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Assessment and Intervention: Detecting Deception and Assessing Truthfulness with the Violent, Dangerous, or Suicidal Student
© 2017, The NCHERM Group, LLC. All rights reserved.
BrianVanBrunt,Ed.D.SeniorExecutiveVicePresidentofProfessionalProgramDevelopment
TheNCHERMGroup,[email protected] @brianvb
2©2017TheNCHERMGroup,allrightsreserved
Dangerousnessandviolence,fromastudent,facultyorstaffmemberisdifficult,ifnotimpossible,to
accuratelypredict.Thistrainingtopicoffersresearch-basedtechniquesandtheoriestoprovidea
foundationalunderstandingandimprovedawarenessofthepotentialrisks.Thetrainingortoolshouldnot
beseenasaguaranteeorofferanyassurancethatviolencewillbeprevented.
3©2017TheNCHERMGroup,allrightsreserved
WhyisthisImportant?
Ø Whenassessingthreat,violencerisk,orsuiciderisk,theissueofvalidityofresponsesandtruthfulnessbecomesakeyfeatureoftheassessment.
Ø Wecannotsimplyaskstudents,staff,orfacultymembersquestionsonalistandhopetheyarebeingtruthful.
Ø Weshouldlooktoassesstheirtruthfulness,potentialfordeception,impressionmanagement,andaccuracy.
INTRODUCTION
4©2017TheNCHERMGroup,allrightsreserved
Liar,Liar…
“Deception,adeliberateattempttoconvincesomeoneofsomethingtheliarbelievesisuntrue,isafactofeverydaylife.Depaulo andhercolleagues(1996)askedparticipantstokeepadiaryforaweekofalltheirsocialinteractionsthatlastedmorethan10minutesandtonotehowoftentheyliedduringtheseinteractions.Almostallparticipantsadmittedthattheyhadliedduringtheweektheykeptthediary.Theyliedinoneoutofeveryfoursocialinteractionsandtomorethat30percentofallthepeopletheyinteractedwith”(pxi).
Granhag,P.Vrij,A.&Verschuere,B.(2015).DetectingDeception:CurrentChallengesandCognitiveApproaches.WileyPress,Malden,MA.
5©2017TheNCHERMGroup,allrightsreserved
www.ancient-origins.net/myths-legends/truth-about-lie-detection-ancient-and-modern-times-002125
Fire ordeal. The trial of Sita in the Ramayana
Trialsbyordealwereacommonmeansofdetectingguiltfrominnocence,althoughthey’rewidelyconsiderednowtobebarbaricandviolenttestsrevealingnothingoftruthorlies.Thesewereancientjudicialpracticesinwhichtheaccusedwassubjectedtodangerousperils.Deathwouldindicateguilt,andsurvivalsuggestedinnocence.
6©2017TheNCHERMGroup,allrightsreserved
www.ancient-origins.net/myths-legends/truth-about-lie-detection-ancient-and-modern-times-002125
TheBocca della Verità (theMouthofTruth)isaheavymarbledisccarvedintothe
shapeofaheadandface.Itissaidtooriginallyrepresentthe
TitangodOceanus,ofthegreatearth-encirclingriverthatfeedsalltheworld’srivers,wells,andsprings.
Beginninginthemiddleages,thediscwassupposedtotell
truthfromlies.
7©2017TheNCHERMGroup,allrightsreserved
www.ancient-origins.net/myths-legends/truth-about-lie-detection-ancient-and-modern-times-002125
InancientChina,suspectswouldbemadetochewdryricewhilebeingquestioned.Whenthesuspectsspatouttherice,theywereassumedtobeguiltyifthegrainsremainedstucktotheirtongue.
Thereasoningwasthatthestresscreatedbylying
wouldslowsalivaflowandcauseadrymouth.Itwasbelievedthataninnocent
personwouldhavenoreasontostressunder
suchconditions.
8©2016TheNCHERMGroup,allrightsreserved
Ø CredibilityAssessmentØ DeceptionDetectionØ ImpressionManagementØ FakingGoodØ FakingBadØ HaloEffectØ CognitiveOverload
KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS
9©2017TheNCHERMGroup,allrightsreserved
CredibilityAssessment
Ø Credibilityassessmentdetermines howbelievableanindividual’spriorstatementsandtestimonyare.
