ASSOCIATION OF EUROPEAN AUTOMOTIVE AND INDUSTRIAL …€¦ · charging of road vehicles to support the energy system is also relevant for off-road because their wide deployment and

ASSOCIATION OF EUROPEAN AUTOMOTIVEAND INDUSTRIAL BATTERY MANUFACTURERS

batterymanufacting

plants

researchcenters

annual turnover

manufacturersand Associatemembers from

across thevalue chain

Affordable, proven, safe and

sustainable

M A T E R I A L H A N D L I N G OFF-ROAD TRANSPORTATION

Batteries are widely used in rail, marine and air transportation. The concepts of smart charging of road vehicles to support the energy system is also relevant for off-road because their wide deployment and large energy capacities

EUROBAT is the Associat ion of European Automot ive and Industr ia l Bat tery Manufacturers . I t s 50-p lus members compr ise more than 90% o f the au tomot ive and indus t r ia l ba t te ry indus t ry in Europe .

EUROBAT represen ts the manufac tu re rs o f a l l fou r ex is t ing ba t te ry techno log ies : Lead-, Lithium-, Nickel- and Sodium- based . Each chemistry has i ts own advantages and i s bes t su i ted fo r spec i f i c app l i ca t ions .

C o n t e n t s

1. Executive Summary

2. Introduction – Scope and purpose of the Roadmap

3. Drivers for Battery Innovation and R&D innovation priority areas

Current technical requirements and opportunities across key applications

a. Area 1: Automotive Mobility

• Auxiliary12Vbatteries• Start-Lighting-Ignition12Vbatteries(SLIbatteries)• HeavyCommercialVehicleStand-bybatteries• BatteryElectricVehiclepropulsionbatteries(BEVbatteries)

b. Area 2: Material handling and logistics applications

• Batteriesformaterialhandling• BatteriesforAutomatedGuidedVehiclesandcarts(AGV/AGCsbatteries)

c. Area 3: Off-road transportation

• Railwaybatteries• Marinebatteries

d. Area 4: Stationary Energy Storage Batteries

• UninterruptedPowerSupplyBatteries(UPSbatteries)• Telecombatteries• ResidentialandCommercialEnergyStorageBatteriesbehindthemeter• Utilitygrid-scaleEnergyStorageBatteries(ESSbatteries)

4. Environmental performances of batteries

5. Recommendation for the EU Battery Action Plan

6. Concluding remarks

7. Technical annex

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batterymanufacting

plants

researchcenters

annual turnover

manufacturersand Associatemembers from

across thevalue chain

Affordable, proven, safe and

sustainable

M A T E R I A L H A N D L I N G OFF-ROAD TRANSPORTATION

Batteries are widely used in rail, marine and air transportation. The concepts of smart charging of road vehicles to support the energy system is also relevant for off-road because their wide deployment and large energy capacities

EUROBAT is the Associat ion of European Automot ive and Industr ia l Bat tery Manufacturers . I t s 50-p lus members compr ise more than 90% o f the au tomot ive and indus t r ia l ba t te ry indus t ry in Europe .

EUROBAT represen ts the manufac tu re rs o f a l l fou r ex is t ing ba t te ry techno log ies : Lead-, Lithium-, Nickel- and Sodium- based . Each chemistry has i ts own advantages and i s bes t su i ted fo r spec i f i c app l i ca t ions .

BATTERY INNOVATION ROADMAP 2030

4

Execut ive Summary

Batteries play a crucial role in supporting the European Green Deal, presented in December 2019, and the transition towards a decarbonised society and climate-neutral economy by 2050. Theyarerecognisedaskeyenablersfordecarbonisationintransport,energy,logistics,productionandtelecommunications,supportingtheenergytransitionandcontributingtotheimprovementofamultitudeofapplications.

The European battery industry has led the way in battery innovation and standardisation for many years, channelling theEuropeanvoiceintoglobaldiscussionsandresultinginreliableproductsandqualitystandardstailoredforamultitudeofapplications– there is no one-size-fits-all battery. Europe’sbatterysectortakesamarket-orientedapproach,whichanticipatesshiftingdemandfromcontinuousinnovationinautomotive,motiveandstationarystorageapplications.Ithas the experience and expertise to meet future demand acrossmanyapplicationsandhascontinued to tailor,andsignificantly improve, itsproductsandmaintain theflexibility toservecurrentmarketsandfuturedemand.

In2019,automotiveandindustrialleadbatteriesconstituted75%oftheglobalB2Bbatterymarket.Differentsourcespredictthatthismarketwillgrowtoover€200bnby2030,representingover1,800GWh,whichwouldbethreetimesthe2019marketvalue(3).Lithium-basedbatterieswillcontinuetohavethehighestgrowth,butlead-basedbatterieswillalsogrowincrementallyoverthenextdecade(3).Leadandlithiumwillremainthemainstreamtechnologiesin2030withsubstantialmarketshares.

Lead and lithium, as well as nickel and sodium based batteries, have a developing potential and the European industry is prepared to increase its investment in innovation. All these battery chemistries and technologies will continue to be essential in our low-carbon future. Each battery technology still offers strong innovation potential andhasacleardevelopmentmargin,drivenbyapplications. No single battery chemistry or technology can meet all the challenges of end-user demandinamultitudeofapplications,combininghighpowerandenergydensity,longlife,lowcost,excellentsafetyandminimalenvironmentalimpact.

The innovation and further development of electrochemical storage systems is an ongoing process that is based on the increased requirements of different applications. For the mainstream technologies discussed in this White Paper, a clear development roadmap exists.Inthecaseofthewell-establishedtechnologies,mainlylead,nickeland, toacertainextent,sodium, improvementsconcerningservice lifeperformanceandsafetywillbeenabledbyusinginnovativematerialsandcellcomponentsintheelectrochemicalsystemaswellasapplyingadvancedbatterymanagementsystems.The outstanding feature in this process is that these improvements will be tailored to particular applications. Lithiumbasedtechnologiescameinlater,withsuccessfuldeploymentofmass-producedstandardcelltypestoservedifferentapplications–astrategydrivenbycostandenergydensity.In order to meet future demand and requirements, we need a regulatory landscape that treats all battery technologies equally topromoteandstimulatebatteryproductioninEurope.Withacoherentandsupportiveregulatoryframeworkthatallowstheindustrytoevolveandinnovateinlinewithfuturedemand,Europe’sdomesticbatteryindustryhasthepotentialtodevelopandpositionitselfforthefuture,whilealsoretainingitsprofitabilityincurrentmarketsandapplications.

1

The innovation and further development of electrochemical storage systems is an ongoing process that is based on the increased requirements of different applications. For the mainstream technologies discussed in this White Paper, a clear development roadmap exists.

(1) 3CBI/Avicennestudyreport2019


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Scope and purpose of the Roadmap2

This“BatteryInnovationRoadmap2030”complementstheEUROBAT“ElectionManifesto2019-2024”andprovidesthetechnicalbackgroundtotheinnovationpotentialofthekeybatterytechnologiestosupportandguidepolicy-makers.

