Water Resour ManageDOI 10.1007/s11269-006-9075-6

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Assessment of the levels of coastal marine pollution ofChennai city, Southern India

Palanisamy Shanmugam · S. Neelamani ·Yu-Hwan Ahn · Ligy Philip · Gi-Hoon Hong

Received: 7 December 2005 / Accepted: 9 June 2006C© Springer Science + Business Media B.V. 2006

Abstract The levels of hydrological pollution of Chennai coastal zone in the southeasternpart of India have been increased in the recent years by an uncontrolled disposal of wastewaterand pollutants due to human activities. This study gave a special emphasis on the determi-nation of the levels of pollution, the identification of vulnerable zones and providing someprobable remedial measures for severely impacted coastal zone of Chennai city. During theperiod from September to November 2002, sampling was carried out along the shore in twotraverses running in the seaside (surf zone) and landside (coastal aquifer). When sampling ef-forts took place the middle of the above period experienced a monsoonal storm over Chennaicoast that significantly influenced large variations in the pollution level at both traverses in sea-side and landside. Analysis of physical, chemical and biological parameter determinationsindicated that the concentrations of dissolved oxygen (DO), biochemical oxygen demand(BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), nutrients (nitrate, nitrite and phosphate), turbidity,maximum probable number (MPN) and chlorophyll a (Chl a) reached notably high levels atall sample locations before monsoonal storm prevailed over these areas during October 2002,which resulted in large fresh water input to the coastal system reducing the levels of pollutionto some extent. Analysis of water samples collected during November apparently indicated

Current address: P. Shanmugam, Korea Ocean Research and Development Institute, Ansan P.O. Box 29,Seoul, 425-600, Korea

P. Shanmugam ( ) · Y.-H. AhnOcean Satellite Research Group, Korea Ocean Research and Development Institute, AnsanP. O. Box 29, Seoul 425-600, Koreae-mails: pshanmugam@kordi.re.kr, pshanmugam90@hotmail.com

S. NeelamaniDepartment of Ocean Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Chennai 600 036, India

L. PhilipDepartment of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Chennai- 600 036, India

G.-H. HongChemical Oceanography Division, Korea Ocean Research and Development Institute, Ansan P.O. Box29, Seoul 425-600, Korea

Springer

Water Resour Manage

that the concentrations of above parameters attained abnormal level and often exceeded thepermissible limit of international standards. The concentrations of trace/toxic metals such asmanganese, copper, nickel, lead, cadmium and cobalt also reached very high levels as a resultof their sub-aqueous disposal to these areas, leading to further habitat and ecological destruc-tion. On the other hand, analysis of groundwater samples collected from coastal aquifer fordetermination of certain chemical parameters such as Ca2+/Mg2+, Cl−/(CO2−

3 +HCO−3 ) and

the ratio of total alkalinity (TA) and total hardness (TH) revealed that coastal groundwaterappeared to be severely contaminated by saltwater intrusion as a result of overexploitationand enormous pressure imposed by monsoonal storm of October. Higher concentrations oftoxic elements, for example, lead, nickel, cobalt and cadmium from the influence of industrialwastes and contaminated coastal waters, were also found to deteriorate the quality of coastalaquifer system. Based on detailed examination, four sites including Cuvum estuary, Adyarestuary, Kannikoil and Bharathiyar nagar are identified as highly venerable zones becauseof receiving a large quantity of municipal and industrial wastes. To reduce severe pollutionlevels in these areas it is therefore necessary to design and construct the submarine pipelinesystem to transport and disperse such a large quantity of waste materials to the deep openocean areas.

Keywords Coastal marine pollution . Physical . Chemical and biological pollutants . Surfzone . Coastal aquifer . Chennai city

1. Introduction

The Chennai City is the fourth largest metropolis in India, and the coastal region of thiscity is a typical example for uncontrolled disposal of wastewater and serious pollution level(Giridhar, 2001). It is subject to a multitude of anthropogenic impacts attributable to acceler-ated population growth (7 million) and development of small-scale and large-scale industries,expansion of harbours and tourism related activities in the coastal zone, disposal of municipalwastes, industrial wastes and numerous recreational and commercial activities that not onlydegrade the quality of coastal water but also pose a serious health hazard to marine biotasand human (Beiras et al., 2003; Capuzzo et al., 1985; Rama Devi et al., 1996; Tran et al.,2002; Williams, 1996). First of all, it is required to assess and study the level of coastal waterpollution both spatially and temporally, in order to make further recommendations for con-trolling the quality of wastewater disposal. The main source of coastal pollution in Madrasarises from Cuvum and Adyar rivers, Buckingham canal outlets, industrial effluent dischargeat various points along the coast (especially in the north Chennai region) and industrial anddomestic sewage discharge points at many locations along the coastal stretch.

Technically it is advisable to discharge the wastewater at a water depth of more than 20 min the ocean for better diffusion and dispersion (Beder, 1989). Discharge at this depth auto-matically reduces the concentration levels of the organic and inorganic materials below thethreshold level (which is the level of concentration of organic and inorganic materials, whichwill not hamper the environment, living organisms etc.). Contrary to this, in Chennai most ofthe wastewater is disposed in the coast itself. The surfzone dynamic activity retains all thesewastewaters in the coastal zone itself and prevents proper dispersion into the offshore wa-ters (http://beach.com/stateofthebeach/2-indi/health quality.asp). Already the fishing com-munity has reported few types of dermatological problems due to coastal pollution in thenorth Chennai zone. It is also reported that the fish growth is reducing in the coastal waters of

Springer

Water Resour Manage

Table 1 Point and non-point sources of pollution in Chennai coastal water

Sources Common pollutant categories

Point SourcesMunicipal sewage wastes (Cuvum, Adyar and

north Chennai)BOD, bacteria, nutrients, ammonia, toxic

chemicalsIndustrial wastes (North Chennai) Toxic chemicals and BODCombined sewer overflows (Thorough out the

entire stretch)BOD, bacteria, nutrients, ammonia, turbidity,

total dissolved solids, toxic chemicalsNon-point SourcesUrban runoff (Ennore) Turbidity, bacteria, nutrients, total dissolved

solids, toxic chemicals

Mining/dredging (Adyar and Ennore) Turbidity, acids, toxic chemicals, total dissolvedsolids

Fly ash (Ennore) Nutrients, turbidity, toxic chemicals

Chennai (Gowri and Ramachandran, 2001). Consumption of fish thriving in polluted coastalwaters also will deteriorate the human health.

