNDP) and the Ford Foundation.The National Income GeneratingProgramme (NIGP) managed the

funds. IT Transport was contractedto carry out an evaluation in De-cember 2000.

The main findings of the evalua-tion are that the project adapted aninnovative approach in both itsinstitutional setup and in the use oflabour-based community con-tracting and communitymanagement in an urbanenvironment. The overall conceptwas found to be well conceived andto meet the needs of the localpopulation. The living conditionshave been improved through animproved environment, with lessflooding, lower levels of disease,greater access to social andeconomic services, and increasedopportunities for income generation.

Overall the concept was to buildlocal infrastructure using anddeveloping local capacity. This wasachieved through:u Community participation through

the Community DevelopmentAssociation (CDA) and widerinvolvement of residents in alllevels of the project from planningto evaluation.

u Clever design of infrastructureto fit within the existing env-ironment.

u The use of construction modesand techniques to maximise thebenefit to the local community,such as labour-based methodsand community contracts.

Lessons learnedThe evaluation revealed a number oflessons that can be learnt from theHanna Nassif project, the mostsignificant being:u It is important to focus on

institution building as well ason infrastructure, to ensureownership and sustainability.

u It is important to start devolvingresponsibility to communityorganisations as soon as possi-ble.

u The use of a credit scheme toenable some financial stabilityis an essential element ofbuilding local institutions.However, the institution needsto have a certain level offinancial management skillsbefore this can begin.

u Institution building should be acombination of training andmentoring of individuals andorganisations, and should beseen as a process of learning bydoing.

u Similar urban communityprojects should work withinexisting local administrativestructures as much as possible(or in very close collaboration),with the administration buyingin specialist services.

u Mobilisation in large urbancommunities should be targetedand strategic, using a range oftools to utilise the differentmodes of communication withina mixed community.

u In large urban communities thecollection of funds for worksshould be through existingstructures used for tax collection.

u In unplanned urbanenvironments the promotion anduse of labour-based methodsand community contractsensures positive effects andimpacts for the local community.

u The use of a credit scheme tostimulate local business, raisingawareness of other projectactivities, and working towardCBO financial sustainability,should be promoted in otherprojects. n

Upgrading works using labour-based community contracting in Hanna Nassif

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Access and RuralEmployment countryproject news from AfricaBy Fatemeh Ali-Nejadfard, Jan Sakko, ASIST Africa and Serge Cartier vanDissel, SAMAT, Zimbabwe

UgandaAn initiative involving the applica-tion of the Integrated Rural Acces-sibility Planning (IRAP) tool in thelocal level planning structurestarted in August 2000. Thisprocess has so far included: a)assessment of the extent thedistrict development planaddresses the access problems ofrural households, b) recommenda-tions to improve the districtplanning mechanism throughapplication of IRAP, and c)identifying the gaps in the districttechnical capacity to effectivelycarry out the district planningprocess. Discussions among keyofficials at the central and districtlevels are underway to identify thetechnical gaps at the district levelthat can be jointly addressed bythe Government and ILO/ASIST toimprove rural access throughbetter planning and prioritizationof available local resources.

South AfricaRural access is considered aserious problem in several prov-inces of South Africa, includingNorthern Province. A proposal wassubmitted to the Government in

Northern Province in November2000 for a series of training work-shops that would strengthen thelocal capacity to address some ofthe access problems in rural areasthrough better planning andallocation of available resources.This proposal has been reviewedfavourably by the Department ofLocal Government in NorthernProvince. A joint meeting betweenthe Department of Local Govern-ment, the Association of RuralDistrict Councils in NorthernProvince, CSIR, and ILO/ASISTwas held in March discussing theway ahead for further actions.Proposals were made to:u Seek the possibility of integrat-

ing IRAP into the plannedtraining modules of theIntegrated Development Plan(IDP) meant for provincialplanners, councillors andmayors, senior officials indifferent provincial departments,and other key personnelrequired to support the IDPprocess,

u Provide technical support onrural accessibility and IRAPrequired for the training of thePresident's initiative in the twotargeted areas in Northern

Province within the ambit of theSustainable Integrated RuralDevelopment Strategy (SIRDS).This is one of the President'sinitiatives for rural developmentto be piloted in 13 differentareas in South Africa, two ofwhich, Skhukhune andBushbuckridge, are in NorthernProvince.Relevant to SIRDS, a fewcenters will be established forPlanning, Implementation, andMonitoring (PIM) to train districtplanners. ASIST's inputs onrural access and IRAP in thePIM training modules werefound relevant.

