1.0 INTRODUCTION

Learning theory may be described as a body of principles advocated by psychologists

and educators to explain how people acquire skills, knowledge, and attitudes. Various

branches of learning theory are used in formal training programs to improve and

accelerate the learning process. Basically, we have a number of competing theories,

which makes different assumptions about what learning is, and how it is achieved.

The aim of this assignment is to be able to explain briefly on the concept of learning

environment and also the teaching learning and how it is important towards the

children’s development and their learning process. Apart from that, with the chosen

theories which are humanistic and behavioural , we will apply it in the classroom

whereby the teaching and learning process takes place.

2.0 HUMANISTIC APPROACH

In the contrary, the humanistic approach emphasizes more that the humans have a

natural desire to learn. From an education point of view, it is concerned with the

whole learning, which includes the cognitive, affective and behavioural aspects of

learning. Learning should be seen as a whole “experience”.

2.1 PROPONENTS

Humanistic learning theory consists of the theories of Abraham Maslow and Carl

Rogers.

2.1.1 Abraham Harold Maslow

Abraham Maslow’s view of human needs was more complex than Rogers’. Whilst

Rogers believed that people needed unconditional positive regard, Maslow

acknowledged that people have a variety of needs that differ in immediacy and which

need satisfying at different times. He arranged these needs in a hierarchy.

According to Maslow, humans will fulfill their basic needs such as physiological and

safety needs before they fulfill their higher needs such as love, self-esteem and self-

actualization.

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Figure 1 Hierarchy of Needs by Abraham Maslow

According to the hierarchy of needs, Maslow theorized that a specific series of needs

must be met before any pupil could learn. Below is a brief explanation of Maslow’s

hierarchy of needs:

1. Physiological needs ( health, food, sleep )

Pupils who are hungry cannot learn. So, a teacher should be alert of the pupils’

needs before a learning process takes place.

2. Safety needs (both physical and emotional)

A brain of a pupil who feels emotionally or physically threatened produces

chemicals that actually prevent him/her to learn.

3. Belonging needs ( love, affection, being a part of a group)

Maslow feels that a teacher should show some affection and becoming a person

who a pupil can rely on will make learning a success.

4. Self- esteem needs (self-esteem and esteem from others)

A pupil should be given an opportunity to achieve, to make choices and to

become successful with the teacher being a facilitator .

5. Self-actualization needs (achieving individual potential)

When the four needs are accomplished, that certain pupil will develop ability and

strength as well as problem solving skills strengthen.

Based on the hierarchy of needs, we can conclude that naturally, each individual have the

desire to learn , each individual reacts based on the environment and is given the freedom to

make decision, each individual will try hard to learn which is important in self-actualization

and the teacher is very important as facilitator to make sure the students involve themselves

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in the learning process actively. Therefore, a pupil’s secret brilliance will shine once his

hierarchy of needs is met.

2.1.2 Carl Ransom Rogers

Rogers believed that it was important for the individual to learn to understand himself and

make independent choices that are significant in understanding the problem.

In his book On Becoming a Person he stated that "Unless I had a need to demonstrate my

own cleverness and learning, I would do better to rely upon the client for the direction of

movement."

According to Rogers, a learning process should be pupils centered whereby it can

only exist under the right conditions which permit the pupils to grow through experience.

Education should facilitate a free and open learning climate where the pupils are not

threatened by fear of failure, and should be allowed to explore and discover for

themselves. The pupils should be treated as an equal who is free to decide which direction

they should go. The teacher should therefore be non - directive, and allow the student to set

the agenda.

Education should be for the growth of the individual. He noted that the learning process will

be more significant when the contents of the subject are relevant with the students’ interest.

So, the threatening subject will be easier to the students when the external threats are at the

minimum level. In other words, the learning process of individual will be faster when the

threats are at the low level. Rogers also believed that the success of a learning has less to

with the techniques used by the teacher as with the relationship that the teacher develops

with the pupils. If a teacher develops the right sort of relationship, then that gives the pupils

room to examine their own problems, sources of unhappiness and ways of seeing the world.