Pollutants in coastal marine environments of Chennai are derived from both point and non-point sources (Table 1). Waste disposal operations intentionally release materials to coastalwaters via direct dumping and pipeline discharges, which constitute point sources of pollution.The dumping of municipal sewage sludge, dredged spoils, and industrial wastes (e.g. acid-ironwaste, alkali chemicals, and pharmaceuticals, and the discharge of municipal and industrial ef-fluents from outfalls are the primary point source categories. The principal non-point sourcesof pollution from land-based systems include urban runoff, septic tank leakage, groundwatertransport, erosion and contaminated soils, and atmospheric deposition (Kotti et al., 2005).Non-point sources of pollutants also originate from human activities at sea associated withaccidental releases (e.g. oil spills in harbour areas), marine mining, and the operation ofvessels (the handling capacity is 36 million tonnes annually). More than half of all industrialand municipal wastes are directly discharged into estuaries and coastal marine waters. InChennai coastal water, municipal sewage wastes (both sludge and wastewater), liquid indus-trial wastes (pharmaceutical, fertilizer, thermal power plants and other chemical factories)and dredged materials are the sources of most pollutants, released to coastal waters (Table 1).

The primary objective of this study is to assess and study the nature, intensity and extent ofphysical, chemical and biological pollutants of the coastal waters and aquifer waters along a30 km Chennai coastal area which is severally affected by enormous quantity of industrial anddomestic wastewater disposal. This study will recommend a method for proper wastewaterdisposal and protecting the health of coastal ecosystem.

2. Background of study site

The Chennai coastal zone covers a stretch of approximately 30 km length from Adyar river inthe south to Ennore creek in the north. The area is bound by the latitude 13◦0′N and 13◦15′Nand longitude 80◦15′E and 80◦21′E (Figure 1). Nearly 98.2% of the land area is used forindustrial, residential and commercial purposes. The majority of wastewater is disposed of inAdyar River, Cuvum River, and Buckingham canal outlets. Apart from these major disposalsites, a number of domestic and industrial wastewater sites are prevalent along the coastalzone of the north Chennai. A number of refineries, thermal power plants, chemical rubber

Springer

Water Resour Manage

Fig. 1 Location of the sampling points along the different zones of the Chennai coast

and fertilizer industries are located along the Chennai coastal zone. The wastewaters fromall these industries and residential zones are finally directed to the coastal waters of Chennai.Therefore, Ennore, Chennai Harbour, Cuvum and Adyar estuaries have been identifiedas most important areas (Gowri and Ramachandran, 2001) on the basis of (1) location ofindustrial effluents discharge along the coast, (2) location of municipal sewage dumpingareas, and (3) location of dredging activated areas, for monitoring the levels of pollutants.

2.1. Ennore

Ennore coast receives untreated sewage from Royapuram sewage outfall, untreated/treatedindustrial effluents from Manali Industrial Belt, which houses many chemical industries like

Springer

Water Resour Manage

fertilizer, oil refineries, sugar, chemicals etc. Apart from this, it receives fly ash and thermaldischarges from the nearby Ennore Thermal Power Station. In addition to that, fishing andnavigational activities take place in the area. The dredging activities in Ennore area result inchanges in the landscape, sediment transport, and dust pollution to the coast by quarryingprocess.

2.2. Chennai harbour

Chennai Harbour can be considered as eastern gateway of south India. It handles nearly 36million tonnes per year of different commodities such as coal, iron ore, chemical manures,machineries, chemicals including acids, cement, granite blocks, furnace oil, diesel oil, veg-etable oil etc. Apart from these, there are also containers and passenger traffic in the harbour.On an average, 2500 vessels move around the harbour area.

2.3. Cuvum river

Cuvum river flows towards east direction in Chennai city. The major portion of Chennaicity’s treated/untreated sewage is channelized through this river to the sea. This river alsoserves as a conveyor of storm water from the city’s sewage drain network. The bed slope ofthe river is very mild. This, together with the formation of sand bar at the river mouth and atidal range below 1.2 m prevent the effective flushing of the river during the ebb tide. As aresult, for periods other than monsoon, the stagnant river is anoxic and very rich in organicmatter. There is periodic reversal of this trend only at the river mouth due to weak tidal effect.

2.4. Adyar river mouth

Adyar river is located south of the Cuvum River. It also flows towards the east direction. Atotal of 58 drain outlets discharge into Adyar between the stretch of Jafferkhanpet and ThiruVivekananda Nagar bridge. According to Gowri and Ramachandran (2001), about 0.775mld of industrial effluents carrying heavy metals and about 8.1 mld of domestic sewage areallowed to flow into Adyar river. The sand bar nearby Adyar river mouth also prevents tidalflushing.

3. Materials and methods

Water samples were collected from about 32 locations (24 seaside and 8 landside) on threeoccasions, 17 September, 20 October and 23 November 2002 (Figure 1). On the seaside,the water samples were collected at a depth of 2–4 m, and on the landside, the water sam-ples were collected from the boreholes. The name and number of stations along with thegeographical coordinates is given in Table 2. The water samples were analyzed for vari-ous physical, chemical, trace/toxic elements and biological parameters based on the pro-cedures described in APHA, AWWA and WPCF (1998) and other literatures collected forthis study. The physico-chemical parameters (temperature, pH, Electrical Conductivity, To-tal Dissolved Solids, Turbidity, Dissolved Oxygen, organic Nitrate, Nitrite and Phosphate),trace/toxic elements (Mn, Cr, Ni, Pb, Cu, Cd, Co) and biological parameters (BOD, COD,Chlorophyll a and Total Fecal Coliform) have been studied. Temperature, pH, electrical con-ductivity and turbidity were measured using digital thermometer, pH meter and conductivitymeter and nephelometer, respectively. DO, BOD, COD, Ca2+, Mg2+, Cl−, HCO−

3 , CO2−3

Springer

Water Resour Manage

Table 2 Name and locations of the sample stations along the Chennai coast

Station no. Name of the station Latitude Longitude

1 Ennore Creek 13◦14′051′′N 80◦19′911′′E2 Talakuppam (groundwater) 13◦13′484′′N 80◦19′704′′E3 Talakuppam 13◦13′323′′N 80◦19′704′′E4 Opposite to Urea Factory, Ennore 13◦12′800′′N 80◦19′503′′E5 ETPS (groundwater) 13◦12′203′′N 80◦19′189′′E6 Annai Sivagami Nagar 13◦12′728′′N 80◦19′169′′E7 Bharathiar Nagar 13◦11′120′′N 80◦19′029′′E8 Near Amman Temple, Bharathiar Nagar (groundwater) 13◦11′152′′N 80◦18′954′′E9 Near MRF company 13◦10′540′′N 80◦18′787′′E