The above training will be carriedout through joint efforts betweenthe Government, ILO/ASIST, andCSIR. Assuming the differentactors would commit themselves towhat has been promised, therewould be a considerable impact inaddressing poor access in ruralareas through the introduction ofIRAP into district planning andvarious Government initiatives atnational, provincial, and districtlevels.

In addition, the collaborationwith the University of Northcontinues. Similar collaboration isbeing sought with Transvaal andZulu Universities in Eastern Cape.These universities are keen tointegrate issues of ruralaccessibility and IRAP into theircourses because they would bevery relevant to existing conditionsin Eastern Cape, which is largelyrural and faces serious accessproblems.

ZambiaAn initiative involving the applica-tion of IRAP into local levelplanning started in Kalabo District,Western Province in August 1999.The process has so far included:u The assessment of local level

planning in addressing theaccess problems in rural areas

u A pilot exercise to test thepossibilities of using secondarydata in collecting information forkey access variables. Thisexercise was successfullycompleted in February 2000 witha set of recommendations forthe way ahead. Following therecommendations, a small pilotproject was formulated inNovember 2000 for action in afew districts, with a view toTraining of trainers in accessibility planning in Malawi

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wider application. This project isunder review by the Governmentand a few potential donors.

MalawiLabour-based technology (LBT) inMalawi is gaining momentumagain, since the completion of thesuccessful District RoadImprovement Project (DRIMP) andVillage Access Roads and BridgesAssistance Units (VARBAU)projects. Different organisationsactive in Malawi have continuedpromoting LBT, and a start is beingmade to coordinate the separateefforts. A few examples of suchorganisations are given below.

CARE Malawi has started itsCommunity Road ImprovementProject (CRIMP), which aims tobuild local capacity in the privatesector. Several small-scalecontractors are being trained forthe rehabilitation of roads, andwomen’s groups were trained forroutine road maintenance. TheNational Construction IndustryCouncil (NCIC) was also involvedand is looking into the possibilityof training more of their membersto become labour-based contrac-tors.

The World Food Programme(WFP) is continuing its Food forWork programme, with moreemphasis now being given to thesustainability of the constructedassets. The new Food for Assets(FFA) programme concentrates oncommunity works, andprioritisation of interventions willbe done using the Government’sDistrict Planning System (DPS).WFP also plans to extend the FFAinto the urban unplanned areas inLilongwe and Blantyre.

The Malawi Social Action Fund(MASAF) has been involved inlabour-based works for many yearsnow, and is the most importantfunding agency for roadworks inMalawi, apart from the NationalRoads Authority. Besides thisPublic Works Programme, there areCommunity Sub-Projects that dealwith a number of different types ofinterventions.

With respect to Rural Travel andTransport, the past efforts ofdifferent organisations in Malawiare starting to bear fruit. TheGovernment of Malawi is in theprocess of incorporating the Inte-grated Rural Access Planning(IRAP) tool, which was developed inMalawi, into the DPS. The ILO and

the Malawi Rural Travel andTransport Programme (MRTTP) aresupporting this initiative. Muchcapacity building is still needed,however, both in the use of theIRAP tool and in the new DPS.