They can then decide what they want to change and take the steps to change it. According to

Rogers also, teachers must have three important qualities in order to ensure the success of

a learning. The three qualities can be seen in the table below.

QUALITY DESCRIPTIONS

Congruence Honesty and genuineness. A teacher must relate to the

pupils as one human being to another, not as a professional

like a teacher would.

Empathy The pupils must be able to feel what they themselves feel

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because this is the only thing that will allow the pupils to feel

as if they are genuinely understood.

Respect The teacher must show acceptance and unconditional

positive regard for the pupils.

Table 1 Qualities of a good teacher

Based on the three qualities mentioned above in the table, in my opinion, in order to have a

very successful learning process, a teacher should be self aware of their own feelings and to

communicate them in the learning context. By this, a sense of closeness with the pupils is

created. The teacher also should be sincere and engage direct personal context with the

pupils.

The next quality a teacher should adopt is empathic understanding . The teacher should

develop a personal knowledge of the pupil, so they can have an empathetic understanding of

the needs of and pressures upon their pupil. A good teacher will be one who knows what

makes their pupil’s tick.

Finally, respect means that the teacher should value the pupil’s innate desire for personal

growth and development. In this case the teacher has to uncover and nurture this desire.

The teacher should seek to be non-judgemental, and should attempt to create a learning

climate whereby the teacher/learning relationship is one where there is mutual acceptance,

respect and trust. The pupil will be encouraged to learn, not through the fear of failure, but by

the need to grow and develop.

2.2 PRINCIPLES

In general, there are five principles of humanistic

approach.

i) Students' learning should be self-directed.

The pupils must be given the freedom to choose what they want to

learn. The humanist believes that the students will be more motivated

when they interest in and want to know something. Every pupil in the

world has different interest. For example, there are pupils who are keen

of arts, linguistics and pupils who adore Science or Mathematics.

So, the pupils can choose on their own what they want to learn in their

life.

ii) Knowing how to learn is more important than acquir ing a lot of

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knowledge .

The goal of education is to foster the pupil to learn and teaches them

how to learn. However, they must have self-motivation to

learn without external factor.

iii) Self evaluation is the only meaningful evaluation of a student’s work

Self-assessment will be more meaningful to the pupils rather than

grade. The pupils usually will try hard to get better grades

despite of their self-satisfaction. Because of that, the objective of a

test is not suitable for students as it only tests their memorization.

iv) Feelings are as important as facts

A teacher should not separate both affective domain as well as

cognitive when teaching.

v) Pupils learn best in a non-threatening environment.

As a result, the pupils will feel safer to learn. When they feel safe,

learning process will be easier and meaningful to the pupils. So, the

school and the teacher must prepare a good environment to

enhance the pupils to learn. Indirectly, the learning process will be

more effective.

2.3 KEY CONCEPTS

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Humanism is a paradigm/philosophy/pedagogical

approach that believes learning is viewed as a personal

act to fulfil one’s potential.

It focuses on recognising human capabilities in areas

such as creativity, personal growth and choice..There

are three key concepts which we could gather for this

humanistic theory.

1. Concept of learning:

Learning is considered as student – centred and is

personalized while the teacher facilitates the pupils.

2. Needs:

Affective and cognitive domain are observed through

the process of learning.

3. Goal

To develop a self – actual , autonomous pupil which

means that pupils alone will know what their target is

in lives.

2.4 PLUS MINUS INTERESTING IN HUMANISTIC

2.5 HUMANISTIC THEORY IN THE CLASSROOM

The

humanistic classroom

respects each student

The humanistic

classroom provides a

holistic approach to

learning by keeping the

focus on the child. The

student is respected as

an individual and is

responsible for making

decisions about his

learning. Humanistic

lessons are not rigidly

prescribed, but flow according to the needs and inquiries of the student. This open approach

helps provide emotional support for the student in a humanistic classroom.

HOW IT IS APPLIED IN THE CLASSROOM?