10 Near MRF (groundwater) 13◦10′541′′N 80◦18′787′′E11 Near Kanni Koil, Ennore 13◦09′409′′N 80◦18′367′′E12 Near Kanni Koil, (groundwater) 13◦09′441′′N 80◦18′350′′E13 Susandherpuram 13◦08′737′′N 80◦18′077′′E14 Vannarpet 13◦08′184′′N 80◦17′897′′E15 Near Chennai Harbour 13◦08′469′′N 80◦17′523′′E16 New CISF 13◦04′469′′N 80◦17′523′′E17 Opposite to CISF (North of Cooum) 13◦08′186′′N 80◦17′911′′E18 Cuvuum River Mouth 13◦04′082′′N 80◦17′911′′E19 Temple Near Cooum river mouth (groundwater) 13◦04′146′′N 80◦17′911′′E20 Marina Beach near Anna Samathi 13◦03′791′′N 80◦17′911′′E21 Near M.G.R Samathi, Marina 13◦03′790′′N 80◦17′911′′E22 Opp. Presidency College, Marina 13◦03′358′′N 80◦17′911′′E23 Opp. to Railway station 13◦03′358′′N 80◦17′911′′E24 Opp. to Madras University Hostel (groundwater) 13◦03′249′′N 80◦16′911′′E25 Opp. Queen Maris College 13◦02′311′′N 80◦16′911′′E26 Opp. Santhome Church 13◦01′984′′N 80◦16′911′′E27 Opp. Rajiv Gandhi Nagar 13◦01′583′′N 80◦16′911′′E28 Adayar river mouth 13◦01′583′′N 80◦16′911′′E29 Near Adayar river 13◦00′760′′N 80◦16′911′′E30 Opp. Adayar Old Bungalow 13◦00′434′′N 80◦16′911′′E31 Near Besant Nagar beach (groundwater) 13◦00′370′′N 80◦16′911′′E32 Near Ashtalakshmi Temple, Besant Nagar 12◦59′391′′N 80◦16′911′′E

concentrations were determined using titrimetric methods. Nutrients, chlorophyll, sulfatelevels were determined using spectrophotometric methods, while the concentrations of tracemetals were estimated using an Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS). Determination ofcoliform bacteria was done using Most Probable Number (MPN) method (APHA, AWWAand WPCF, 1998). Special care was taken during collection and analysis of water samplesfor determining all parameters so as to maintain high accuracy.

4. Results and discussions

4.1. Physico-chemical pollutants in coastal waters

The general coastal water quality standards (swimming and aquatic life) for several parame-ters are specified in Table 3 (Moore, 1991; National Environmental Board report, 1994). Theresults of the analysis of various physical, chemical and biological parameters from the water

Springer

Water Resour Manage

Table 3 General coastal caterquality standards (swimming andaquatic life)

Parameters Standards

PH 7.8–8.3Temperature (◦C) 30Odour UnobjectionableTurbidity (NTU) 10 NTU or lessTotal Suspended Sediments (TSS) 25 mg L−1 or lessDissolved Oxygen (DO) 4 mg L−1 or moreBiochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD5) 30 mg L−1 or lessChemical Oxygen Demand COD 250 mg L−1 or lessTotal Coliform Bacteria 200 MPN / 100ml or lessNitrate 10 mg L−1 or lessNitrite 10 mg L−1 or lessTotal Nitrogen 1 mg L−1 or lessPhosphorus as Phosphate PO−3

4 0.1 mg L−1 or lessChlorophyll-a 15 mg L−1 or less

Trace/toxic metals (Maximum Limit)Cadmium 0.01 mg L−1

Lead 0.1 mg L−1

Copper 0.02 mg L−1

Nickel 0.01 mg L−1

Zinc 0.1 mg L−1

Iron 0.1 mg L−1

Manganese 0.1 mg L−1

Chromium 0.1 mg L−1

Cobalt 0.005 mg L−1

samples collected along the Chennai coast are presented in Tables 4–6. It should be observedthat several parameters are not within the permissible limit of the international standardsdescribed in Table 3. In Figure 2a, the DO concentration appears to be very low in Cuvumriver mouth (18) and Barathiyar Nagar (7) areas. The zero DO level in Cuvum river resultsmainly due to high nutrient loading and disposal of other oxygen demanding substances. Thereduction in DO concentration around Bharathiyar nagar areas is attributed to a large amountof sewage wastes that are directly disposed into the coastal water through the pipelines. Itis important to note that DO level increased during monsoonal storm prevailed in October,while it decreased before and after the storm. biochemical oxygen demand is another mea-sure of the amount of oxygen that bacteria will consume while decomposing organic matterunder aerobic conditions. From this analysis, it is observed that the high biochemical oxygendemand occurred in the Cuvum river (sample location 18) and exceeded the maximum limit(30 mg L−1) of the international standard during all three periods (Figure 2b). The watersamples analysed for November have high BOD values in most of the sample locations.Such high BOD values might result from high oxygen demanding substances disposed tocoastal waters by heavy runoff in October. Notice that there is an increasing trend in BODlevels from harbour to Cuvum river mouth areas and a decreasing trend from Cuvum riverto Marina beach areas during September. This is because the NW currents tend to push theconcentrated Cuvum river waters toward northward direction (harbour), thereby increasingBOD values in these areas. On the contrary, the change of currents in the east-west directionduring September and October resulted in the significant increase of BOD concentrationstoward the marina beach areas, and therefore decrease in BOD concentrations was foundtoward harbour areas during these periods. A similar trend can be seen in Adyar river areas.

Springer

Water Resour ManageTa

ble4

Leve

lsof

vario

usph

ysic

al,c

hem

ical

and

biol

ogic

alpo

lluta

ntso

fthe

Chen

naic

oasta

lwat

er(1

7-9-

2002

)

Tem

pEC

TDS

Turb

idity

DO

BOD

COD

Nitr

ate

Nitr

itePh

osph

ate

Colif

orm

Bact

eria

Chla

S.N

o.(◦

C)pH

(μS

cm−1

)(m

gL−1

)(N

TU)

(mgL

−1)

(mgL

−1)

(mgL

−1)

(mgL

−1)

(mgL

−1)

(mgL

−1)

MPN

/100

ml

(mgL

-1 )

127

.57.

456

000

3584

02

7.1

655

20.

4750

0.3

182.

53

27.5

7.5

4920

031

488

36.

919

.566

40.

4755

0.2

382

427

.77.

548

400

3097

62

8.5

1212

960.

5220

00.

154

46

27.8

7.6

4640

029

696

37.

210

.567

20.

4133

0.2

521.

57

27.8

7.6

5320

034

048

53

911

200.

4425

0.2

393

927

.97.

647

000

3008

03

6.5

10.5

840

0.43

350.

145

611

287.

648

400

3097

63

7.9

4.5

664

0.39

250.

251

1.5

1328

7.6

4580

029

312

27.

33

536

0.33

230.

218

314

28.2

7.7

5180

033

152

36.

310

.511

680.

3812

0.2

294

1528

.27.

546

400

2969

62

612

808

0.39

190.

413

08.