ZimbabweIn August 2000, ASIST organised incollaboration with the Governmentof Zimbabwe (Department ofPhysical Planning) a four dayintroductory training on 'Local levelplanning and the identification ofaccess interventions' in Mrewa. Agroup of 12 planners, projectofficers, and engineers from 11Rural Districts Councils, and fiveofficers from the Planning Depart-ment familiarised themselves withthe Integrated Rural AccessibilityPlanning (IRAP) tool. Theparticipants also discussedstrategies to improve the localplanning capacity and to increasecommunity participation in the

Field survey in Mrewa, Zimbabwe

to rural service delivery,weaknesses of district level plansin reflecting the priorities at villageand household level, andpossibilities to optimise theavailable financial resources forservice delivery to thecommunities. The workshopconcluded that there is need toexercise flexibility in theapplication of standards andpolicies, to consult and involvelocal communities in mapping offacilities and location of services intheir area, and to strengthen'bottom-up' planning throughadvocacy. The Secretary for LocalGovernment, Public Works andNational Housing officially openedthe workshop.

During the second half of 2000,ASIST advised the Rushinga RuralDistrict Council (RDC) in theupgrading of the Nyamvumbi damand spillway. The dam reservoir washeavily silted and posed a threat to

implementation of access interven-tions (e.g. footpaths, footbridges,etc.). The programme comprisedclassroom exercises and field work(data collection and site visits).

In March 2001, the Departmentof Physical Planning hosted afollow up workshop for seniordecision makers from differentgovernment ministries. Theapplication of the IRAP tool incurrent planning systems was thefocus of discussion. The thirtyparticipants discussed the implica-tions of current planninglegislation and planning standards

livelihoods in thesurrounding communities duringthe rainy season. When thespillway was inaccessible for localtransport, people had to walklonger distances and could nottransport their farm produce. AHarare based engineering firmassisted the RDC with the repairand widening of the spillway, andraising the dam to its originalheight. The benefiting communitiesparticipated in the rehabilitationworks.(See also article on page 31). n

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Rehabilitation of theNyamvumbi dam,Rushinga, ZimbabweBy Richard Maasdorp, Sesani Projects, Zimbabwe

The Nyamvumbi dam is situated inthe Northeast of Zimbabweamongst the rolling hills of theZambezi escarpment. This modestdam is an essential part of daily lifefor the communities aroundChimanda growth point. They usethe dam reservoir to water theirlivestock and as a source for non-potable water. For most people ofthe surrounding communities thedam wall and spillway is an essen-tial daily passing route for trans-porting goods (by bicycle, wheelbar-row or head load) to the growthpoint, or to access services in andaround Chimanda.

Unfortunately over the yearswater storage has given way to siltand, as a consequence, the floodabsorption capability of the reser-voir has been dramatically reduced.Floodwater occasionally over-topped the earth embankment(causing, fortunately enough, notcatastrophic damage) and undercutthe foundations of the masonryspillway. As each rainy seasonpassed, the danger of the dam wallfailing had increased exponentially— a very tenuous situation!Moreover, it was clear that thewidth of the spillway was in facttoo narrow a passing route forpedestrians with head loads, andfor children too dangerous to crossduring the rainy season.

As one follow up to the RuralTransport Study in Three Districts ofZimbabwe from 1996, the dam, astrategic access route, wasprioritised for rehabilitation andspot improvement. Funding wasmade available through Sida, andILO/ASIST agreed with theRushinga Rural District Council ona plan of activities. SesaniProjects, a Harare based consul-tancy firm, was hired to providetechnical and project managementservices. However, the project couldonly start during the secondhalf of 2000, mainly because ofcapacity problems within thecouncil.

The scope of work included:u stumping and clearing of the

embankmentu importing 1800 cubic meters of

fill material on a three kilometrehaul using two tractor-dumpers

u importing by hand 180 cubicmetres of water (180 tonnes) forconditioning purposes

u placing of 40 cubic metres ofmasonry

u fabricating and placing gabionsfor erosion protection.

tractor-dumpers) using bucketsand a human conveyor system

u compaction by hand ramming atplaces inaccessible to tractorcompaction

u winning of sand and rock for thespillway repairs

u masonry construction of thespillway, its foundation andwing-walls.