Ø Credibilityassessmentsareusedmoreinlegalsettingstodeterminequalityofawitnessinaproceeding.
10©2017TheNCHERMGroup,allrightsreserved
DeceptionDetection
Ø DeceptionDetectionmakesuseofquestioningandobservationtechniques,alongwithtechnologythatrecordsphysiologicalfunctions,toassessthelikelihoodoftruthandfalsehoodinssubject’sstory.
Ø “Intheend,detectingdeceptionisallabouthonesty.Ekmanconcludes,"It'smuchhardertofindthetruththantofindalie.Agoodlie-catcherisgoodatidentifyingtruthfulness.”
www.apa.org/monitor/julaug04/detecting.aspx
11©2017TheNCHERMGroup,allrightsreserved
ImpressionManagement
Ø “Insociologyandsocialpsychology,impressionmanagement isagoal-directedconsciousorunconsciousprocessinwhichpeopleattempttoinfluencetheperceptionsofothersaboutaperson,object,orevent.Impressionmanagementisperformedbycontrollingorshapinginformationinsocialinteractions.”
www.boundless.com/management/textbooks/boundless-management-textbook/organizational-behavior-5/individual-perceptions-and-behavior-41/impression-management-219-6809/
12©2017TheNCHERMGroup,allrightsreserved
FakingGood
Ø “Whenastudentattemptstodistorthistruemotivesbyconvincingtheevaluatorthatheisbetter,orrespondtoquestionsinamoresociallydesirablemanner.”
Ø “Astudentmaydothisinordertoconvincetheevaluatorheishealthy,welladjusted,andhasfewproblems.Hemayattempttohidementalhealthproblems,anti-socialbeliefs,orproblemshehaswithauthorityorfollowingtherules”(p.84).
VanBrunt,B.(2012).EndingCampusViolence:NewApproachestoPrevention.TaylorandFrancis,NY:NY.
13©2017TheNCHERMGroup,allrightsreserved
FakingBad
Ø “Whenastudentattemptstomaketheevaluatorthinkthattheproblemstheyarehavingareworsethantheyreallyare.”
Ø Astudentmaydothisinordertoreceivesomekindofaccommodation,suchasincreasedtimeonanexamtheyaretaking,ortheymaywanttoconvincetheevaluatorthatthereasontheymadeathreatorhurtanotherstudentwasduetoaseriousmentaldisorder,ratherthensimpleangerorrecklessness.Thisisknownasfakingbad”(p.84).
VanBrunt,B.(2012).EndingCampusViolence:NewApproachestoPrevention.TaylorandFrancis,NY:NY.
14©2017TheNCHERMGroup,allrightsreserved
HaloEffect
Thehaloeffectisabiasinwhichouroverallimpressionofaperson(afigurativehalo)colorsourjudgmentofthatperson’scharacter.Theresearchintothehaloeffectshowsthataperson'spositivequalities,physicalappearance,andgeneralattractivenessaffectshowwejudgetheircharacter— thebettertheylookandbehave,thebetterapersonwejudgethemtobe.
Nisbett,R.E.,&Wilson,T.D.(1977b).TheHaloEffect.EvidenceforUnconsciousAlterationofJudgments.JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology,35, 250–256.www.beinghuman.org/article/halo-effect
15©2017TheNCHERMGroup,allrightsreserved
Ø Thorndike(1920)didanexperimentwheresoldierswereratedbytheircommandingofficersintermsoftheirphysicalqualities(e.g.,neatness,energy,andphysique)andtheirmental,emotional,andsocialqualities(e.g.,intellect,leadership,andresponsibility).Thorndikefoundthat,ifoneofthesoldier'squalitieswasratedhighly,theotherqualitiestendedtoalsoberatedhighly,andviceversa.
- Example:Concludingthatapoliticianwhoiswarm,friendly,andhasagreatsmilewouldmakegooddecisions.