EUROBATrepresentstheEU’sautomotiveandindustrialbatteryindustries.Ourmembershipincludesmanufacturersofallfourexistingbatterytechnologies–lead,lithium,nickelandsodiumbasedbatteries–andcomprisesthewholeEUbatterymanufacturingvaluechain,withfactoriesandproductionplantsacrossEurope.ThisRoadmapfocusesonthesetechnologiesandhighlightstheirinnovationpotentialinrelationtotheapplicationstheyserve.

Batteriesarespecificallydesigned tobeused inparticularapplications.Assuch, this Roadmap emphasises the importance of considering each application independently when targeting battery research and development (R&D) to innovate our products.ThebatteryfeaturesandtargetsselectedintheEU’sStrategicEnergyTechnologyPlan(SETPlan)stronglyfocusonplug-inHEV/EVpropulsionbatteriesand2ndlifeelectricvehicle(EV)batteryuseonly,whichresultedinR&Dtargetingthemostsuitabletechnologiesfortheseapplicationprofiles.However,therearemanyotheremergingbatterymarkets,eachofwhichcancontributetotransformingtheEU’seconomyforasustainablefutureandmeetingEurope’s2050climateneutralitytarget.

Consequently,thisRoadmapfocusesonavariety of critical applications, identifying the key battery performancetoimproveinordertomeetfuturerequirementsfortheapplicationstheywillserve.Itconcludeswitha set of research and innovation objectives per application, demonstrating the necessity and complementarity of different battery technologies, which all have a role to play and offer significant potential for development.ThetechnicaldetailsofthereportareintheTechnical Annex.


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Drivers for battery innovation and R&D innovat ion pr ior i ty areas

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The European battery industry has expertise in market-driven R&D.Besidesregulation,battery innovation has historically been driven primarily by developments in applications.Thisexplainstheverywiderangeofspecificbatteryproducts,sizes,technologiesandchemistriesthatco-existinthemarket.TheindustryhasbeenstronginEuropefordecadesinservingbothmassandnichemarketsbyleadingnationalandinternationalstandardisationandcontributinginnovativeproductsinthedevelopmentofamultitudeofapplications.

This Roadmap features battery developments in key applications thatcanmakeasignificantcontributiontoEurope’sdecarbonisation.Wepresentthecurrenttechnicalrequirementsandopportunitiesforeachbatterytechnology,aswellasthekeyfeaturesandtechnologiesforimprovingthebatteryperformanceineachapplicationwithinthe2030 horizon.

Todemonstratethedevelopmentpotentialofcurrentmainstreambatterytechnologies,weselectedkeyapplicationsgroupedaround fourareas:automotive mobility, material handling and logistics, off-road transportation and stationary storage.Thelistofapplicationsisnotexhaustive,andotherkeymarketsexistwherebatteryR&Disstronglydrivenbyinnovation.Thisisparticularlytrueformilitaryandmedicalapplications.TheEuropeanbatteryindustry,withitsprovenexpertise,isadaptabletonewproductsanddevelopments,andisreadytoprovidefutureapplicationswithahostofnewfeaturesthatmaynotevenbeimaginabletoday.

Theroadtransportsectorisresponsiblefor20%oftheEU’stotalCO2emissions,buthasastrongpotentialfordecarbonisation,withbatteriesaskeyenablersforincreasingtheenergyefficiencyofvehicles(alldrivetrains)androadtransportinfrastructure.EUROBATtakesanactiveroleinthedecarbonisationoftheroadtransportsectorthroughitsmembershipof theEuropeanGreenVehicle InitiativeAssociation(EGVIA)andtheEuropeanRoadTransportResearchAdvisoryCouncil(ERTRAC).Consumerpressureandregulatorydriversareforcingchangesinvehicletechnology.Today, there is a strong focus on electric vehicles, but there is wide potential for the role of batteries to evolve further. TheWorldwideHarmonisedLightDutyVehiclesTestProcedure(WLTC)broughtashifttousingrealdrivingdatatoassessfuelconsumptionandemissionsand the main challenge for automotive batteries is to capture the car’s kinetic energy for the different degrees of hybridisation and electrification, from start/stop to mild hybrid, plug-in hybrid and full electric vehicles.

Thedifferentbatterytypesshouldcontinuetoco-existastheyallhavethepotentialtocontributeconsiderably,dependingontheapplication.Besidesplug-inhybridelectricvehicle(PHEV)propulsion,wepresentthreeothertypesofautomotiveapplicationsindevelopment.Theseapplications present a major opportunity for the European battery industry and can play a crucial role in helping to realise the Green Deal’s net-zero emissions goal by 2050.

Lowvoltage(LV)electrificationalreadyprovidessignificantsavingsforoverallfleetefficiencytoreachtheEU’sintermediatedecarbonisationgoalsandPHEV/EVshelpreducelocalemissionsanddownsizethecombustionengine.

Lowandhighvoltage(HV)electrificationstrategiesdrivedifferentrequirementstoenergysystemsasshowninthefollowingapplications.

Area 1 Automotive Mobi l i ty


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Auxiliary 12V batteries are used in automotive vehicles, in internal combustion engines (ICEs) and at all levels of hybridisation.Frommicro,mild,fullandplug-inhybridstoelectriccars,thebattery’smainfunctionistosupportthe12Vloadsandtoensurethequalityoftheon-boardnet,aswellastoensurethesafetymanoeuvringsincaseofemergency.Furthermore,start-stopfunctionality,cyclabilityandcrankingaretailoredtothespecificvehiclearchitecture,althoughthecrankingfeaturemightdisappearinthefuture.

The further market penetration of micro, mild, full and plug-in electric vehicles will not impact the 12V auxiliary battery market in the next 10 years as they are all already equipped with these batteries.

Thedominantbatterytechnologytodayislead.Togetherwithlead,lithiumcanalsocompeteinthiscategorytofulfilfuturerequirements,asdetailedintheTechnicalAnnex.

Leadand lithiumtechnologiesarecomplementary in termsofperformance,recyclingandcost.Forauxiliaryapplications,leadbatteriesareadvantageousfortheirhightemperaturelife,lowtemperatureperformance,recyclingefficiencyandcost,butcouldimproveintermsofcyclelifeandenergydensity.TheadvantageofLi-ionbatteries,however,isintheirenergyandpowerdensitiesandcyclelifeatambienttemperatures.However,highcost,safetyandrecyclability,aswellasextremetemperatureperformances,mustbeimprovedinordertobecomecompetitivewithleadbatteries.

Enhancedflooded (EFB)andabsorbentglassmat technology (AGM),willgenerally be preferred. For lithium-based batteries, lithium iron phosphate(LFP)andlithiumtitanateoxide(LTO)willbe thechemistriesofuse forsuchapplications.

Microandmild-hybridvehicles runwitha12V leadstarterbatterybecauseofthebattery’scrankingfunction.Today,theworldwideSLIbatterymarketisgreaterthan300GWh/yearandispredictedtoincreaseincrementallytoover500GWh/yearby2030(1).Leadwillcontinuetodominatethismarketbecauseof itsspecific features,asoutlined in theTechnicalAnnex,andonlyamoderatepenetrationof lithiumof1-2%ispredictedby2030(1). Intheleadbatterymarket,floodedbatterieswillretainasubstantialmarketshare,althoughenhancedflooded(EFB)andabsorbentglassmattechnology(AGM)willhaveagrowingshare.