1. Student-Centred Learning

Student-centred learning takes place when the

teacher becomes a facilitator, taking the focus from

herself as the bearer of knowledge. The student

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PLUS MINUS

INTERESTING

Focus

on individual

development

Facilitate

on student’s open

expressions of feeling

Each student

has best learning style

Explore

interpersonal

relationship in group

activities

Lack of

competitive

Depends on

the capabilities of

the teacher

The learning

style and evaluations

tend to be

unrecognized and

unwieldy

Leads to

extroverted students

monopolizing the

discussion.

Children

can

develop self-esteem

Finding

experienced teacher

will be a problem ?

What if the

enrolment of the

classroom is big ?

Will the low

achievers feel

shame to join the

group?

takes on an important role in this type of classroom.

Lessons originate and develop from the interests

of the student. The child is able to showcase his

creativity in this type of open classroom, which

increases self-esteem and a willingness to learn.

2. Emotional Support

A humanistic classroom is inclusive of everyone.

This type of class seeks to support both individuality

and diversity by finding the similarities among

children. Lessons are developed not for the group,

but for the individual. Diversified lessons give each

child a chance to succeed and receive positive

reinforcement. Each child knows how it feels to

succeed, and stratification of students is eliminated.

Each child learns at an individual pace without labels

and stereotypes that can stigmatize.

3. Open Seminars

Open seminars provide a chance for the student's

voice to be heard. Situating desks in a circle, with

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the teacher joining the circle, gives everyone an

equal voice. There should be rules for the open

seminar, such as respect of opinions and giving

each person a chance to speak without interruption.

The seminar may focus on a question from a

student, a piece of literature, a current event or

anything the class is studying.

1. Cooperative Learning

Cooperative learning lets children work together to

find solutions to problems. Each child may have a

specific role within the group to make use of his

talents. The teacher supervises each group of about

three or four students to answer questions and

provide support. This type of learning allows the

student to learn how to foster peer relationships, an

important skill to carry throughout life.

2. Discovery Education

In discovery education, the teacher introduces a

concept and gives the student freedom to discover

her own path to learning more about the concept.

This strategy supports the concept of multiple

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intelligences and intellectual diversity. Abstract

learners may seek books and computers to research

the concept. The interpersonal personality may seek

out others to question for information on the topic.

3.0 Behavioural Theory

The term behaviourism refers to the school of psychology founded by John B. Watson based

on the belief that behaviours can be measured, and changed. Behaviorism was established

with the publication of Watson’s classic paper Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It

(1913) .

Behaviorism also known as behavioural psychology, is a theory of learning based upon the

idea that all behaviours are acquired through conditioning. Conditioning occurs through

interaction with environment. Behaviourist believes that our responses to environmental

stimuli shapes our behaviours.

According to behaviourism, behaviour can be studied in a systematic and observable manner

with no consideration of internal mental states. This school of thought suggests that only

observable behaviours should be studied, since internal states such as cognitions, emotions

and moods are too subjective.

There are two major types of conditioning :

1 . Classical Conditioning is a technique used in

behavioural training in which a naturally occurring

stimulus is paired with a response. Next, a

previously neutral stimulus is paired with the

naturally occurring stimulus. Eventually, the

previously neutral stimulus comes to evoke the

response without the presence of the naturally

occurring stimulus. The two elements are then now

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as the conditioned stimulus and the conditioned

response.

2. Operant Conditioning .( sometimes referred to as

instrumental conditioning ) is a method of learning

that occurs through rewards and punishments for

behaviour. Through operant conditioning, an

association is made between a behaviour and a

consequence for that behaviour .

3.1 PROPONENTS

3.1.1 Burrhus Frederic Skinner

Skinner’s views were slightly less extreme than those of Watson. Skinner believed that

we do have much a thing as a mind but that it is simply more productive to study

observable behaviour rather than internal mental events

Skinner believed that the best way to understand behaviour is to look at the causes of

an action and its consequences. He called this approach operant conditioning.

BF Skinner : Operant Conditioning

Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant Conditioning, but his work was based on

Thorndike’s law of effect. Skinner introduced a new term into the Law of Effect-

Reinforcement behaviour which is reinforced tend to be repeated (strengthened);

behaviour which is not reinforced tends to die out-or be extinguished(weakened).