Nisbett,R.E.,&Wilson,T.D.(1977b).TheHaloEffect.EvidenceforUnconsciousAlterationofJudgments.JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology,35, 250–256.www.beinghuman.org/article/halo-effect
16©2017TheNCHERMGroup,allrightsreserved
CognitiveLoad
Ø Cognitiveloadreferstothetotalamountofmentaleffortbeingusedintheworkingmemory.Sweller inthelate1980sdevelopedthisconceptinreferencetolearningenvironments.
Ø Studiesconfirmthatbeingdeceptiveismorecognitivelydemandingthanbeingtruthful.
Patterson,T.(2009).TheEffectofCognitiveLoadonDeception.FIUElectronicThesesandDissertations.Paper121.http://digitalcommons.fiu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1174&context=etd
17©2017TheNCHERMGroup,allrightsreserved
4GeneralApproachestoDetectLies:
1. Physiologicalresponses(breathing,heartrate,andgalvanicskinresponse).
2. Observethebehavior(facialandmicro-expressions,gestures,andbodylanguage).
3. Analyzethespeech(voicetoneandverbalstyle,wordcount,andlinguisticanalysis).
4. Measurethebrainactivity(EKG,MRI).
Granhag,P.Vrij,A.&Verschuere,B.(2015).DetectingDeception:CurrentChallengesandCognitiveApproaches.WileyPress,Malden,MA.
DETECTING LIES
Microexpressions are verybrieffacialexpressions,lastingonlyafractionofasecond.Theyoccurwhenapersoneitherdeliberatelyorunconsciouslyconcealsafeeling.Dr.Ekman’sresearchhasrevealedthatsevenemotionshaveuniversalsignals:anger,fear,sadness,disgust,contempt,surprise,andhappiness.
18©2017TheNCHERMGroup,allrightsreserved
Ekman,P.(1985).Tellinglies. NewYork:W.W.Norton.www.paulekman.com/micro-expressions/
19©2017TheNCHERMGroup,allrightsreserved
“Weanalyzetheaccuracyofdeceptionjudgments,synthesizingresearchresultsfrom206documentsand24,483judges.In
relevantstudies,peopleattempttodiscriminateliesfromtruthsinrealtimewithnospecialaidsortraining.Inthesecircumstances,
peopleachieveanaverageof54percentcorrectlie-truthjudgments,correctlyclassifying47percentofliesasdeceptive
and61percentoftruthsasnon-deceptive.”
Bond,C.andDePaulo,B.(2006).AccuracyofDeceptiveJudgements.JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychologyReview,10,(3),214–234.
20©2017TheNCHERMGroup,allrightsreserved
Theproblemthatismostnon-verbalcluesarebasedon“average,”notwhataspecific
individualmightdo.
Ebesu,A.S.,&Miller,M.D.(1994).Verbalandnonverbalbehaviorsasafunctionofdeceptiontype.SpecialIssue:Interpersonaldeception.JournalofLanguageandSocialPsychology,13, 418-442.
21©2017TheNCHERMGroup,allrightsreserved
High-stakeslyingisstressfulforbothtruth-tellersandliarsalike.
Highstakesinclude:Ø Money.Ø Spouseorsignificantrelationship.Ø Reputation.Ø Freedom.
22©2017TheNCHERMGroup,allrightsreserved
TheProblemofSmallStatisticalPatterns
Ø Imagine100menandwomeninagroup.Eventhoughtheremaybeastaticallysignificancedifferenceinheightbetweenthegendersofhalfaninch,thisishardertodetectthan,say,gender.
Ø Intheend,truthtellersandliarsaremoresimilarthandifferent.
www.truthaboutdeception.com/lying-and-deception/detecting-deception/nonverbal-cues.html
23©2017TheNCHERMGroup,allrightsreserved
www.truthaboutdeception.com/lying-and-deception/detecting-deception/nonverbal-cues.html
24©2017TheNCHERMGroup,allrightsreserved
www.truthaboutdeception.com/lying-and-deception/detecting-deception/nonverbal-cues.html
25©2017TheNCHERMGroup,allrightsreserved
“Therearenosignsoflying,perse,butrathersignsofthinkingtoomuchwhenareplyshouldnotrequire
thoughtoremotionsthatdon’tfitwhatisbeingspoken.”
Wetrainpeopletolookforhotspots...