Opportunitycharging tocapture thekineticenergyof thecarwillbekey toimprovingenergyefficiency.Highvoltage (HV)and lowvoltage (LV) Li-ionsystems are developing further, but lead can also support the capture ofexcessenergy.‘Dynamicchargeacceptance’isakeyinnovationforbatteriesinsuchapplications.

With an increasing number of micro and mild hybrid vehicles on the road and the replacement market to serve for many years after, this application is a key enabler for Europe to meet its CO2 reduction targets.

TheEuropean battery industry is currently a leader in the worldwide market,aswellasinthestandardisationprocesswiththeInternationalElectrotechnicalCommission (IEC), andalreadyhasGiga-manufacturing capacities –approximately60GWhatpresent.

Auxi l iary 12V Batter ies

Start -L ight- Igni t ion 12V batter ies

(1) 1EUROBATinternalbestestimates

©Clarios


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Inmanycities today, truckscannot run in idleovernightwhenchargingordischarging, and in some Member States further legislation is beingdevelopedthatwillnotallowcarstostayinidleforlongerthanafewminutes.Legislative changeshave led tonewbattery requirementsand resulted ina completely new market developing, in particular for Heavy Commercial Vehicle-stand-by batteries (HCV-stand-by batteries).

The purpose of these batteries is to ensure a high energy supply whenboth theengine isnot runningandelectricenergydemand ishigh.Thisrequires deep-cycle performance, which cannot be achieved with existingconventionalstartingordual-purposeleadbatteries.Today,onlyleadisinthisnewmarket,butinfuturelithiummightalsokickin.However,thetemperaturewindowandthetotalcostofownershipforlithiumwillbeachallenge,suggestingonlylimitedmarketpenetrationby2030andcontinuedleaddominanceinthisapplication.

ThecurrentEVworldwidemarketis3.3munits,whichwillriseto27munitsby2030(4).Marketdriversincludefavourablegovernmentalpolicies/subsidies,rising emissions concerns and the further development of the charginginfrastructure,includingbi-directionalvehicle-to-gridsystems(V2G)inordertosupportgrid-functionalities.

The importanceof theentirebatteryvaluechain is increasingly recognisedandsupportedbytheEuropeanCommission,withmanyinitiativesundertheEuropeanBatteryAlliance(EBA),aswellasthebatteryfeaturesandtargetsbeingdirectlyintroducedintheEU’sSETPlantotargettheapplication.

The technologiesofchoiceare lithium-ionbatterieswithNickelManganeseCobaltOxide (NMC)andLithium IronPhosphate (LFP).Lead technologiesarenotsuitableforthepropulsionofPHEV/EVsbuttheystillhavearoletoplay tomaintain the quality of the on-board net and to ensure the safetyfunctionsofthemainbattery.

ThechallengeofthelithiumpropulsionbatterytodayisstillthehighcostandlimitedrangeoftheEVscomparedtoICE-poweredvehicles.Also,fastercharging,combinedwithsafetyandsecurityaspects,arestillkeyperformanceindicatorsto target for innovation. Tomeet these challenges, the industry is seekingmaterials to increase the volumetric and gravimetric density, aswell as tomaintainthesafetyandsecurityaspectsofthebatteries.NMCandsolidstatetechnologyaretargetedinthisrespect.Recyclingratesarecurrentlyat50%,butprogressisexpectedby2030tomakeitmoreeconomicallyviable.

Heavy Commercial Vehic le

batteries (EV batteries) Battery Electric Vehicle propulsion

(1) 4IEAGlobalEVreport2019


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logis t ics appl icat ionsArea 2 Mater ial handl ing and

Logisticsisanimportantpartofsupplychainmanagement.Therearedifferentvehiclecategoriesandawidevarietyofforklifttypeswithdistinctapplications,featuresandbenefits.Theseincludeorderpickers,reachtrucks,riderpallettrucks,narrowaisleforklifts,high-capacityforkliftsandside-loaders,butalsoautomatedguidedvehicles(AGVs)andstate-of-the-artroboticforklifts.

Tractionandsemi-tractionbatteries formaterial handling, suchas in forkliftapplications,isanoldermarketinwhichleadbatteriescurrentlyhavearounda90%marketshare.Lithiumisonlyintheearlystagesofstartingtopenetratethismarket.Theworldwidebatteryforkliftmarketisratedat32GWh,witharound8%annualgrowth.Pushedbynoiseandemissionslegislation,batteryforkliftsaresteadilyreplacingICE-types,withthemarketpredictedtoreach73GWhby2030(1).

Leadislikelytoremaindominantinthisrisingbatteryforkliftmarketin2030,withpotentiallyupto80%marketshare,comparedtoa15-30%marketshareforecastforlithium(3).Oneadvantageforleadistheneedforacounterweight,especiallyforsit-downandhigh-reachforklifts.Anotheradvantageisthefactthat, in one-shift regimes or when using battery swap infrastructures onlocation,thereisenoughchargingtimeavailable.Moreover,inoperationswithopportunityand fastcharging, theadvanced leadbatteriesof the futurewillalsoofferincreasedflexibilityandhigheravailability.

Lithiumhasenteredthemarketforsmallerforkliftsandshowsadvantagesinmultipleshiftoperations,whicharemoreenergy-demandingandwherebatterychargingtimeislimited.Thisisbecauselithiumislessaffectedbyopportunitycharging, thusofferinganextraadvantage for24/7machineuse. Insomeapplicationsandnichemarketswithintensiveuse,thetotalcostofownershipcouldbecomelowerthanforlead.However,lithiumbatteriesstillfaceissuessuchascost,functionalsafetyandhighmassenergydensity.

Nickel-basedbatteriesrepresentasmallerpartofthemarket,butalsohaveacrucialroletoplayastheyareusedinextremetemperatureconditions,suchasindrive-infreezers.

AGVsandAGCsprovideasmoothconnectionbetweenmodernproductionandassembly linesandconventionalmeansof transport.Different typesofAGVarereferredtoas‘industrialtrucks’.Thedefinitionisimportantwithregardtomachineryregulations.Thesetransportsystemsarecharacterisedbythefactthattheyaresuitableforlifting,stackingandstoringloadsonshelves,canpickupandunloadautomaticallywithinacompany’spremiseswithoutrequiringdirecthumaninteraction,andgenerallyuseelectricdrives.AGVsystemsdemandbatteriesdesignedforheavydutythatarealsoabletoaccepthighloads.Longservice lifeandeconomy inuseareother key requirements for theenergystoragesystem,thereforerequiringlongmaintenanceintervalstoreducethetotalcostofownership.

Material handling

and Automated Guided Carts (AGCs) Automated Guided Vehicles (AGVs)

(1) 1EUROBATinternalbestestimates3CBI/Avicennestudyreport2019

©HOPPECKEBatterien


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Therobustnickel-basedtechnologyNiCd,withitsbroadoperationtemperaturerange(-40°Cto60°C)hastraditionallybeenthechoiceforAGVapplicationsinextremeenvironments,althoughlead-basedbatteriesretainthelargestshareintoday’sAGV/AGCmarket.