Skinner(1948) studied operant conditioning by conducting experiments using animals

which he placed in a “Skinner Box” which was similar to Thorndike’s puzzle box. His

study of behaviour in rats was conducted under carefully controlled laboratory

conditions.

Figure 2

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Skinner hypothesised that within behaviour the “being manipulated or operated on the

environment. He maintained or shaped by its consequences, rather than just being shaped

by the stimulus (Pavlov).

He found that a rat could be made to operate liver. Every time a rat pressed a liver it received

a reward( a pellete of food). Thus the pellet of food was the reinforcement. Having learnt to

press the lever, as with Pavlov’s dogs, Skinner’s rats could also be made to extinguish that

behaviour, by not rewarding the pressing of the bar with food.

Skinner suggested that all behaviour is simply a matter of operant or classical conditioning.

Human beings learn to behave according to the sophisticated or subtle schedule of

reinforcement they encounter.

He suggested that one can be made to behave by positive reinforcement - this is rewarding

behaviour(e.g. a carrot), or by negative reinforcement – this is the removal of an unpleasant

stimulus (e.g. an electric cattle prong). Skinner does acknowledge that behaviour can also be

stopped (e.g. by a stick).

Within the schedule of reinforcement, Skinner found that partial reinforcement (intermittently

rewarding behaviour) was more effective than constant reinforcement. He also found that one

stimulus could spread to other stimuli (e.g. a pigeon could be inducted to peck at a particular

colour dot, and then generalise to peck to pecked at all coloured dots. Similarly Skinner found

that the rats or pigeons could be made to discriminate between similar stimuli.

3.1.2 Ivan Petrovich Pavlov

His discoveries in the field of physiology by studying the mechanisms underlying the

digestive system in mammals paved the way for an objective science of behaviour .

1) Classical Conditioning

The most famous and well-known experiment of

Pavlov is that he conditioned dogs to initiate a

salivary response to sound of a bell. He began by

measuring the amount of salivation in response to

only food. As the experiments continued, he rang a

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bell as he presented the food. Again, he noted a

salivary response. Finally, by only ringing the bell,

Pavlov observed the same response as having

presented food to the dogs – salivation.

1. Unconditioned Stimulus (food) Unconditioned Response. (salivation)

2. Conditioned Stimulus (bell) Unconditioned Response (salivation)

+

Unconditioned Stimulus (food)

3. Conditioned Stimulus (bell) Conditioned Response (salivation)

Pavlov’s discovery was that environmental events that previously had no relation to a

given reflex (such as a bell sound) could, through experience, trigger a reflex

(salivation). This kind of learnt response is called conditioned reflex, and the process

whereby dogs or humans learn to connect a stimulus to a reflex is called conditioning.

3.2. PRINCIPLES

1) Principle of Operant Conditioning

i) Reinforcers : reinforcing immediately following a behaviour increase the future

frequency of that behaviour.

Positive reinforcers-positive, so think of addition (+)… adding a reinforcer to

reinforce desired results, so behaviour is likely to re-occur.

Negative reinforcers-negative, so think of subtraction (-) . Taking away an

unfavourable stimuli to produce desired behaviour…( like in Skinner box, the

loud annoying sound was removed when desired behaviour occurred) .

ii) Punishment : a consequences immediately following a behaviour reduces the

future frequency of that behaviour.

Positive Punishments-an unfavourable stimuli is used to “punish” when

undesired behaviour occurs to prevent the likelihood of behaviour reoccurring.

( likeSkinner, producing a shock for undesired behaviour) .

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Negative Punishment-taking away a favourable stimuli to “punish” for undesired

behaviour. ( taking away a child’s favourite toy for bad behaviour ).