516

287.

552

400

3353

63

715

696

0.34

470.

411

48

1728

.17.

242

800

2739

22

5.5

16.5

576

0.83

641.

511

49

1828

.57.

410

000

6400

620

5042

43.

515

06.

825

019

2028

.37.

849

800

3187

23

810

.510

240.

2826

0.2

145

2128

.47.

854

400

3481

63

76

1064

0.27

300.

222

4.5

2228

.37.

852

400

3353

62

7.7

976

00.

3233

0.3

2217

2328

.37.

750

200

3212

82

6.7

7.5

832

0.31

280.

322

725

28.1

7.8

4980

031

872

48

4.5

744

0.33

330.

313

7.5

2628

.27.

751

800

3315

25

7.3

990

40.

3623

0.2

113.

527

287.

750

200

3212

83

7.2

10.5

760

0.3

200.

211

1128

287.

754

200

3468

83

6.6

392

00.

2917

0.1

129

2927

.87.

951

800

3315

23

7.2

380

00.

2811

07

330

27.7

7.9

5440

034

816

38

966

40.

277

04

632

27.7

7.9

5300

033

920

27

7.5

690

0.27

30

43.

2

∗EC

–El

ectri

calC

ondu

ctiv

ity,C

hla

–Ch

loro

phyl

la

Springer

Water Resour Manage

Tabl

e5Le

vels

ofva

rious

phys

ical

,che

mic

alan

dbi

olog

ical

pollu

tant

soft

heCh

enna

icoa

stalw

ater

(20-

10-2

002)

Tem

pEC

TDS

Turb

idity

DO

BOD

COD

Nitr

ate

Nitr

itePh

osph

ate

Colif

orm

Bact

eria

CHL

S.N

o(◦

C)pH

(μS

cm−1

)(m

gL−1

)(N

TU)

(mgL

−1)

(mgL

−1)

(mgL

−1)

(mgL

−1)

(mgL

−1)

(mgL

−1)

MPN

/100

ml

(mgL

−1)

128

.37.

868

400

4377

62

7.5

25.5

208

0.43

0.2

0.4

71.

13

28.4

7.81

6780

043

392

38.

530

248

0.42

0.2

0.21

42.

94

28.9

7.9

6550

041

920

28.

59

211

0.38

0.7

0.89

53.

26

28.6

7.58

6660

042

624

37.

56

249

0.51

1.53

0.7

121.

47

297.

5166

900

4281

64

8.5

1818

00.

669.

750.

486

2.4

929

7.75

6480

041

472

37.

14.

522

80.

550.

60.

45

5.7

1128

.37.

0564

700

4140

83

7.9

28.5

224

0.69

8.25

0.5

31.

913

29.7

7.72

6540

041

856

28.

127

288

0.65

0.95

0.38

42.

414

28.9

7.1

6580

042

112

37.

251

248

0.62

0.4

0.63

23.

315

28.9

7.98

6590

042

176

27.

224

331

0.42

1.93

0.13

29.

116

28.7

7.95

6590

042

176

37.

67.

533

20.

420.

20.

158

9.4

1728

.57.

0563

200

4044

82

6.4

25.5

312

0.62

0.3

0.63

69.

518

29.1

6.75

8460

5415

500.

542

385

0.89

0.2

1.68

117

18.2

2028

.87.

0117

480

1118

73

6.3

1824

00.

650.

250.

9346

4.6

2128

.87.

0918

280

1170

03

7.2

25.5

368

0.68

0.35

0.88

414.

022

28.9

7.57

1867

011

950

28

3024

50.

480.

180.

4336

15.4

2328

.97.

4718

510

1185

02

8.3

31.5

325

0.55

0.28

0.48

277.

225

29.1

7.61

1878

012

020

46.

622

.533

70.

555.

250.

3830

7.2

2629

.57.

7318

750

1200

05

7.9

25.5

252

0.47

0.48

0.35

93.

527

29.1

7.76

1810

011

584

37.

428

.528

40.

470.

830.

319

15.2

2828

.87.

1413

040

8250

36.

831

.522

70.

920.

580.

9320

110

.829

28.8

7.24

1745

011

168

37.

937

.527

30.

729.

250.

7816

62.

330

28.5

7.72

1876

012

006

39

34.5

294

0.46

0.23

0.33

166

6.2

3228

.77.

8218

870

1207

72

928

.520

00.

450.

230.

336

3.2

Springer

Water Resour ManageTa

ble6

Leve

lsof

vario

usph

ysic

al,c

hem

ical

and

biol

ogic

alpo

lluta

ntso

fthe

Chen

naic

oasta

lwat

er(2

3-11

-200

2)

Tem

pEC

TDS

Turb

idity

DO

BOD

COD

Nitr

ate

Nitr

itePh

osph

ate

Colif

orm

Bact

eria

CHL

S.N

o.(◦

C)pH

(μS

cm−1

)(m

gL−1

)(N

TU)

(mgL

−1)

(mgL

−1)

(mgL

−1)

(mgL

−1)

(mgL

−1)

(mgL

−1)

MPN

/100

ml

(mgL

−1)

126

.27.

216

830

1077

25

5.8

1893

60.

60.

40.

23

1.3

326

.47.

618

560

1188

05

760

520

0.6

00.

15

0.5

426

.56.

816

000

1024

05

7.2

61.5

560

1.5

4.2

0.4

20.

66

27.1

7.7

1653

010

580

57

5754

41

0.2

0.3

320.

57

27.5

7.8

1652

010

573

197.

646

.549

60.

60

0.2

60.

49

29.8

7.3

1106

070

802

7.2

61.5

304

6.3

6.2

0.16

20.

311

26.1

7.4

1600

010

240

47.

764

.573

60.

61

0.2

40.

513

26.8

7.5

1615

010

336

46.

988

.536

00.

80

0.15

40.

414

27.1

6.9

1686

010

800

66.

846

.552

00.

60

0.3

50.

215

27.5

7.4

1616

010

342

26.

666

144

8.5

10.

058

0.4

1627

.57.

516

770

1073

22

733

680

0.6

00.

17

0.4

1729

.66.

916

230

1038

72

6.3

46.5

640

1.2

8.6

0.24

100.

218

28.9

6.7

1200

076

8015

152

.568

01.

62

0.7

864.

620

29.2

7.3

1632

010

445

26.

785

.552

00.

70.

020.

414

3.7

2129

7.2

1665

010

656

37.

457

493

10

0.35

362.

822

28.9

7.7

1657

010

605

26.

949

.542

70.

50

0.2

81.

623

28.9

7.5

1673

010

707

34.

249

.540

00.

50

0.2

121

2528

.77.

816

250

1040

02

7.1

43.5

440

0.7

00.

1526

126

28.8

7.8

1614

010

330

38.