Lithium,with high energy andpower densities, is nowentering themarkettopowerAGVsandAGCsbecauseof restrictedbatterycompartmentsandhighercurrentsduetotheheavyloads,hencetheneedforincreasedvolumetricenergydensityandcyclability,whicharekeyperformanceindicatorsforinnovation.

Off-road t ransportat ionArea 3 Theelectrificationofmobilityalsopositivelyimpactsoff-roadbatterymarketsduetogrowthinexistingand/oremergingmarketsinamultitudeofapplications.Theoff-roadmarketsareverydiverseand,besidesrailway,marineandairtransportation,alsocoveragriculture,wheelchairs,cleaningmachinery,leisurevehicles,andgolfcarts,amongstothers.

Rail infrastructure is the most efficient transportation mode inEuropewithregardtoCO2emissionsandsafety.Itis,therefore,ofgreatimportancethatwedevelophigherperformancebatteries tosupport innovation inbothvehicles and infrastructure to further increase the performanceandenergyefficiencyofthesystem.

The railway segment is a very fast-growing market,drivenbyincreasingpopulationsandgrowingdemandforrail transportaroundtheworld.AsiaishighlyactiveinthissectorandexpectedtohaveasignificantimpactonthetrainbatterymarketinEurope.Theoverallbatterymarkethashighgrowthpotential,with annual growth until 2025 forecast to be 25%, 5%and4%,respectively, forLi-ion,Nickel-Cadmiumandlead.Leadandadvancedleadbatterieswithincreasedcycleandservicelifeandlowtemperaturetolerancewillbethemaintechnologyforcommutertrainsin2025withamarketshareofmorethan35%(1).

Railway batteries are located in the rolling stock and infrastructure.Themainstreamtechnologiesusedarenickelbased, inparticularNiCd,floodedandsealedlead,andlithiumbasedbatteries.Fortherollingstock,wedifferentiatebetween ‘city traffic’ (suburban railway and underground trains), ‘regionaltraffic’ (railwaypassengercarriages)and ‘long-distance traffic’ (railcarswithICEs),wherebatteriesareusedsoservedifferentapplications,suchas forlightingandemergencypowersupply,deliveringauxiliaryservicesandstartingdieselengines.Forrailwaystandbyapplications,wedifferentiatebetweenbatteriesfor ‘trackside linesignaling’, ‘street trafficcontrol’, ‘signalandcontrolboxesandenclosures’and‘waysideenergystorage’.

Newupcomingapplications for battery systemsare thehybridisation and electrification of rail power traction,mainlyforcommuterandmetrotrains.Therequisitehighenergy,powerdensityandcyclabilityforsuchapplicationscanbecoveredbylithiumsystemsinparticular,whichareexpectedtobethefastestgrowingbatterysegmentduetobenefitssuchasbeingmaintenance-freeandhavingalongerlifetime.Forbatteriesusedtopowerauxiliaryfunctions,aswellaslightsandfansinhighspeedandmetrotrains,thenickel-basedchemistryisthepreferredtechnology.Inthissector,thereisgrowingdemandforbatteries,especiallydrivenbyFarEastAsianmarkets.Due to development trends for on-board units with smaller footprints, weight restrictions and constant reliability needs, the future requirements for energy storage systems consist mainly of improvements to volumetric energy density, lifetime and operation temperature range.

Railway batteries



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Themarinesector isastrongcontributor toCO2emissionsandpollution inEuropeandworldwide.Batteriesareenablersthatcontributetothetransformationof maritime fleets in oceans, seas and inland waters, as described inWaterborne’sStrategicResearchAgenda.

Thereisanurgent need to electrify all forms of boat and marine transport, which is an opportunity for both lead and lithium batteriesas theycanall contributeandhave theirplace in thesemarkets.Lithium,due tohigherenergydensitiesandcyclelife,iswell-suitedtotheneedsofpropulsion,whileleadbatteriesaremoresuitableforon-boardauxiliaryservices,toensuretheon-boardsafetyandsecurityfunctionsandtocrankthedieselengines.

For larger ships and ferries, there are different degrees of hybridisation ofthepowertrains.Somelong-distancecruiseshipshavethermalenginesthatchargethebatteriesviageneratorstopowertheelectricpropulsionenginesand reduce fuelconsumptionandemissionswhen runningat fullpower forlongperiods,whiletheycanalsooperateonpureelectricmodeduringshortperiods,forexamplewhenenteringseaports.Batteriescanalsobeusedforfeedingexcessiveloads(peak-shaving).

For thepropulsionofsmallervessels,otherhybridelectricsystemsaredeveloping,includingtheintegrationofsolarandwindenergy.Therearealsofullelectricplug-inarchitecturesdevelopingwithcharginginfrastructureatportswhereon-boardbatterysystems,oncetheyarefullycharged,allowvesselstorunautonomouslywithoutanyfuelconsumptionoremissionsduringuse.Standardisation isachallenge to reducecostsandmeet thehighsafetyrequirementsofthesystemsthatareusedon-board.

For smaller boats, 48V propulsion batteries are used. To increase thepropulsionpowerandrange,thepotentialforinnovationisinthegravimetric/volumetricenergydensity.

Marine batteries

Stat ionary Energy Storage batter ies

Area 4

The European power system is undergoing major transformations requiring more flexibility and interconnectivity to optimise energy resources. Applications are at different levels of maturity, ranking from early demonstration to very mature deployment Battery Energy Storage, which has the potential to make an effective contribution to Europe’s decarbonisation targets, energy security and independence. Batterieshavetheadvantageofbeingtailoredtospecificfunctionsandcanbequicklyinstalledonlocation.Innovationswillfocusonlongservicelife,totalcostofownership,reliability,safetyandconversionefficiency.

Becauseofthisdiversity,allbatterytechnologies–lead,lithium,nickelandsodium–haveanimportantroletoplayateachlevelofthegrid:fromgenerationandtransmissiontodistributionandhouseholds,batterieswilldeliverimportantservices,suchasintegrationofrenewablesandgridstabilisation.Batteriescandeliverflexibilityforaclimate-friendly,safeandreliableenergysupplysystem,enablingthedecentralisationofthesystemandintegrationofhighproportionsofrenewableenergies,aswellastosupportthecharginginfrastructureforhighvolumesofEVs.Energystoragesystemsarealsocentralelementsofsectorcouplingpathsandprovidethenecessaryflexibilitytosupportkeyfunctionssuchas:


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Thestationarystoragebatterybusinessisnotrestrictedtogrid-functionalitiesonly,butalsoservespoorandoff-gridenergysystems.Thesemarkets,inwhichtheEuropeanbatteryindustryhasastrongposition,areglobalandgrowingyear-on-year.ThekeystationarybatteryapplicationsthatwehaveselectedforthereportareUninterruptedPowerSupply(UPS),Telecom,‘Residential/Commercialstoragebehindthemeter’and‘Utilitygrid-scaleEnergyStorageSystemsatthelevelofpowergenerators,transmission(TSO)anddistribution(DSO)systemoperators’.