Adelson,R.(2004).DetectingDeception.JournalofAmericanPsychologicalAssociation,35(7),70.
26©2017TheNCHERMGroup,allrightsreserved
“Ourdatasuggestthatliarstendtotellstoriesthatarelesscomplex,lessself-relevant,andmorecharacterized
bynegativity”(p.674).
1. “First,theuseofthefirst-personsingularisasubtleproclamationofone’sownershipofastatement… liarsmayavoidstatementsofownershipeitherto“dissociate”themselvesfromtheirwordsorduetoalackofpersonalexperience…. Ifthisstateofmindisreflectedinthewordspeopleuse,thendeceptivecommunicationsshouldbecharacterizedbyfewerfirst-personsingularpronouns(e.g.,I,me,andmy)”p.666.
Newman,M.,Pennebaker,J.,Berry,D.andRichards,J.(2003). LyingWords:PredictingDeceptionFromLinguisticStyles.JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology,29(5),665–675.
27©2017TheNCHERMGroup,allrightsreserved
2. “Second,liarsmayfeelguiltyeitheraboutlyingoraboutthetopictheyarediscussing… deceptivecommunicationsshouldbecharacterizedbymorewordsreflectingnegativeemotion(e.g.,hate,worthless,sad).”p.666
3. “Finally,theprocessofcreatingafalsestoryshouldconsumecognitiveresources… individualswhouseahighernumberof“exclusive”words(e.g.,except,but,without)aregenerallyhealthierthanthosewhodonotusethesewords… Whenpeopleareattemptingtoconstructafalsestory,wearguethatsimple,concreteactionsareeasiertostringtogetherthanfalseevaluations.”p.667
Newman,M.,Pennebaker,J.,Berry,D.andRichards,J.(2003).LyingWords:PredictingDeceptionFromLinguisticStyles.JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology,29(5),665-675
28©2017TheNCHERMGroup,allrightsreserved
Granhag,P.Vrij,A.&Verschuere,B.(2015).DetectingDeception:Currentchallengesandcognitiveapproaches.WileyPress,Malden,MA.(p7-8)
GeneralCharacteristicsØ LogicalstructureØ UnstructuredproductionØ Quantityofdetails
SpecificContentsØ Contextualembedding.Ø Descriptionsofinteractions.Ø Reproductionofconversations.Ø Usualdetails.Ø Superfluousdetails.Ø Accuratelyreporteddetails
misunderstood.Ø Relatedexternaldetails.Ø Accountsofsubjectivementalstate.Ø Attributionsofperpetratorsmentalstate.Ø Unexpectedcomplicationsduringincident.
Motivations-RelatedContentsØ Spontaneouscorrections.Ø Admittinglackofmemory.Ø Raisingdoubtsaboutones'own
testimony.Ø Self-depreciation.Ø Pardoningtheperpetrator.
Offense-SpecificElementsØ Detailscharacteristicsoftheoffense.
Criteria-BasedContentAnalysis(CBCA)
Thepresenceofeachcriterionstrengthensthe
hypothesisthattheaccountisbasedongenuinepersonalexperiences.
29©2017TheNCHERMGroup,allrightsreserved
Allthefancysciencebasicallysayswearen’tverygoodatthis.Whenwegetbetter,wehavetoengageinlotsoftrainingandperhapsstartrecordingandanalyzingour
interviews.
Ifwewerefightingterrorists,thismightmakesomesense.
PRACTICAL APPLICATION
30©2017TheNCHERMGroup,allrightsreserved
BuildingRapport
“….hespokefreelyandhonestlynotbecausehewasforcedtotalk,butbecausehelikedmeandconsidered
mehisfriend”(p.x).
Friend Stranger Foe
Schafer,J.(2015).TheLikeSwitch.SimonandSchuster,NY,NY.
31©2017TheNCHERMGroup,allrightsreserved
FriendshipFormulaFriendship=Proximity+Frequency+Duration+Intensity
Ø Proximity isthedistancebetweenyouandtheanotherindividualandyourexposuretotheindividualovertime(thinknon-threateningenvironment).
Ø Frequency isthenumberofcontactsyouhavewithanotherindividualovertime.
Ø Duration isthelengthoftimeyouspendwithanotherindividualovertime.