343

.542

40.

60.

20.

1410

127

28.7

7.8

1567

010

030

36.

940

.541

60.

80

0.12

120.

528

28.8

7.3

1300

083

205

6.7

49.5

768

10

0.7

513

2928

.77.

314

550

9312

56.

543

.585

60.

70

0.3

302

3028

.77.

213

350

8544

56.

140

.592

01.

30

0.13

662

3226

.67.

515

370

9840

37

4544

00.

70.

20.

1326

1

Springer

Water Resour Manage

Fig. 2 a–f Spatial and temporal variation of different pollutants in Chennai coastal waters. (a) Dissolvedoxygen, (b) Biochemical oxygen demand, (c) Chemical oxygen demand, (d) Nitrate, (e) Nitrite, and (f)Phosphate. The horizontal lines in the figures indicate the permissible limits

Similarly, COD is a measure of the total quantity of oxygen required to oxidize all or-ganic material into carbon dioxide and water via chemical oxidation. Thus, COD will becomprised of reduced chemical species (reduced Fe and Mn and sulfides, etc) as well asorganic matter. Therefore, major COD materials are reduced chemicals other than labileorganic matter. It should be noted that the COD values in most of the sample locations ap-pear to be higher than the acceptable limit (250 mg L−1) during September (Figure 2c). Thehigh COD values show the presence of maximum concentration of organic matter, whichultimately causes bad effect on marine organisms (Lester and Harrison, 1990). Though theCOD values exceed the permissible limit in most of the sampling locations, there is a sig-nificant decrease in COD concentration observed during November. A large quantity offresh water input as a result of monsoonal storm in October might have enhanced dilutionof coastal waters to some extent, and thus decrease in COD values during October andNovember. The analysis of DO, BOD and COD clearly indicates that concentrations of these

Springer

Water Resour Manage

parameters are considerably higher in the Adyar, Cuvum and Bharathiyar nagar areas thatreceive large amounts of sewage wastes containing very high level of organic matter. Suchelevated concentrations of organic substances exacerbate anoxia or hypoxia by raising thebiological oxygen demand, the oxygen consumed during microbial decomposition, and thechemical oxygen demand, the oxygen consumed by oxidation of ammonium and other inor-ganic reduced components (Kennish, 1994). Owing to the shallow nature, the bottom waterhypoxia (DO < 1 mg L−1) may often persist throughout the year except winter (Novemberand December) when enormous amount of fresh water input occurs to the coastal system.Oxygen-depleted water columns impact benthic communities by producing acute changesin the distribution, abundance, and diversity of species (Meyers, 1999). Analysis of nitrateshows that its concentration is, however, below the permissible limit (10 mg L−1) in all sam-ple locations as shown in Figure 2d. In contrast, nitrite concentration is found to exceed theallowable limit in some locations from Ennore to Adyar during September. The excessiveconcentrations of nitrate and nitrite will lead to excessive aquatic plant production, which maynegatively impact coastal water environments in several ways: (1) production of toxic algae,(2) algal decay and discoloration of the water; (3) extensive growth of rooted aquatic macro-phytes will interfere with navigation and aeration; (4) dead macrophytes and phytoplanktonsettled to the bottom will stimulate microbial breakdown processes, leading to deplete dis-solved oxygen and production of toxic algae. As a result of oxygen depletion, sickness anddeath of marine organisms will take place. However, this concentration becomes decreasedin October and November (Figure 2e). A similar trend can also be observed in phosphateconcentration, which always exceeds the permissible limit (0.1 mg L−1) in the Cuvum area(Figure 2f).

Turbidity is a good indicator of the amount of material suspended in water because itmeasures the amount of light that is scattered within the medium. Suspended silt and clay,organic matter and plankton can contribute to turbidity. The water samples analyzed forturbidity are within the permissible limit (10 NTU) except the Bharathiyar nagar (7) andCuvum (18) areas, where the level of turbidity is found to be lower than the internationalstandards before and after the monsoonal storm (Figure 3a). The high turbidity in Bharathiyarnagar results from the sewage waste waters through a series of the pipelines, while in Cuvumriver the high turbidity occurs from a huge amount of municipal and industrial wastes (Gowriand Ramachandran, 2001).

4.2. Biological pollutants in coastal waters

The municipal sewage wastes containing millions of coliforms are directly disposed into seathrough the rivers like Adyar and Cuvum, which can cause disease in the aquatic environ-ments. The general standard is 200 colonies (MPN) per 100 ml of coastal water sample. Theresults show that the coliforms in Cuvum river (18) and Adyar river (28) waters exceed themaximum permissible limit (200 MPN 100−1 mg L−1) (Figure 3b). This is mainly because ofthe dumping of treated/untreated municipal and industrial wastes in these areas through thepipelines and sewage canals. It should also be noted that the coliform bacteria are also presentin other locations, however, they are within the permissible limit of the international standard.Similarly, chlorophyll a is a measure of the green pigments (Chl a) present in all photosyn-thesizing algae in the marine environment. The scale for the criteria is good <15 μg L−1,fair 15–30 μg L−1, poor >30 μg L−1. It is observed that the Chl a concentrations exceed thepermissible limit in the Cuvum river mouth (18), near light house (22) and near Rajiv Gandhinagar (27) during September and October (Figure 3c). The sewage-contaminated coastal

Springer

Water Resour Manage

Fig. 3 a–c Spatial and temporal variation of (a) turbidity, (b) coliform bacteria, and (c) Chl a. The horizontallines in the figures indicate the permissible limits

areas exhibit higher concentrations posing significant health hazards to marine organismsand humans. Although many of these microbial pathogens survive only for hours to severaldays in seawater, they remain viable for longer periods in fish and shellfish. Individuals whoswim in such sewage-contaminated waters or consume contaminated fish and shellfish riskserious illness and other heath hazards (Kennish, 1994).