Figure: Stationary Energy Storage segmentations: ESS services generate 20 market segments(3)

• Voltage stabilisation in the medium and low voltage grid • Ensuring global energy balance and frequency• Preventing the grid from overload• Balancing electric generation and demand from renewable energy sources• Surplus energy management

UPSisanoldermarketinwhichleadhasbeenthedominanttechnologyfordecadesand isexpected to remainsoby2030.The totalglobalmarket isexpecttogrowfrom15GWhto24GWhby2030,whichrepresentsa4%annualgrowth.Thisgrowthisdueto increaseduseofbigdataandtheassociatedneedfornewdatastoragecentres.Lithiumisexpectedtohavea7-18%marketpenetrationby2030(3).Anotherdriverwillbethegrowthofemergingeconomies,requiringsignificantUPScapacity,withEuropeasaleadingbatterysupplier.

Batteries forUPSare cells or blocks connected to forma back-battery foruninterruptedpowersupply.AUPSbatteryprovidesinstantaneouspowertoasystemifthemainpowersourcefails.ThevoltageofthebatterydependsonthesizeoftheUPS,whichcanrangefromtheprotectionofsinglecomputersuptodatacentresorbuildings.UPSisanexistingmarketwithnewrequirementsdeveloping.

Batteries for Uninterrupted Power Supply - UPS batteries

(1) 3CBI/Avicennestudyreport2019

©EXIDETechnologies


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Keyperformanceindicatorsforthisapplicationareenergyandpowerdensities,systemcosts,chargeacceptance,energythroughput,operatingtemperaturerangeand reducedcooling. Increases in thepowerdensityare requiredbecause of the further electrification of critical loads,which requiremoreoutputfromthebattery.Thisaffectsbothleadandlithiumtechnologies.TheUPSstand-byapplicationisexpectedtoextenditsusagebeyonduninterruptiblepowerinordertogeneratemorevalue,forexampleUPSandpeak-shavingandUPSasreservepower(UPSaaR).AnadditionalkeyperformanceindicatorforUPSwithsuchmultiplefunctionswillbetheenergythroughput.

Another development is the connection of smaller UPS batteries in onenetwork to forma largerUPSsystemoreven to formavirtualpowerplant(VPP).Thiswillbecomepossiblethankstothedevelopmentof5Gandartificialintelligencetoallowdistributedenergyproduction,storageandconsumption.SuchVPPscouldincludetraditionalcommercialandindustrialUPSbatteriesfromdatacentresandbasetransceiverstations,butalsobatteriesfromEVs,forklifts,utilitygrid-scaleandbatteriesbehind-the-meter.

Becauseof these innovations, itwill benecessary toworkon thechargeacceptanceoftheUPSbatteriesandtheirrobustnesstohighertemperaturesfrom faster charging.The extended usagewill also require a considerableincreaseinenergythroughput.

Thetechnologyofchoicefortheuserisnotonlyrelatedtothetypeof loadbutalsoontheclimate(temperaturerobustness),thequalityofthegridandconfigurationoftheUPS,aswellastheenergythroughput.Costremainsakeyfactor.

Theassociatedtotalworldwidebatterymarketiscurrentlyratedat17GWh,increasingtopotentially25GWhby2030.Leadiscurrentlythedominanttechnology, although the lithiummarket share is forecast to be 9-23% by2030(1).Themarketshareoflithium,however,couldbeevenhigher,dependingonbatteryrawmaterialcosts.Thismeansthattheleadmarketwillremainstable for the next decade, with lithium absorbing the market increase.

Telecombatteriesarecellsorablocksconnectedtoforma48Vdirectcurrent(DC)energystoragesystemabletosupplyelectricitytoaninformationandcommunication technologyor telecomsitewhen themainpower source isunavailableorinsufficient.

Keyperformanceindicatorsforthisapplicationareenergyandpowerdensities,systemcosts,energythroughput,chargeacceptance,operationaltemperaturerangeandrecycling.IncontrasttotheUPS,telecombatterieswillserveonlytelecomsapplications.Animportantdriveristhedemandforincreasedenergythroughput,inparticularbecauseoftherollingoutof5Gnetworks.

Telecom batteries


©StanislasVerdonckt


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Theresidentialandcommercialsectorsareresponsiblefor12%oftheEU’stotalCO2emissions.Morethan4GWhofadditionalcapacityperannumispredictedby2022(4),resultingnotonlyfromincreasednumbersofunitssoldbutalsobecausetheincreaseddemandforlargerstoragesystemswillincreaseself-consumption.Theuseofdifferentelectro-chemistriesprovidesanoverallbenefittothedecarbonisationoftheresidentialsectorandbatteriesarekeyenablersformakingthishappen.

Stationarybatteriesforstoringenergyfromrenewablesourcesbehindthemeterareusedboth in residential andcommercialbuildings (offices,SMEs,etc.)wheretheycanalsofulfiladditionalroles,suchaspeak-shavingorUPS.Theirprimarytaskistosupplytheloadwhenelectricitycostsarehighorrenewablepoweroutputlow.Driversforresidentialandcommercialstoragebatteriesareincreasedself-consumptionandtheneedtoensurepowercontinuity.Anotherfunction,incombination,isasadualbatteryforanEVhome(fast)chargingstation.

Bothleadandlithiumcancompeteinthismarket,eachwiththeirownfeatures.Lithiumcurrentlydominatingthismarket(6)hasadvantageswithregardtospace,butsafetytobefurtherimprovedforin-housestoragerequirements,whichnecessitatesamovetosolidstatetechnology.Forlead,bipolartechnologywillincreasetheenergydensityandchargeefficiencies.

Lead today isnotonly fully recyclable,butalsohaseconomiesof scale inplacethatworkwithoutanysubsidies.Forlithium,thereisstillprogresstobemadeforittobeeconomicallyviableby2030.Designlifeneedstobeimprovedforbothtechnologies,aswellasthecyclelife.

Utility grid-scale energy storage for grid-functionalities is amarket wherebatteriescompetewithotherstoragetechnologies,suchashydro-powerandfuelcells.However,batterieshaveconsiderableadvantagesastheyareeasyto installon locationandscalable to thepowerandcapacityneedsof theapplication.Theopportunitiesforbatteriesarepromising,andaglobalmarketof60GWhandover€10bnsalesisexpectedalreadyby2025(1).

Batteriescanprovidegridstability inmultipleways.Theycanstoreenergyquicklyorfeedin,inmilliseconds,forgridcompensationtoavoidfrequencyinstability and compensate deviations caused by fluctuations in generationandload.Batteriesalsoprovidereservecapacityforthegridtotakeontheroleofspinningreservesprovidedbyconventionalpowerplants.Batteryenergystorageisalsorequiredtorestartafteracompletepowerfailure(blackstart)ortosupplyenergytoanislandpowergridintegratedwithrenewables.Duetotheirshortresponsetimes,inthemillisecondrange,batterystoragesystemsare suitable for providing control energydown to theminute range.Theprovisionofcontrolpowerfrompooled,decentralisedbatterystorageisalreadyeconomicaltoday.