Ø Intensity ishowstronglyyouareabletosatisfyanotherperson’spsychologicaland/orphysicalneedsthroughtheuseofverbalandnonverbalbehaviors(thinkcuriosity).
Schafer,J.(2015).TheLikeSwitch.SimonandSchuster,NY,NY(p.4–5).
32©2017TheNCHERMGroup,allrightsreserved
Schafer,J.(2015).TheLikeSwitch.SimonandSchuster,NY,NY.
“Ourbrainsarecontinuallyscanningtheenvironmentforfriendorfoesignals”(p.25).
FriendSignals:Ø Eyebrowflashisaquickup-and-downmovementofthe
eyebrowsthatlastsaboutone-sixthofasecond(briefandnotstaring).
Ø Headtilttotheleftortherightisanonthreateninggesture.Thisisastrongfriendsignal.
Ø Thesmileshouldbegenuinewithupturnedcornersofthemouthandupwardmovementofthecheeksaccompaniedbyawrinklingaroundtheeyes.Insinceresmilestendtolopsided.
33©2017TheNCHERMGroup,allrightsreserved
Schafer,J.(2015).TheLikeSwitch.SimonandSchuster,NY,NY.
FriendSignals:Ø Isopraxism ismirroringaperson’sbodylanguage.Ø Inwardleaniswhenpeopleleantowardpeopletheylikeand
distancethemselvesfrompeopletheydon’t.Ø Headnoddingcommunicatestothosespeakingthatthey
shouldkeeptalking.Ø Verbalnudgesreinforcesheadnoddingandencouragesthe
speakertocontinuetalking(e.g.,“Isee,”“goon…,”“tellmemore,”etc.).
Ø Focusedlisteningrequiresthoseconductinginteriewstonotletdistractionsinterrupttheirattentivelistening.
34©2017TheNCHERMGroup,allrightsreserved
Schafer,J.(2015).TheLikeSwitch.SimonandSchuster,NY,NY.
FoeSignals:Ø Elongatedstareoreyecontactthatlastsmorethanasecond
canbereadasaggressive.Ø Bodyscan/elevatoreyesisasweepinghead-to-toegazeis
oftenseenasintrusivebecausethepersondoingthelookinghasn’tearnedtherighttoinvadetheother’spersonalspace.
Ø Eyerollsendsthemessageyouthinktheindividualisstupidandnotworthlisteningto.
Ø Eyesquinting,furrowedeyebrows,andfacialtensionareassociatedwithdisapproval,uncertainty,andanger.
35©2017TheNCHERMGroup,allrightsreserved
Schafer,J.(2015).TheLikeSwitch.SimonandSchuster,NY,NY.
ConversationalBridge-Backs
Thistechniqueisusedtobuildrapportandconveyasensethatyouareattendingtothepersonbeinginterviewed.Thereisareferencetoapriorknowledgesetorconversationthatestablishespastconnectionsandmovestherapportforward.
36©2017TheNCHERMGroup,allrightsreserved
Schafer,J.(2015).TheLikeSwitch.SimonandSchuster,NY,NY.
AskingaFavor
Thistechniqueisusedtobuildrapport,andbuildsontheconceptthatdoingfavorsforothersbuildstrustandhelpstheindividualsfeelgoodaboutthemselves.(Watchdrinkexample.)
37©2017TheNCHERMGroup,allrightsreserved
Schafer,J.(2015).TheLikeSwitch.SimonandSchuster,NY,NY.
“ifyouwantpeopletolikeyou,makethemfeelgoodaboutthemselves…”
— (p.77)
38©2017TheNCHERMGroup,allrightsreserved
WhatistheMotivationtoLie?Welietoprotect:Ø Ourselves.Lyingoftenisawaytoavoidsufferingpainful
consequences,shame,embarrassment,orconflict.Ø Ourinterests.Welietogetmaterialgoods(e.g.,money)and
non-materialgoods(e.g.attentionfromthetellingoftalltales).
Ø Ourimage.Weallwantotherstothinkwellofus,yetwealldothingsthatweourselvesconsiderlessthanrespectableattimes.