After a short trial period, theproject adhered to the requirementto deploy an equal number of menand women on site. SesaniProjects, in consultation with thesupervisory staff on site,established which tasks were bestsuited to men and women.

The project was notimplemented without difficulties.Although the project got off to agood start, the harsh economicclimate meant that there were

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The rehabilitated spillway provides access to the market and other social services

ASIST and the Council hadagreed that the participation of thelocal community in theconstruction works was to bemaximised. To this end, manytasks were designed andundertaken by manual labour, suchas:u clearing of trees and vegetation

from the earth embankmentu removing unsuitable material

and levelling the embankmentready to receive carefully selected‘fill’ material

u moisture conditioning the ‘fill’material (brought to site by

often lengthy delays in procuringcement and diesel. Those delays

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were soon followed by two monthsof incessant rain, which put a haltto all the work. The first phase ofthe rehabilitation work wascompleted early this year. Morethan ten communities surroundingthe dam reservoir will benefit fromthe rehabilitation works. n

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Employment friendlytechnology in SouthAfrica

In March 2001, the Department forInternational Development UK(DfID), the Government of theNorthern Province, and the ILOsigned an agreement for a newprogramme that will train smallcontractors who will rehabilitateand maintain rural roads usingemployment-friendly methods ofwork. DfID has earmarked 750,000Sterling Pounds for trainingactivities that will be carried out bythe ILO. The ILO will providetraining expertise and monitor theprogramme. To support regionalcooperation and exchange of skills,the Lesotho Department of RuralRoads will assist in the training ofthe selected emerging contractors.

Targeted procurementworkshopsThe Department of Public Works(DPW)and the Association of SouthAfrican Women in Construction(SAWIC) have hosted a series ofprovincial training sessions tofamiliarise emerging female con-tractors with the new tenderrequirements for public contractsthat have become operational inSouth Africa. (This system of'targeted procurement' requirestenders to compete on price-qualitycriteria and to meet social goalsbuilt into public contracts). ASISTsupported two workshops inDurban and Port Elizabeth andtook the opportunity to brief theaudience on the use of labour-friendly construction methods andtypical Rural Travel and Transport(RTT) problems. ASIST emphasisedthe market potential forimplementing small projects thatimmediately improve communityaccess to services, such as foot-bridges, boreholes, schools, etc.

The contractors highly appreci-ated the RTT session and thesuggested initiatives for exploringnew market areas. The session wasa good example of integrating thevarious ASIST programme fields.

Also on targeted procurement,the national DPW and ILO/ASISTare preparing for an independentassessment of targetedprocurement, which is scheduledto take place in July 2001. Thisassessment will amongst otherslook at how progressivemodifications in the existing SouthAfrican procurement regime (asimplemented through targetedprocurement) can stimulate devel-opment of local contractors andboost employment creation.

Community-based publicworks programme (CBPWP)The CBPWP is a government-funded poverty alleviationprogramme that addressesinfrastructure and employmentproblems in previously disadvan-taged areas. Projects are initiatedand managed by the community,and aim to contribute to short andlong term employment objectives.This programme has beenevaluated twice, in 1996 and 1997(in partnership with the ILO). Bothevaluations found thatemployment-friendly work methodshave not been fully utilised. TheUnited Nations DevelopmentProgramme (UNDP), DPW and ILOrecently undertook a monitoringvisit to Kwa Zulu Natal and visitedseveral CBPWP funded projects.The quality of the assets wasfound to be good. However, there isstill extra room for maximisingemployment and for introducing

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Emerging contractors surfacing a road using labour-based techniques

suitable productivity rates. Thethree partners are currentlyundertaking another evaluation ofthe activities carried out during1998 and 1999.