Thecreationanduseoflocalflexibilitiestosupportthenetworkisthekeytooptimisingtheuseofdistributiongridcapacities.

Residential and Commercial Storage batteries behind the meter

Utility grid-scale Energy Storage batteries (ESS batteries)

(1) 4IEAGlobalEVreport20196IEATrackingreport20191EUROBATinternalbestestimates


15

Envi ronmental Per formance of Bat ter ies

4

EUROBATsupportscradle-to-gravelifecycleanalysesinordertodevelopandpromotesustainability,andthecirculareconomy.Besides,industryisimplementingandfurtherdevelopingsustainabilitypracticesinallphasesofthebatteryproduct life.That is,during theproduction, transportation,manufacturingandusephases,aswellas recyclinganreuse.

Attheend-of-lifestage,virtuallyallbatteriesfromthedifferentapplicationsthatareavailableforcollectionarecollectedandprocessedforrecycling.The recycling efficiency levels in the Batteries Directive can be met independently of the application.

TheEuropean battery industry is leading the process on battery standardisationwith regard to performance,dimensionsandsafety,aswellastheenvironmentalperformanceofbatteries(alltechnologies)withintheframeworkoftheInternationalElectrotechnicalCommission(IEC),TC21anditsSC21A,andthemirrorgroupatEuropeanlevel,Cenelec,TC21x.

Theindustryhasdevelopedastandardcolourcode(IECStandard62902)todirectthewastestreamfromthedifferenttechnologiesonthemarket.

Lead-based batter ies: Thecollectionandrecyclingindustryiswellestablishedandensuresaminimumenvironmentalimpact.TheEUhasa mature process of collection and recycling that is both efficient and cost-effective and operates within a well-established infrastructure.Batteriesarecollectedbyspecialistcompaniesandrecycledwithinspecialisedrecyclingfacilities(secondaryleadsmelters)inaclosed-loopsystemthatoperatesunderstrictenvironmentalregulations.Fromanend-of-lifeperspective,thisprocessreducestheneedtoproduceadditionalvirginmaterials,suchasprimaryleadandplastics,whichhavethebiggestenvironmentalimpactinthelifecycleoftheproduct.Today,anastonishing99%ofend-of-lifeleadbatteriesarecollectedandrecycledbecauseonlytheleadtechnologiesrecyclingprocessgeneratesnet-incomethroughouttheentirevaluechain.

Nickel-based batter ies: Partnerships between producers, logistics companies specialised in the transportation of hazardouswaste and fullypermittedEU-basedrecyclersensurethatindustrial end-users can dispose of their spent, industrial NiCd batteries in an easy manner.Thisensuresproperrecyclingofusedbatteries,thereuseoftheircomponentstomanufacturenewbatteriesorotherindustrialgoodsandtheprotectionoftheenvironmentinaclosedloop.

Pb

Lith ium-based batter ies: Recycling isundertaken througheitherpyrometallurgyorhydrometallurgy,andsomenewly installedcapacitiesarecurrentlyunderdevelopment.End-of-lifecellsandmodules,aswellasproductionscraps,arenotcrushedbuttreateddirectly.Valuable metals are recovered for conversion into active cathode materials for the production of new batteries.Lithiumrepresentsasmallfractionandisnotcurrentlyreused.

Ni

Li


16

Recommendat ions for the EU Battery Act ion P lan

5

AlthoughlithiumcellmanufacturingforthepropulsionofEVsintheEUiscriticalforservingfuturedemand,hencetheEuropeanBatteryAlliance,theEU’sBatteryActionPlanshouldnotbelimitedtoonetechnology/applicationonlyasmanybatterytechnologieswillcontributetomeetingthezero-emissionsgoalsoftheGreenDeal.

ThesituationofotherapplicationsegmentsandtheEUleadbatterymanufacturingindustryistotallydifferent,withwell-establishedmanufacturersandasupplychainalreadyinplace,havingleadingpositionsinamultitudeofcurrentandemergingmarketswithglobalplayersandemployingthousandsofworkersinEurope.Atthesametime,certaintechnologiesarealreadyataveryadvancedstageofdevelopment.Therecyclingprocesses forsomearenotyetinstalledatindustrialscaleandneedsupportinordertoimprove.Workisstillneededontheestablishedtechnologiesastheclosed-loopandcirculareconomyaspectsforupcomingtechnologiesarealsonotyetconfirmed.Allbatterytechnologiesmustbepositionedasfutureandinnovativesolutions,particularlylead.

EUROBATrecommends that futureEUR&Dpublic fundingactivitiesshouldbespreadmoreequallyamong thedifferent technologies by targeting applied research on different applications.Today, battery technologies are stillcompetingorarecomplementaryindifferentmarketsegmentsandEuropewillbenefitifitleavesthedooropenforalltechnologiestobeabletomaximisetheirmarketinnovationstomeetthegoalsoftheGreenDeal.

EUROBATismemberoftheWG2(‘RawMaterialsandRecycling’)oftheETIP‘BatteRIesEurope’andasupportivepartnerofthe‘Batteries2030+’initiativetofollowupontheneedforfunctionalrequirementsinordertoachievetheEU’szero-emissionsgoals.TogetherwithprivatefundedR&Iinitiatives,R&Iproposedactivitiesshouldhelpinplayingthiskeyrole.

Recommendations for key sustainability performance indicators for a thriving battery industry in Europe is an option that should be further developed, with a balanced legislative approach that supports all technologies and does not prioritise one over another.


17

Concluding remarks 6

Europe must maintain a fair, level-playing field for all battery technologies as each of the complementary technologies will be needed to transform the EU into a fair and prosperous society with a modern, resource-efficient and competitive economy with net-zero emissions by 2050. Europe cannot afford to phase-out one battery technology in favour of another as they all contribute to the EU’s decarbonisation targets.

The European battery industry, represented by EUROBAT, recognises the importance of developing all battery technologies in order to maximise our contribution to Europe’s decarbonisation strategy.TheEuropeanCommissionstatesthat“achievingacirculareconomyrequiresthefullmobilisationofindustry”.Ourindustrystandsreadyandeagertoplayitspart.

This study demonstrates that all battery technologies are complementary, with each having features and significant developmental potential that will support the Green Deal in delivering a climate neutral Europe by 2050.

Policyshouldmoveintherightdirectionto(1)treatallbatterytechnologiesequallybyextending the exemption of lead batteries in the End-of-Life Vehicle Directive (ELV)and(2)gather all pieces of legislation on the battery sector into one, single updated Batteries Directive.

Europe must maintain a fair, level-playing field for all battery technologiesaseachofthecomplementarytechnologieswillbeneededtotransformtheEUintoafairandprosperoussocietywithamodern,resource-efficientandcompetitiveeconomywithnet-zeroemissionsby2050.Europecannotaffordtophase-outonebatterytechnologyinfavourofanotherastheyallcontributetotheEU’sdecarbonisationtargets.