2) Principles of Classical Conditioning

a) Acquisition

Acquisition is the initial stage of learning a

response is first established and gradually

strengthened. For example, imagine that

you are conditioning a dog to salivate in

response to the sound of a bell. You

repeatedly pair the presentation of food with the sound of the bell. You can

say the

response has acquired as soon as the dog

begins to salivate in response to the bell

tone. Once the response has been acquired,

you can gradually reinforce the salivation to make sure the behaviour is well

learnt

b) Extinction

Extinction is when the occurrences of a conditioned response decrease or

disappear

In classical conditioning, this happens when a conditioned stimulus is no longer

paired

with an unconditioning stimulus. For example, if the smell of food (the

unconditioned stimulus) had been paired with the sound of a whistle (the

conditioned stimulus) had been paired with a sound of a whistle (the

conditioned stimulus), it would eventually come to evoke the conditioned

response of hunger. However, if the conditioned stimulus (the smell of food)

were no longer paired with the conditioned stimulus (the whistle, eventually the

conditioned response (hunger) would disappear .

c) Spontaneous Recovery

Spontaneous Recovery is the reappearance

of the conditioned response after a rest

period or period of lessened response. If

the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned

stimulus are no longer associated, extinction

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will occur very rapidly after a spontaneous

recovery.

d) Stimulus Generalization

Stimulus Generalization is the tendency for the

conditioned stimulus to evoke similar

responses after the response has been

conditioned.

For example, if a child has been conditioned to

fear stuffed white rabbit, the child will exhibit fear

for the objects similar to the conditioned stimulus.

e) Discrimination

Discrimination is the ability to differentiate

between a conditioned stimulus and other

stimuli that have not been paired with an

unconditioned stimulus. For example, if a

bell tone were the conditioned stimulus,

discrimination would involve being able to

tell the difference between the bell tone and

other similar sounds.

3.3 KEY CONCEPT

Behaviorism is a theory of animal and human learning that only focuses on objectively

observable behaviours and discounts mental activities. Behaviour theorists define

learning as nothing more than the acquisition of new behaviour.

Experiments by behaviourists identify conditioning as a universal learning process.

There are two different types of conditioning, each yielding a different behavioural

pattern.

1. Classic conditioning occurs when a natural reflex responds to a stimulus. The most

popular example is Pavlov’s observation that dogs salivate when they eat or even

see food. Essentially, animals and people are biologically “wired’ so that certain

stimulus will produce a specific response.

2. Behavioural or Operant Conditioning occurs when a response to a stimulus is

reinforced.

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Basically, operant conditioning is feedback system : If a reward or reinforcement

follows the response to a stimulus, then the response becomes more probable in

the future.

For eg. Leading

behaviourist B.F

Skinner used

reinforcement

techniques to

teach pigeons to

dance and bowl a

ball in a mini

alley.

3.4 PLUS MINUS

INTERESTING IN

BEHAVIOURAL

3.5 BEHAVIOURAL

THEORY IN THE

CLASSROOM

Behaviourism has played

an important role in both

mainstream and special

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PLUS MINUS

INTERESTING

Learn

new skills in new

situations by

observing and

imitating others

Simple

steps are

mastered before

complex levels of

performance are

attempted.

Focus

clearly upon

achieving the

goals

Shapes

behavior quickly

learners

adapt to the

environment

easily.

Learners

are usually

passive

Do not

promote creative

thinking

Does not

prepare students

for problem

solving

Behavior

is not internalized

The

learners adapt to

the poor

environment

Can the

learners improve their

self- esteem ?

Can

learners express their

feelings openly ?

Can

learners achieve the

goals independently?

The student

may or may not feel

respect towards the

teacher

Can the

students behave

without the influence

of other students.

education since the 1960s. Developed by psychologists John B. Watson and B. F. Skinner,

the core belief of behaviourism is that behaviour is influenced by our environment and can be

modified through conditioning and reinforcement. More importantly, as almost all behaviour is

learned, it can be modified to make teaching and learning a more positive and successful

experience.

HOW IT IS APPLIED IN THE CLASSROOM?

1. Use a teacher-led approach.

Behaviourists advocate the use of direct or teacher-

led instruction in the classroom, such as lectures and

presentations. Behaviourists believe that learning is a

change in behaviour that occurs as a response to a

particular stimulus. This response then leads to a

consequence and when this consequence is positive

and pleasant, the behaviour change is then

reinforced. Therefore, for this process to occur, the

teacher must be in control of the environment and

able to offer immediate reinforcement.