New researchASIST has published an interestingstudy report on The Economic Valueof Incremental Employment in theSouth African Construction Sector.The study, undertaken by Dr. BarryStandish from Cape TownUniversity, analysed the financialand economic boundaries withinwhich construction operations inSouth Africa can absorb morelabour while still being competitivewith conventional equipment-intensive technology. The studylooks into wage rate issues,multiplier effects of annual wageincreases (particularly for the low-income categories), and the impacton Gross Domestic Product (GDP)and job creation. It also assessesthe economic impact of locallymanufactured constructionmachinery. The main findings arethat labour-friendly constructionmethods, in combination withlocally manufactured equipment,are financially competitive withconventional equipment-intensiveconstruction (bound to certainphysical conditions and wage rates,and considering that capital costsof imports are to be amortised).

Whereas the financial viability oflabour-based construction methodsis proven in several studies, theadded value of this report lies inthe compelling macro-economicadvantages that can significantlycontribute to economicempowerment in South Africa. Aworkshop, hosted by the nationalDepartment of Public Works andsupported by the ILO, is scheduledto discuss the findings and tocome up with recommendations onthe use and promotion ofemployment-friendly strategies. n

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Training andestablishment of labour-based contractors inBotswanaIn a policy statement contained inthe National Development PlanEight, the Government of Botswanaemphasizes poverty alleviationthrough creation of meaningfulemployment and the application oflabour-based methods. The policyfurther aims at increased involve-ment of the private sector in thebuilding of the economy.

Responding to these policystatements, the Ministry of WorksTransport and Communications,through the Roads Department,requested that a component forapplication of labour-based meth-ods in roadworks be taken into theInstitutional Co-operation Agree-ment between the Roads Depart-ment and the Norwegian PublicRoads Administration (NPRA). ILO/ASIST has been engaged to carryout technical audits and specialstudies to highlight problems andconstraints that need to be resolvedfor a large-scale application oflabour-based methods using small-scale citizen contractors.

Since the technology had notbeen applied in the Departmentbefore, it was found necessary tostart with demonstration projectsthrough which information wouldbe collected as a basis for a large-scale application of the method infuture. Preparations commenced in1998 with project identification andformulation of an implementationstrategy. Candidate projects wereidentified for construction of lowvolume sealed access roads and forroutine maintenance of the roadnetwork.

At present the demonstrationprojects using small-scale labour-based contractors for routinemaintenance are nearing comple-tion, and preparations for escalationof the approach encompassingmaintenance of approximately 950km of sealed primary and secondaryroads are well under way. On theconstruction side, problems have

been encountered during the firstround of tendering. Options for newdesigns are currently being consid-ered to make the project roads moresuitable for labour-based methods.

Due to the large number ofcontractors already registered withthe Central Tender Board in thelower categories, it was decided topre-qualify and train existingcontractors rather than establishingnew companies. One of the mainconcerns has been how to incorpo-rate the necessary training toensure that the selected contractorswould be able to successfully carryout the works and manage theirbusinesses proficiently and profit-ably. Since no suitable institutional-ised training existed in Botswana,training for the routine mainte-nance projects was made part of thebrief for the supervising consultant.On the construction projects, theengagement of labour-based spe-cialists/trainers directly by thecontractors has been incorporatedin the tender documents.

It is on the cards that manyfunctions previously carried out in-house by Roads Department staffwill be outsourced to the privatesector in the future, routine mainte-nance being one area where smallcontractors already do a substantialportion of the work. Also intrinsic tothe privatisation process is that anincreasing share of the contractmanagement and supervision ofmaintenance works will be done byconsultants. In the escalation of the

routine maintenance demonstrationprojects, various models for con-tracting out routine maintenanceand contract management byconsultants are therefore beingtested. Involvement of local/citizenconsultants is imperative to thesuccess of this approach. However,since the experience base in thelocal consulting industry is verylimited as regards labour-basedmethods and contractor develop-ment, association with interna-tional/regional firms with therequired experience and expertise inthis field has been necessary duringthe initial stages.