4.3. Trace and toxic metals in coastal waters

The increased accumulation of anthropogenic trace/toxic metals in the north Chennai, har-bour, Cuvum, and Adyar marine environments is less desirable by-products of industrializedsociety of these regions because of their extreme persistence, high toxicity, and tendency tobioaccumulation (Clark, 1992; DeSanto, 1991). In the present study, variations in metal con-centrations before and during monsoonal storms are compared (Figure 4a–f). It is observedthat copper concentrations during the monsoonal storm are found to be higher than the al-lowable limit (0.02 mg/l) (Figure 4a). The abrupt increase in copper concentrations is due tosurface runoff and contributions of river and pipeline discharges to the coastal system. In bothperiods, the manganese concentrations are within the permissible limit (0.1 ppm) in all samplelocations, though increased levels of magnesium at Annai Sivagami Nagar can be attributedto the concentrated municipal wastes accumulated before storms prevailed (Figure 4b). It isevident that the concentrations of Nickel, Cobalt, Lead and Cadmium appeared to be veryhigh during September and exceeded the maximum permissible limit (0.01, 0.005, 0.1 and0.01 respectively) in most of the sample locations. As a result of monsoonal storms duringOctober, these concentrations were considerably decreased to be within the permissible limitof the international standards (Figure 4c–e). One can observe that the river-influenced areas

Springer

Water Resour Manage

Fig. 4 a–f Concentrations of various trace/toxic metals before (17/09/2002) and during (20/10/2002) themonsoonal storms prevailed over the Chennai coastal area. The horizontal lines in the figures indicate thepermissible limits

have high concentrations of toxic metals such as Cadmium and Cobalt during above periods(Figure 4f). Such high concentrations of Cadmium and Cobalt could result in severe healthhazards to the marine biotas (Selvakumar et al., 1996). Based on the ecotoxicological studies,it has been suggested that slightly elevated metal levels in estuarine and coastal waters maycause the following sub lethal effects in aquatic organisms: (1) histological or morphologicalchange in tissues; (2) changes in physiology, such as suppression of growth and development,poor swimming performance, changes in circulation; (3) change in biochemistry, such as en-zyme activity and blood chemistry; (4) change in behavior; (5) and changes in reproduction(Connell and Miller, 1984). As a result, many fishing communities suffer from serious skindiseases around coastal city (Balasubramanian, 1999).

Springer

Water Resour Manage

4.4. Physico-chemical pollutants in coastal aquifer

The utilization of groundwater for domestic, industrial and other purposes has been constantlyincreasing over the world. In general, the water used for drinking purposes should be free fromcolor, turbidity, odor and microorganisms. Chemically, the water should preferably be soft,have low dissolved salts, and free from chemical and trace/toxic constituents. In coastal citieslike Chennai, over-exploitation of groundwater often results in invasion of salt water into theaquifer system. According to the Hindu (2003), the coastal parts from Injambakkam in thesouth to Ennore in the north are being severely affected by high concentration of chloride andtotal dissolved solids as a result of salt-water intrusion. Such salt-water intrusion not onlyincreases the chloride content in the groundwater, but also carries trace and toxic elementsfrom the polluted coastal waters. Rengaraj et al. (1996) pointed out that salinity concentrationdramatically increased for the past several years due to legal and illegal pumping of enormousvolume of groundwater from the beach sandy areas. At the same time, the municipal wastes,industrial effluents and other waste disposals also contribute groundwater contamination tocertain extent. In addition to this, the coastal system is often affected by high level pressureimposed by monsoonal storm during winter northeast monsoon. This leads to changes inthe salt-fresh water interface which also influence the quality of aquifer waters. To betterunderstand levels and extension of various pollutant parameters in groundwater, the presentstudy also focused to assess the levels of pollution in groundwater samples collected fromthe coastal aquifer of Chennai city.

Groundwater samples collected from 8 locations along the coastal areas of Chennai citywere analysed in the laboratory for major ions (Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+, HCO−

3 , CO2−3 ,

SO2−4 , Cl−, and NO−

3 ), total hardness, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids andpH (Table 7a–c). These results are then compared with the international standards (Moore,1991; National Environmental Board report, 1994) (Table 8). It is worth noting that beforemonsoonal storms prevailed over these areas, station-12 was found to be influenced by saltwater intrusion, while rest of the areas though exceeding the threshold values were consid-erably less affected by salt contamination. In October, the concentrations of several waterquality parameters appeared to be significantly low due to occurrence of large volume offresh water flow. In contrast, high concentrations of EC and chloride at locations 10 and 19imply that salt-water contamination extended to the adjacent areas of aquifer system whenhigh rate of pressure perturbed the salt-fresh water interface during a week persistence ofmonsoonal storm (Table 7c).

For assessing saltwater intrusion into coastal aquifer, the ratio of certain chemicalparameters such as Ca2+/Mg2+, Cl−/(CO2−

3 + HCO−3 ) and TA/TH can be used (Rengaraj

et al., 1996). According to Simpson (1946), the following scale is used for assessing thecontaminated groundwater by salt-water intrusion (Tables 9 and 10a–c). Since magnesium ispresent in seawater in much greater concentration than calcium, Ca/Mg ratio is recommendedas a parameter for determining the salt-water contamination. A low Ca/Mg ratio may also bean indicative of salt-water contamination (Ravi Prakash and Krishna Rao, 1996). If the ratiois less than 1, then the area is considered to be highly affected by salt-water intrusion. Thevery low value (0.28) indicates saltwater intrusion at sample location 12 (Near Kanni Koil).Similarly, the Cl/(CO3 + HCO3) ratio is also one of the criteria to evaluate the presence ofseawater intrusion. The high value of chloride and alkalinity ratio at location 12 indicates thatthe water may probably be affected by salt-water intrusion while the sample locations 10, 19and 31 are considered to be moderately affected by saltwater. In an overall assessment, saltwa-ter intrusion occurred in sample location 12 (near Kanni koil) as a result of overexploitationof groundwater in these areas. But it has been extended to other locations (10, 12, and 19)

Springer

Water Resour ManageTa

ble

7a–

cLe

vels

ofva

rious

type

sofp

ollu

tant

sin

grou

ndw

ater

fort

hepe

riods

17-9

-200

2,20

-10-

2002

and

23-1

1-20

02re

spec

tivel

y

(a)

Tem

pEC

TDS

Tota

lHar

dnes

sCa

lciu

m(m

gL−1

)M

agne

sium

Sodi

umPo

tass

ium

Alk

alin

ity(m

gL−1

)N

itrat

eSu

lpha

teCh

lorid

eS.

No

(◦ C)

pH(μ

Scm

−1)

(mgL

−1)

(CaC

O3)

(CaC

O3)

(mgL

−1)

(mgL

−1)

(mgL

−1)

(CaC

O3)

(mgL

−1)

(mgL

−1)

(mgL

−1)

227

.57.

2512

8282

0.5

440

289

6117

813

.515

68

2.8

260.

25

27.4

7.33

1229

787

474

268

50.0

5814

8.5

8.5

160

32.

825

5.2

827

.57.

171

045

4.5

274

218

13.6

0862

.515

.522

09.

50.

482

.310

27.9

6.68

1248

799

352

216

33.0

4820

028

.913

69.

81

279.

412

27.6

6.58

1769

011

322

4230

276

960.

864

7016

020

010

.96

1240

019

27.8

7.36

1714

1097

666

330

81.6

4810

538

.936

03.

23.

330

7.7

2428

7.38

697

446

280

158

29.6

4682

9.1

170

7.5

0.42

106.

531

287.

5311

8175

627

014

630

.220

8.5

6.6

907.

40.