2. Use drills and memorization techniques. As part of

both the teacher-led and shaping processes, drill techniques and rote memorization

should be used to help students learn specific facts, such as capital cities or a list of

American presidents. The teacher can then give students immediate feedback and

positive reinforcement on their learning progress.

3. Use behaviour modification techniques. Developed by B. F. Skinner, this operates

on the principle that an undesirable behaviour, such as being disruptive in class,

can be replaced with a desirable behaviour by reinforcement. This involves ignoring

the negative behaviour in favor of focusing and highlighting on the positive.

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4. Students naturally look for times when you are not paying close attention to them to

do other things, often not behaving. Try your best to pay attention to all the students

all of the time. Let them know if something else is going to have your attention and

that you expect them to behave their best. Create a seating arrangement that allows

you to maintain eye contact with all your students, and walk around often around

their seats so they know you physically are aware of what they are doing. In your

lessons, do not have down time between activities. Always keep a back-up plan for

unexpected times in your classroom.

5. Another behavioural approach to classroom is to find out why your students act the

way they do. Students misbehave for various reasons, including getting attention or

avoiding their assignments. If you have bored students, you can expect behavioural

problems. If your students have deep personal problems at home, they may have

behavioural issues. Anticipate possible problems by starting class addressing any

issues you notice. Work on positive reinforcements of correct behaviour and

minimize opportunities for misbehaving. Be aware that drawing attention to an

undesirable behaviour can sometimes motivate students to repeat it. Stress to your

class that negative behaviour robs every class member of valuable learning

opportunities and wastes everyone's valuable time.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Humanism is seen as the "third force" of therapy views. It is a theoretical alternative to the

psychoanalytic and behavioural approaches. However, humanism does incorporate aspects

of psychoanalytic and behavioural views. Behaviourists believe that all human behaviour is

controlled by external environmental factors. Whereas psychoanalysts believe that human

behaviour is controlled and directed by unconscious internal forces. Thus, the Humanistic

approach (this will send you to the Humanistic Approach tutorial) perceives behaviour as

holistic.

Consequently, humanists share a respect for the person's subjective experience as well as a

trust in the capacity of the client to make both positive and constructive conscious choices.

There is an emphasis on the vocabulary of freedom, choices, values, personal responsibility,

autonomy, purpose, and meaning. In short, the Humanistic view believes that each individual

has within him or herself a nature and a potential that he or she can actualize. The underlying

vision of the humanist is captured by the illustration of how an acorn, if provided with the

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appropriate nurturing conditions, will automatically grow in positive ways, as the potential in it

automatically pushes toward actualization.

Rogers' person-centred approach (PCA) falls under this larger humanistic view. The PCA is

both an experiential and relationship-oriented perspective. Rogers approach focuses on

experience and emphasizes the uniqueness of the individual and the search for self-

actualization .

Skinner's operant conditioning centres on the idea that learning can be encouraged when

responses are reinforced. He based his assumption on the fact that the human is an

irresponsible "animal", capable of being controlled by the environment. The scriptures argue

that the human is responsible and capable of making choices independent of the

environment. While Skinner is right by ascertaining that certain stimuli can cause behaviour

to change. Adventist educators must however be sensitive to the limitations of Skinner, such

as the invalidity of using animal experiments to generalize on how humans will behave in

similar circumstances. The questions that arise from Skinner's operant theory include:

- Can behaviours be explained in behaviouristic terms alone?

- If behaviour can be controlled through contingency reinforcement, who will control the

controllers?

- Who decides what behaviours are appropriate?

Furthermore, behaviourism lends itself to manipulating the behaviour of others, encouraging

over dependence on extrinsic rewards, and securing external behaviour change without

internal commitment and thus de-emphasizing human freedom and dignity. Skinner's total

determinism, narrow empiricism, and naturalistically based value system is opposed to

biblical revelation.

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