Three categories of small-scalecontractors have been engaged,these being Grade B (contract limitUSD 2 million), grade A (contractlimit USD 400,000) and grade OC(Opportunity Category, contractlimit USD 120,000). The routinemaintenance contracts coverinitially all routine activities for aperiod of one year. In the next stage,contract duration will be up to twoyears.

As Botswana is a cattle countryand has vast areas with bountifulwildlife, vegetation control along thewide road reserves (60m) to ensuregood visibility, and chasing domes-tic animals off fenced road reservesusing bicycles, constitute majoractivities to enhance the trafficsafety.

The results from the demonstra-tion projects have been positive inthat animal related accidents havebeen reduced on the respectivesections according to police reports.The communities have participatedin a positive way throughout, and aconsiderable portion of the moneydisbursed has gone to labour wagesrather than hire charges for mecha-nized equipment. n

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Ezekiel Rametse, Roads Department, Botswana

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Progress of the Namibianlabour-based roadworksprogrammeMalte Engelien, Roads Authority, NBy Malte Engelien, Roads Authority, Namibia

With effect from 1 April 2000, theresponsibility for managing theLabour-based Works project wastransferred from the Ministry ofWorks, Transport and Communica-tions to the newly created RoadsAuthority. Actual work continued tobe executed by private contractorsunder the supervision of consult-ants on behalf of the Roads Author-ity.

The purpose of the project is toenhance the capacity of the publicand private sectors in labour-basedconstruction and maintenance, andto efficiently apply this capacityprimarily to the construction andmaintenance of roads. The outputsof the project include: the comple-tion of the pilot and supervisortraining phase, setting up of appro-priate technical standards and workmethods, training of small scalecontractors, construction of roads,creation of employment, expansionto other regions, and preparation ofa White Paper on labour-basedworks.

The funding for this project wascovered under the Specific Agree-ment between the Namibian and theSwedish Governments on theTransport Sector Support – 1995/96 to March 2000 and the newSpecific Agreement between the

Namibian and the Swedish Govern-ments on the Transport SectorSupport – December 2000 to March2002. The overall funding regime isstructured so that the two Govern-ments eventually make nearly equalcontributions towards the project.

The primary activity, in terms ofcosts, is construction of DistrictRoads to gravel standards in thenorthern regions of Namibia. Othercomplementary activities, whichinclude research and development,provision of equipment pool, small-scale contractor development, andthe drafting of a policy on labour-based works, are aimed at ensuringsustainability of the project.

The project set out to constructabout 150 km of gravel roadsduring the period from July 1995 toMarch 2000. In this period only 88km of road were eventually con-structed. The delay is attributed tothe delay in the implementation ofthe second phase of the Small–scaleContractor Development Pro-gramme, as the output is related tothe contracting capacity available.

During the last year, with theinvolvement of other small andmedium scale indigenous contrac-tors, the production rate hasimproved markedly. 35 km of roadwere completed, bringing the total

length of completed gravel roads to123 km, and 19 trainees success-fully passed the second phase of theSmall-scale Contractor Develop-ment Programme.

The White Paper on labour-basedworks has since been completedand adopted by the national assem-bly. A draft bill to establish alabour-based works forum has beencompleted and discussions areunderway on the forum’s mandatein view of the recently formed armfor employment creation withinGovernment. The forum is envis-aged to be stakeholder driven in apublic/private sector partnership.

In the future, four former train-ees of the Small–scale ContractorDevelopment Programme will beidentified as candidates for furthertraining in a mentorship pro-gramme in the year 2001. All fouridentified candidates will tenderunder limited tender conditions ontwo gravel road tenders. Independ-ent mentors will assist the candi-dates during the tender stage.During the construction works onementor will guide and advise thecandidates on site.

During the Namibian financialyear 2001/2002 construction underat least eight district road projectsis planned. 34 km of labour-basedroads will be built under the newSwedish Agreement, and a total of114 km will be constructed co-funded by the Kreditanstalt fürWiederaufbau (KfW) of Germany. n

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Excavating for wearing course material in Namibia

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The village roaddevelopment project inSri LankaSusil Perera, International Technology Development Group (ITDG), SouthAsia, Sri Lanka

The Village Road DevelopmentProject of Sri Lanka, carried out byITDG, South Asia, while showingthe potential of communities to bebetter involved in rural access roaddevelopment, also clearlyillustrates another point – that ofthe effective technology transferthrough training and networking.