3836

8.7

(b)

Tem

pEC

TDS

Tota

lHar

dnes

sCa

lciu

m(m

gL−1

)M

agne

sium

Sodi

umPo

tass

ium

Alk

alin

ity(m

gL−1

)N

itrat

eSu

lpha

teCh

lorid

eS.

No

◦ CpH

(μS

cm−1

)(m

gL−1

)(C

aCO

3)(C

aCO

3)(m

gL−1

)(p

pm)

(ppm

)(C

aCO

3)(m

gL−1

)(m

gL−1

)(m

gL−1

)

232

.27.

2383

553

4.4

296

200

23.3

115

1311

610

.114

173

532

7.02

795

508

298

4063

108

4.5

150

1.5

419

78

32.4

6.28

166

107

6844

616

.51.

236

6.8

128

1031

.56.

8688

256

524

615

023

.320

020

.615

610

.32

197

1229

.76.

5614

250

9120

700

600

24.3

700

320

208

11.5

7210

280

1929

.17.

219

112

314

400

9337

145

370

1.8

7627

724

31.5

7.3

709

454

170

120

12.2

89.5

8.7

170

3.5

271

3131

7.45

487

312

240

350

2723

0081

394

11.3

7828

36

(c)

Tem

pEC

TDS

Tota

lHar

dnes

sCa

lciu

m(m

gL−1

)M

agne

sium

Sodi

umPo

tass

ium

Alk

alin

ity(m

gL−1

)N

itrat

eSu

lpha

teCh

lorid

eS.

No.

◦ CpH

(μS

cm−1

)(m

gL−1

)(C

aCO

3)(C

aCO

3)(m

gL−1

)(p

pm)

(ppm

)(C

aCO

3)(m

gL−1

)(m

gL−1

)(m

gL−1

)

229

.47.

324

916

018

010

020

31.2

780

8.2

0.4

575

286.

793

6011

050

1515

.51

501

0.2

41.2

831

.85.

819

112

372

603

25.4

8.5

1810

0.2

4710

26.4

7.7

1866

011

943

7800

2200

1360

6400

310

118

13

1822

112

28.4

6.7

1346

086

1565

0013

0012

6420

21.3

208

111

1028

019

28.9

7.8

1870

011

968

9900

1500

2042

659.

111

61

3.2

1949

824

30.5

7.7

527

338

780

240

132

7000

180

164

9.2

0.3

320

3130

.87.

629

318

840

0012

0068

052

4026

013

49

0.2

1418

Springer

Water Resour Manage

Table 8 General standards forgroundwater quality parameters Parameters Standards

Temperature (◦C) 30PH 6.5–8.5Electrical Conductivity (EC) (μS cm−1) 500 or lessTotal Dissolved Solids (TDS) (mg L−1) 500 or lessTotal Hardness (TH) 500 mg L−1or lessNitrate 10 mg L−1 or lessSulfate 250 mg L−1 or lessChloride 250 mg L−1 or lessTrace/toxic metals (Maximum Limit)

Cadmium 0.01 mg L−1

Lead 0.05 mg L−1

Copper 1 mg L−1

Nickel 0.02 mg L−1

Zinc 0.05 mg L−1

Iron 0.3 mg L−1

Manganese 0.5 mg L−1

Chromium 0.1 mg L−1

Cobalt 0.05 mg L−1

Table 9 Groundwater quality criteria using certain chemical ratio

Range of Cl/(CO3 + HCO3) Description

<0.05 Normally fresh groundwater0.05–1.30 Slightly contaminated groundwater1.30–2.80 Moderately contaminated groundwater2.80–6.60 Injuriously contaminated groundwater6.60–15.50 Highly contaminated groundwater>200.0 Sea water

after the monsoonal storm in October. As a result, the hydrodynamic pressure perturbed thefresh-salt water phase led to the intrusion of saline water into the coastal aquifer. This isevident from the values of EC, TDS, Ca2+/Mg2+, Cl−/(CO2−

3 + HCO−3 ) and TA/TH (total

alkalinity/total hardness). In addition to saltwater intrusion, the sewage contamination alsooccurred through the porous media of the coastal sandy aquifer system. This can be evidentfrom the high concentrations of nitrate in the sample locations 8, 10, 12. We suspect thatsuch high concentration derives from waste dumping of materials from the fertilizer factoriesand other chemical industries nearby. Notable increase in other chemical parameters at St.19 (located adjacent to Adyar river) is due to the influence of the Adyar river that carriessufficient municipal and industrial wastes to the coastal system.

The concentrations of trace/toxic metals analysed from water samples of the coastalaquifer are described in Table 11. Among these metals, lead, nickel, cobalt and cadmiumappear to exceed the maximum permissible limit in Kanni koil and Cuvum river areas, whilethe concentrations of manganese and copper are found to be within the limit of internationalstandards. The elevated concentrations of cobalt, cadmium, and nickel due to active chemicalindustries and factories nearby are undesirable to the health of humans who depend ongroundwater of this city. Ramesh et al. (1995) reported several health hazards among peoplearound the slum areas of these regions.

Springer

Water Resour Manage

Table 10 a–c Ratio of certainchemical parameters for theperiods 17.9.2002, 20-10-2002and 23-11-2002 respectively

(a) Sample No. (Ca/Mg) Cl/(CO3+HCO3) TA/TH

2 4.7 1.7 0.355 5.35 1.6 0.348 16 0.37 0.80

10 6.5 2 0.3812 0.26 62 0.0419 4 0.85 0.5424 5.3 0.63 0.6131 4.8 4 0.33

(b) Sample No. (Ca/Mg) Cl/(CO3+HCO3) TA/TH

2 8.6 1.5 0.45 0.6 1.3 0.58 7.3 0.7 0.5

10 6.4 1.2 0.612 0.04 49.4 0.319 4.3 0.7 26.424 9.8 0.4 131 13 7.2 1.6

(c) Sample No. (Ca/Mg) Cl/(CO3+HCO3) TA/TH

2 5 0.7 0.45 3.3 0.8 0.48 20 2.6 0.2

10 1.6 154 0.0112 1 49 0.0319 0.7 168 0.0124 1.8 2 0.231 1.7 10.6 0.03

Table 11 Levels of trace metals concentrations in groundwater samples

Sample Manganese Copper Nickel Lead Cadmium Cobaltno (mg L−1) (mg L−1) (mg L−1) (mg L−1) (mg L−1) (mg L−1)

2 0.007 0.02 0 0 0 05 0.001 0.01 0 0.04 0.03 0.018 0.08 0.02 0 0 0.02 0.05

10 0.05 0.02 0 0.04 0.02 0.0312 0.01 0.06 0.01 0.4 0.04 0.219 0.004 0.04 0.04 0.2 0.03 0.0324 0.007 0.03 0 0 0.03 0.0431 0.02 0.02 0.02 0 0.03 0.07