Europe is diverse.Havingdifferentmanufacturing technologies inourportfolio has strategicadvantages, suchascuttingthecostsofrawandsecondarymaterialsandhavingself-sufficientsourcingandmanufacturing.Putting too much emphasis on one technology would be to take a tactical risk with Europe’s competitiveness.ItwouldalsoreducethebuyingpowerofEuropeancitizens,aswellasloseourindustrialknowledgeinmarketswherewearecurrentlystrong.Instead,Europecanbenefitfromthestrongpositionoftheexistingmanufacturingindustry,whichhasdemonstratedincrementalimprovementsovermanyyears,resultinginverygoodcirculareconomybusinessmodelsthatarebeneficialandself-financingforallparties,ensuringallbatteriesarecollectedforrecycling.

TECHNICALANNEX

C o n t e n t s

1. Introduction

2. Overview of battery technologies

3. Overview of battery features and targets per battery technology

4. Overview of key performance indicators (KPIs) for the innovation per battery technology

5. Mainstream battery technologies and KPIs per application

a. Area 1: Automotive Mobility

• Auxiliary12Vbatteries• Start-Lighting-Ignition12Vbatteries(SLI-batteries)• HeavyCommercialVehicleStand-bybatteries• BatteryElectricVehiclepropulsionbatteries(BEVbatteries)

b. Area 2: Material handling and logistics applications

• Batteriesformaterialhandling• BatteriesforAutomatedGuidedVehiclesandcarts(AGV/AGCs)

c. Area 3: Off-road transportation

• Railwaybatteries• Marinebatteries

d. Area 4: Stationary Energy Storage Batteries

• UninterruptedPowerSupplyBatteries(UPS)• Telecombatteries• ResidentialandCommercialEnergyStorageBatteriesbehindthemeter• Utilitygrid-scaleEnergyStorageBatteries(ESSbatteries)

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21

Int roduct ion

Market-drivenR&Dhasresultedinawidevarietyofcommerciallead-,nickel-,lithium-andsodiumbasedbatteryproducts that are available on themarket today.This large variety of products is the result of incremental improvements introducedovermanydecadestofitthespecificneedsoftheapplicationsandtheirever-increasingdemands.

Leading on battery standardisation and with active production lines in service,theEuropeanbatteryindustryhasbeenkeentotaketheseimprovementsfromthelabtothemarketinordertolaunchnewproductstoservenewdemandsandrequirements.ThisexplainswhytheEuropeanbatteryindustryretainsaleadingpositionintheEuropeanleadbasedautomotiveandmotivepowermarketsand,toalesserextent,inthestationarybusiness(1).

This Technical Annex provides the technical background to the twelve applications that are examined in this White Paper. Itdemonstrateshowthedifferentbattery technologiesandchemistrieseachhave theirspecific roleanddevelopmentalpotentialinordertoanticipatetheshiftingdemandfromthecontinuousinnovationinautomotive,motiveandstationarystorageapplications.

This is not a scientific paper, but aims to provide a direction on current technical battery requirements and what we believe is feasible to target by 2030.Withthismarket-orientedapproach,batteryexpertshaveidentifiedthekeyperformanceindicatorspertechnologytoprioritiseR&Dinordertomeettheabove-mentionedshiftingdemand.

The mainstream battery technologies considered in the White Paper are lead-based, including advanced lead technologies, lithium-based and nickel-based batteries.Sodiumtechnologiesalsohavethepotentialtoimprove,withR&Dfocusedonimprovingtherechargepowerandincreasingcyclelifethroughdesignenhancements.However,suchtechnologiescoverasmallersegmentandare,therefore,not includedinthisRoadmap.This EUROBAT Roadmap aligns with the innovation roadmaps of the Consortium for Battery Innovation (CBI) and RECHARGE.

1

Pb

ADVANTAGESL E A D B A S E D

Affordable, proven safe and sustainable

Na

ADVANTAGESS O D I U M B A S E D

High energy density,low weight

Ni

ADVANTAGESN I C K E L B A S E D

Long life,reliability

Li

ADVANTAGESL I T H I U M B A S E D

High energy density,low weight

BATTERY TECHNOLOGIES AND APPLICATIONS

(1)1EUROBATinternalbestestimates


22

Overview of battery technologies2

Theleadbatteryhasbeenthepredominantenergystoragedevicefortheindustrialandautomotivemarketsforover100years.Differentdesignsoflead-basedbatteriesareavailable,withanimportantchoicetobemadebetweenfloodedor‘vented’,requiringmaintenance,ormaintenance-freevalve-regulated(VRLA)batteries.TheycanbeconnectedinlargebatteryarrangementswithoutsophisticatedmanagementsystemsandaredifferentiatedfromtheothertechnologiesbyalowcostperkWhinstalledandlowcostperkWhelectricitythroughput.

Itisoftenoverlookedthattheleadbatteryhascontinuouslyinnovatedinresponsetonewrequirementsintermsoffunctionality,durabilityandcost.Therecentmainstreamintroductionsofabsorptiveglass-mat(AGM)batteries,enhancedfloodedbatteries(EFBs)batterymonitoringsensorsandbatterymanagementsystems(BMS)areobviousexamplesofcontinuousimprovement.

Tocompetewithupcomingelectrochemicalstoragetechnologies,thereisaneedtoacceleratethepaceofinnovation.Thiscouldbethroughabetterdynamiccharge-acceptanceatuncompromisedhightemperaturedurabilityorbyimprovingtheenergyandpowerdensitieswithimprovedcycle-life.Specificpowercouldbeimprovedbydevelopingnewadvancedadditivestodecreasetheinternalresistance,whilethecyclelifecouldbelengthenedthroughdesignenhancementssuchascorrosion-resistantlead-alloys.Moreintelligentbatteryoperationmodescouldalsobedeveloped.

Apartfromfundamentalresearchtoimprovetheelectrolyte,materialsandcomponentsused,otherimprovementscanstillbemade.Theuseofinnovativematerialsforcomponentslikesyntheticexpanders,nano-basedcarbonmaterials,newalloycompositions, improvedthinplatepure lead(TPPL)andbipolarcelldesignwillbekeydevelopmentsforlead-basedtechnologiestofurtheradvanceinviewoffuturerequirementsinamultitudeofapplications.

Occupationalexposuretoleadisnowundercontrolbecausethebatteryindustryhasproactivelytakenmeasurestolimittheexposureofitsemployeestobloodleadcontaminationduringthemanufacturingprocess.Europeshouldallowthemarkettodrivethechangeandrecentprogressonleadbatteryresearchshouldnotbediscounted.Thefurtherdevelopmentofleadbatteriesinavarietyofenhancedtechnologieswillserveapplicationsthatcancontributetotheachievementofthezero-emissionstargetsintheEuropeanGreenDeal.

TheConsortium forBattery Innovation issued in2019hasalsosome intermediateshortandmedium-term targetsdefinedbyKeyPerformanceIndicatorswhicharecloselyalignedwiththeseintheEUROBATInnovationroadmaptomeetnewmarketneedsintwokeyareas:

Recycling targets for lead batterieswill bemaintained at a very high level in 2030,with efficiency over 90%andrecyclingofactivematerialsat99%,achievingacirculareconomyandbenefitingthewholevaluechainby2030.