Ø Ourresources.Weoftenlietoavoidexpendingenergyortimedoingsomethingwereallydon'twanttodo.
Ø Others.Tellingpeoplewhattheywanttohearisawaytoprotecttheirfeelings.
www.psychologytoday.com/blog/happiness-in-world/201003/why-we-lie
39©2017TheNCHERMGroup,allrightsreserved
Considerusingapropquestiontoassessresponse.
FakingBad:Ø “Sometimes,whenpeoplethinkofsuicide,theirwristsorthe
backoftheirneckmayfeelhot.Haveyoueverexperiencedthat?”
FakingGoodØ “Whatwouldbethethingtodoifyoufounda$20onthe
groundoutsideofthisoffice?”
40©2017TheNCHERMGroup,allrightsreserved
1. LandofIs
Ø Yes-or-noquestionsdeservea“yes”or“no”answer.Whenpeoplecannotordonotwanttoanswer“yes”or“no,”theytypicallygototheLandofIs.ThisconceptwasderivedfromPresidentClinton'snowinfamousstatement,"Itdependsuponwhatthemeaningoftheword‘is’is.If‘is’means‘is,’andneverhasbeen,that'sonething.Ifitmeansthereisnone,thatwasacompletelytruestatement.”
Ø TheLandofIsoccupiesthespacebetweentruthanddeception.TheLandofIsconsistsofhalf-truths,innuendos,suppositions,assumptions,andverbaljudo.
www.inc.com/jack-schafer/an-fbi-agent-on-how-to-detect-deception.html
41©2017TheNCHERMGroup,allrightsreserved
1. LandofIs(Cont.)Ø Mostpeoplewanttotellthetruth,sotheygotogreatlengthsto
contorttheEnglishlanguagetomaintaintheillusionoftruthwithouttellingitentirely.PeopleoftenfindthemselvesintheLandofIswithouteverbeingawareofit.
Ø Totestpeopleforthetruth,simplyaskthemayes-or-noquestion.Iftheyfailtoanswer“yes”or“no,”aredflagshouldpopup.Aftersomeoneprovidesaconvolutedanswertoadirectquestion,askthesamequestionagain.Ifthepersononceagainfailstoanswerwitha“yes”or“no,”theprobabilityofdeceptionincreasessignificantly.
www.inc.com/jack-schafer/an-fbi-agent-on-how-to-detect-deception.html
42©2017TheNCHERMGroup,allrightsreserved
2. Well…Ø Ifyouasksomeoneadirectyes-or-noquestion,andthe
responseyougetbeginswiththeword"Well,"thereisahighprobabilityofdeception.Whenindividualsansweringadirectquestionbeginwith"Well,"itindicatestheyareabouttogiveananswerthattheyknowthequestionerisnotexpecting.
www.inc.com/jack-schafer/an-fbi-agent-on-how-to-detect-deception.html
43©2017TheNCHERMGroup,allrightsreserved
3. WhyShouldIBelieveYou?Ø Whentruthfulpeopleareaskedwhyothersshouldbelieve
them,theytypicallyanswer,"BecauseI'mtellingthetruth"orsomevariationofthat.Liarshaveadifficulttimesaying
Ø "BecauseI'mtellingthetruth"becausetheyarenottellingthetruth.Instead,liarsoffervariousresponsessuchas"I'manhonestperson,""Youdon'thavetobelievemeifyoudon'twantto,"or"Ihavenoreasontolie."Thequestion,"WhyshouldIbelieveyou?"canbeaskedinavarietyofwaysdependingonthesensitivityoftherelationship.
www.inc.com/jack-schafer/an-fbi-agent-on-how-to-detect-deception.html
44©2017TheNCHERMGroup,allrightsreserved
DetectingDeception:CurrentChallengesandCognitiveApproaches
Granhag,P.Vrij,A.&Verschuere,B.(2015).DetectingDeception:CurrentChallengesandCognitiveApproaches.WileyPress,Malden,MA.
RESOURCES MOVING FORWARD
45©2017TheNCHERMGroup,allrightsreserved
TellingLies:CluestoDeceitintheMarketplace,
Politics,andMarriage
www.amazon.com/Telling-Lies-Marketplace-Politics-Marriage/dp/0393337456/