5. Conclusions

The levels of various physical, chemical and biological parameters in the coastal water aswell as groundwater of the Chennai city have been assessed and studied for the periods ofSeptember, October and November 2002. During September, the observations demonstrated

Springer

Water Resour Manage

high concentrations of nutrients, low dissolved oxygen and high biochemical and chemicaloxygen demand in the coastal surface waters of north Chennai, Cuvum and Adyar rivermouth areas. The trace/toxic metal concentrations are found to be significantly higher thanthe permissible limit of international standards at several locations of the study area. As a resultof fresh water input in October, the concentrations of some of these parameters became lowin many places. Similarly, the analysis of groundwater samples showed that the intrusion ofsalt water apparently enhanced the salinity concentration in areas of Kanni koil (location 12),MRF (location 10) and Cuvum (location 19). The occurrence of saline water intrusion alsoenriched the concentrations of certain trace/toxic elements in the aquifer waters. Based on thedetailed investigation, the Kanni koil, Cuvum and Adyar are identified as highly vulnerablezones because of receiving large quantities of municipal and industrial wastes of the Chennaicity. Owing to shallow nature of these areas, disposed waste materials and pollutants arehighly persistence in the coastal waters, especially in the surf zone (Laws et al., 1999). Therole of physical mixing and transport by currents is less significant in these areas, therefore,all of pollutants remain concentrated around the surf zone due to low dispersion. Althoughseveral conventional treatment facilities are available to reduce the content of suspendedsolids, oxygen-demanding substances, dissolved inorganic compounds, and pathogens inthese areas, the treated wastes still contain high concentrations of several polluting substances.New techniques and dispersion models are thus necessary to be introduced to reduce thelevels of pollution in the coastal areas. In the recent years more importance is given forthe construction of submarine diffusers to transport and disperse such a huge quantity ofwaste materials to the deep open ocean areas. Because of the great depth and distance fromland, the open ocean areas are found to be ideal for waste dumping than coastal region. Openoceans have also considerable capacity to dilute, transport, and disperse wastes and associatedpollutants because of their large volume and free exchange of water. Hence, oceans are lessvulnerable to the impact of waste disposal than coastal waters.

Acknowledgements This research received support from the Institute for Water Studies, Public Works Depart-ment (PWD), Tharamani, Tamil Nadu, India. The authors thank the anonymous reviewers for their constructivecomments.

References

APHA, AWWA, and WPCF (1998) Standard methods for examination of water and waste water. AmericanPublic Health Organisation, Washington DC, USA

Balasubramanian T (1999) Impacts of coastal pollution. In: Proceedings of Indo-British integrated coastalzone management training short-course conducted by Institute for Ocean Management, Anna University,India

Beder S (1989) Engineering Sydney’s sewerage pollution: Public relations assisted technology. Curr Aff Bull66:27–31

Beiras R, Bellas J, Fernandez Z, Lorenzo JI, Cobelo-Garcia A (2003) Assessment of coastal marine pollutionin Galicia (NW Iberian Peninsula); metal concentrations in seawater, sediments and mussels (Mytilusgalloprovincialis) versus embryo-larval bioassays using Paracentrotus lividus and Ciana intestinalis.Mar Environ Res 56:531–553

Capuzzo JM, Burt BV, Duedall IW, Park PK, Kester DR (1985) Nearshore waste disposal. John Wiley andSons Inc. Publications, New York, USA

Clark RB (1992) Marine pollution, 3rd ed. Clarendon Press, Oxford, U.K.Connell DW, Miller GJ (1984) Chemistry and ecotoxicology of pollution. John Wiley and Sons Press, New

YorkDeSanto RS (1991) Inorganic contaminants of surface water. Springer–Verlag publications, New YorkGiridhar VV (2001) Coastal ocean pollution monitoring program. In: Proceedings of the UGC course on

Marine sciences and environment conducted by the Department of Applied Geology, University of Madras,Chennai, India

Springer

Water Resour Manage

Gowri VS, Ramachandran S (2001) Coastal pollution of Chennai city, Coastal geomorphology of India.Ramachandran S (ed) Institute of Ocean Management,, Anna University, Chennai, India

http://beach.com/stateofthebeach/2-indi/health quality.aspKennish MJ (1994) Practical handbook of marine science. 2nd ed. CRC Press, Boca Raton, USAKotti ME, Vlessidis AG, Thanasoulias NC, Evmiridis NP (2005) Assessment of river water quality in Northern

Greece. Water Res Manage 19:77–94Laws EA, Ziemann D, Schulman D (1998) Coastal water quality in Hawaii: the importance of buffer zones

and dilution. Mar Environ Res 48:1–21Lester JN, Harrison RM (1990) Pollution, causes, effects and control, 2nd ed. Royal Society of Chemistry,

Cambridge, UKMeyers A (1999) Encyclopedia of environmental pollution and cleanup. John Wiley and Sons Inc publications,

New York, USAMoore JW (1991) Inorganic contaminants of surface water: research and monitoring priorities. Springer-

Verlag, New YorkNational Environmental Board Report (1994) Enhancement and conservation of national environmental qual-

ity. Act B.E.2537, Royal Government GazetteRamesh R, Shivakumar K, Eswaramoorthy S, Purvaja R (1995) Migration and contamination of major and

trace elements in ground water of Madras city, India. Environ Geol 25:126–136Rama Devi V, Miranda WJ, Abdul Azis PK (1996) Deterioration of water quality- An overview on the pollution

problems of the Ashtamudi Estuary. Pollut Res 15:367–370Ravi Prakash S, Krishna Rao G (1996) Delineation of salt water contamination zones by chemical parameters

in Parvada Aream, Vishakapattnam, AP. J Indian Water Res Soc 2:63–38Rengaraj S, Elampooranan T, Elango L, Ramalingam V (1996) Ground water quality in suburban regions of

Madras city, India. Pollut Res 15:325–328Selvakumar S, Ajmalkhan S, Kumaraguru B (1996) Effects of heavy metal zinc in relation to salinity on the

survival and intermoult duration of Larvae of Estuarine crab Benthopanope Indica. Pollut Res 15:379–384Simpson TR (1946) Salinas barin investigation. Bulletin 52, California Division of Water Resources, Sacra-

mentoSubramanian BR (1999) Status of marine pollution of India. In: Proceeding of Indo-British integrated coastal

zone management training short-course conducted by Institute for Ocean Management, Anna University,India

The Hindu newspaper, June 05, 2003Tran KC, Euan J, Isla ML (2002) Public perception of development issues: impact of water pollution on a

small coastal community. Ocean Coastal Manage 45:405–420Williams C (1996) Combatting marine pollution from land-based activities: Australian initiatives. Ocean

Coastal Manage 33:87–112

Springer