The project started in 1998 andis based on the labour-based roadconstruction methodologypromoted by ILO/ASIST.

Under the project, two Nepaleseengineers who had received theirtraining at the Kisii TrainingCentre in Kenya have trained eightvillage leaders for two weeks at theproject sites in Sri Lanka. Theseleaders, six men and two women,were trained on how to carry outlabour-based works successfullywith community participation inthe two pilot sites in the SouthernProvince.

Within a short period of commis-sioning the first two pilot projects,came acceptance for this approachof involving the communities inplanning, constructing, and main-taining their own roads throughlabour-based methods. In twoyears the project spread to two newlocal government administrativeareas and to another province.Along with this, came requestsfrom the technical officers of thelocal government offices in thepilot project areas, forfamiliarisation of this road con-struction method. By this time theproject had also acquired theservices of a project manager witha civil engineering background. InNovember 2000 he completed theInternational Engineers Course onLabour-based Road Construction atthe Kisii Training Centre, Kenyathat is supported by ILO/ASIST.

The setting is now right tospread this technology further. Theproject has plans to familiarise thetechnical officers with themethodology by facilitating trainingat two new pilot sites.

In the meantime, the existingpilot projects, now five, are pro-gressing and are helping thecommunities establish firm linkswith their local governmentauthorities. These two parties arethe key stakeholders of the projectand need to work closely to helpsustain the benefits of the road byensuring maintenance throughjoint efforts. Most localgovernment authorities are oftenunder-resourced and do not havesufficient funds to maintain all theroads that are placed under theirpurview. A low cost roadconstruction method that alsohelps share the maintenanceresponsibility with the communityis of high value to them. In thefirst two pilot sites, the communityhas taken over the minor androutine maintenance, while theirimmediate local governmentauthority assists them in longterm and major repairs.

ITDG-South Asia foresees threemain tasks that need to be carriedout to popularise the labour-basedroad construction method in SriLanka. These are:

u Influencing the policy makers toaccept and adopt the labour-based method into the main-stream.

u Influencing engineers andtechnical officers throughtraining and field visits toproject sites, etc. with the aim ofincreasing acceptability for thelabour-based methods as analternative technology that canbe used in rural areas.

u Building links between thecommunity and the local govern-ment to share maintenance.This is achieved by promoting asense of ownership for the roadamong the community.

The approach is gaining acceptancein the pilot project areas, butfurther work is necessary topromote its use in other areas andat national level, as this wouldhelp communities in remote andisolated areas. ITDG-South Asiawelcomes any assistance fromnational and internationalorganisations to meet thisobjective. n

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A road improved using labour-based methods in Nepal

For further information or assistance,please contact:

Susil Perera, Project ManagerVillage Road Development Project

Transport and Manufacturing Pro-gramme, ITDG – South Asia5 Lionel Edirisinghe Mawatha

Kirulapone, Colombo 5, Sri Lanka Fax: + 94-1-856188

Tel: +94-1-852149/ 829412/5 E-mail: susilp@itdg.lanka.net

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A way out of isolationand poverty

The Orissa Regional Forum for RuralTransport and Development (ORFRTD)is the country affiliate and regionalforum group of the International Forumfor Rural Transport and Development(IFRTD). ORFRTD is a network oflike-minded and concerned institu-tions, organizations, and individualsfor advancing the goals of IFRTD forpromoting broader and alternativeapproaches towards meeting thetransport needs of the ruralcommunities.

BackgroundOrissa, with a 31.6 million popula-tion (1991 census) spreads over46,000 villages, has 38% Dalits(Scheduled Castes, i.e.underprivileged communities) andTribals (Scheduled Tribes, i.e.indigenous communities) and49.7% people living below thepoverty line. Only 15% of villages(1991 census) are connected withall-weather roads. Poorconnectivity is a major handicap tosocio-economic development of thestate. Above all, the tribal commu-nities living in scattered habitationamidst dense forest/hilly areas areisolated from the developmentmainstream.

ORFRTD, supported by ITDGSouth Asia, conducted the studyAccessibility Needs Assessmentsurvey of a Cluster of Tribal Villagesin Orissa during the first quarter of2001. The survey area covered 17villages of two Gram Panchayats(i.e. local government units at thelowest-level consisting of clustersof villages with populations from2,000 to 10,000) in Daspalla Blockof Nayagarh District in Orissahaving 517 families and apopulation of 2544.

Purpose and methodologyThe purpose of the study was toacquire a deeper understanding ofthe tribal communities, and toassess their mobility andaccessibility needs, and to identifysuitable transport options andinterventions for improving theiraccess to services, markets, andopportunities.

Integrated Rural AccessibilityPlanning (IRAP) tools wereemployed in the questionnairedesign, data collection, analysis,and processing. Field surveys wereconducted using village levelquestionnaires through villageleadership discussions. Householdlevel questionnaires, village socialand resource mapping, and othersecondary sources were also used.Key indicators were:u Education: 71.22% illiterateu Poverty level: 95% below the

poverty line.

Transport CharacteristicsThe average household makes14.26 trips per day. Its transportactivities occupy 2654 hrs perannum or 51 hrs per week, andinvolved a load carrying effort of95.56 tonnes per annum. Internal

transport ( i.e. within the surveyarea) is more significant andaccounts for 94.46% of all trips,79.93% of time spent, 98.36% oftotal goods moved, and 87.81% ofload carrying effort involved. Theburden of transportation primarilyfalls on women. In terms of time,they are responsible for 61%, andload carrying 65%. The dailytransport workload ratio of anaverage adult female, adult male,and child is 61:27:12 in respect oftime and 65:23.60:11.40 in respectof load carrying.

Action interventionsBased on the above findings andaccessibility needs, the followinginterventions have been plannedaccording to IRAP strategies:u Improvement of the existing

connecting footpaths and tracksto low-cost all-weather ruralroads using labour intensivemethods.

u Community-managed busservice

u Application of appropriatetechnology for improvement ofanimal drawn carts, and widerintroduction of bicycles andtrolleys.

u Other non-transport interven-tions like establishment of acommunity health centre andtwo market centers.

PartnershipConsidering acute accessibilityconstraints in the study area, amulti-sectoral partnershipapproach involving allstakeholders, i.e. the community,NGOs, ORFRTD, ITDG, and othernational/international agencies, isnecessary to translate the missioninto a sustainable reality. n

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ISSN: 1020-0606The ASIST Bulletin is published by theInternational Labour Organisation AdvisorySupport, Information Services and Training(ILO/ASIST) Programme.

Editorial team Angela Kabiru-Kang'ethe,Ida Chimedza, Chris Donnges, TerjeTessem, David Mason. Layout by AnnabelChite and ASIST.

All articles and drawings can be repro-duced without permission, but the sourceshould be quoted as ILO/ASIST. Photo-graphs carrying no copyright mark © maybe obtained on application from thepublishers.

This bulletin is intended for use as aninformation source and is not an officialdocument of the International LabourOrganisation. Opinions expressed in signedarticles are those of the authors and do notnecessarily reflect the views of the ILO orof ASIST. The editors reserve the right tomake changes to all articles beforepublication. The designations employed inthe ASIST Bulletin, which are in conformitywith the United Nations practice, and thepresentation of material therein do not implythe expression of any opinion whatsoeveron the part of the International Labour Officeconcerning the legal status of any country,area or territory, or of its authorities, orconcerning the delimitation of its frontiers.

Highlights of the accessibility needsassessment survey of a cluster of tribalvillages in OrissaBy ORFRTD Team, India