Lead based technologies

Lead based battery ci rcular economy targets

Pb

KeyPerformanceIndicatorsandintermediatetargetsforAutomotivestart/Stopandmicro-hybridbatteries

KeyPerformanceIndicatorsandintermediatetargetsforIndustrialStationaryEnergyStoragebatteries

Indicator 2019 2022 2025 Dynamic charge acceptance, A/Ah 0.4 2.0 2.0 PSOC Cycle life (17.5% SoC) 1500 2000 3000 Water loss, g/Ah 3 3 3 Corrosion, test units to SAE J2801 12 18 22

Indicator 2019 2022 2025 Service life, years 12+ 12-15 15-20 PSOC Cycle life PV duty cycle 1500 2000 3500 Cycle life, 70% DOD 1000-3000 5000 6000 Charge efficiency, % 85-90 90-95 95


23

Lithium-ion(Li-ion) isconsidered the leading lithiumtechnology forautomotiveand industrialapplications,andwillremainsoin2030.Lithiumiscurrentlydeployedinmass-producedstandardcell typesindifferentapplications–astrategydrivenbycostandsafetyreasons.Themajorrequirementforhigherenergydensitiestoachieveincreaseddrivingrangeisdirectlylinkedtoe-mobility.Thisresultsinadevelopmentroadmapfor2030thatmainlyconsidersthelithium-basedtechnologiesbasedonmodifiedNickelCobaltManganeseOxide(NMC)materials,fromNMC111toNMC811,withincreasednickelandreducedcobaltcontentincombinationwithhighcapacitiveanodematerialswithcarbon/siliconcomposites.Solidstatetechnologyshouldalsobetargetedtoincreasetheenergydensityandimprovethesafetyaspect.

TheLi-iontechnologiesconsideredinthisRoadmapconsistofacombinationofthefollowingavailableanodeandcathodematerials.

Lithium based technologies

Cathode

Anode -C: 350–360mAh/g-Si(SiOX)/C: 400–900mAh/g-LTO: 150mAh/g

-NMC111:-NMC532:-NMC622:-NMC811:-NCA: -LFP: -LMO:

SPECIFIC CAPACITY OF ANODE AND CATHODE MATERIALS:

Li

GENERATIONS OF LITHIUM MATERIALS CONSIDERED FOR FURTHER DEVELOPMENT BY 2030:

Fig.1Development roadmap forLithium-Ion,Ni-richNMCpositiveelectrodeandnewmaterials for thenegativeelectrode(e.g.Si/Ccomposite).

160mAh/g175mAh/g180mAh/g175–200mAh/g200mAh/g150mAh/g105–120mAh/g


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• Generation 2a. NMC111/100%C• Generation 2b: NMC523-622/100%C• Generation 3a: NMC622/C+Si(5-10%)• Generation 3b: NMC811/Si/Ccomposite

Duetothevarietyofpossiblecombinationsofcathodeandanodematerials,theresultingLi-ionbatteriesshowspecificand individual performance characteristics suitable for different kindsof applications.The development of Li-iontechnologiessuitablefor industrialandautomotiveapplicationsisstillachallengeintermsofmaterialresearch,process,production,development,recycling,safetyandtransportation.

• High specific energy (mAh/g)• Safety• Stability (cycle and calendric)• High voltage• Low polarisation• Low price• Low content of rare materials (e.g. cobalt)• Low CO2 footprint at production• Environmentally and ethically harmless• Easy processing• Availability• High power capability

REQUIREMENTS FOR CATHODE MATERIALS

• Low price• Low content of rare materials (e.g. cobalt)• Easy processing• Availability• Environmentally safe and ethical• Operationally safe• Low CO2 footprint during production

ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS

CHALLENGES IDENTIFIED

• Production processes• Recycling processes• Transportation

Recyclingtargetsforlithiumbatterieswillbemaintainedatthecurrentlevelof50%,butactivematerialrecyclingisexpectedtoincreasefrom65%toreach85%by2030,torecoverinfuturealsonickel,cobaltandlithiumtobefullycommerciallyviable.

Lithium based battery circular economy targets


25

Nickel-basedbatteriesarethetechnologyofchoiceforapplicationsusedinextremeclimate,cyclingorfastchargingconditions.Differentdesignsareavailable:pocket,sintered,plastic-bonded,nickelfoamandfibreelectrodes.Cellsareprismaticorspiralwound,flooded(or‘vented’)orvalveregulated,thelatteralsobeingmaintenancefree.

Thanks to decades of safe use under themost extremeoperating conditions and continuous development,nickel-cadmiumismostlyusedinspecialandnicheapplications.

Usinginnovativematerials,thistechnologycanbefurtherdevelopedforexistingapplicationsandasareplacementsolutionwithitskeyperformancepropertiesinextremeconditionshavingthepotentialforfurtherimprovement.Nickel-basedbatteriesareamongtheelectrochemicalstoragesystemsthatshouldbeconsideredforindustrialapplicationsoverthenextdecade.

Recyclingefficiencyshouldincreasefromthecurrent79%(activematerialsat50%)to80-85%(activematerialsat55-60%)by2030toreachabreak-evenbusinessmodel.

Nickel based technologies

Nickel based battery circular economy targets

Ni


26

Overview of Bat tery Performance features and targets per technology

3

Thetabulationhereunderprovidesthestate-of-the-artperformancedataand2030targetsforeachbatterytechnology.Thetablepresentsthecapabilityandinnovationpotentialofeachtechnology,independentoftheapplicationforwhichtheyaredesigned.Thelargerangethatisgivenforeachparameterisduetothefactthatavarietyofbatterytechnologyproductsservethedifferentapplicationsinthemarket,ofwhichtwelveareanalysedinthisreport(1).

Fig.2Tableofperformanceparametersforeachbatterytechnology–state-of-the-artin2020andtargetsfor2030



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Overview of the Key performance indicators (KPIs) for the innovat ion per technology

4

Thespiderdiagramshereundergiveanoverviewofthestateofplayin2020andtheinnovationpotentialby2030ofeachbattery technologywithregardto thekeybatteryperformance indicators,suchasgravimetricandvolumetricenergyandpowerdensities,fastrechargetime,energythroughput,calendarlifeandrecyclingrate.

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600 90

3000

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Gravimetric Energy Density(Wh/kg)

Volumetric Energy Density (Wh/l)

Gravimetric Power Density (W/kg)

Volumetric Power Density (W/l)

Fast Recharge Time(min)

Energy Throughput (FCE)

Calendaric Life(years)

Recycling Rate(%)

Pb 2020 Pb 2030

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Recycling Rate(%)

Nickel 2020 Nickel 2030

Fig.3Leadbasedtechnologies:keyperformanceparameter data – state-of-the-art 2020 andtargetsfor2030

Fig.4Nickelbasedtechnologies:keyperformanceparameter data – state-of-the-art 2020 andtargetsfor2030


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Recycling Rate(%)

Lead 2030 Lithium-Ion 2030 Nickel 2030

Fig.6Overviewofthetargetedkeyperformanceparameterdataby2030foreachtechnology

ThetechnologiesconsideredinthisWhitePaperhavedifferentpotentialforfurtherdevelopmentdependingontheirtechnologicalmaturity.However,forallthetechnologiesconsidered,theoptimisationofindividualparametershasadirectimpactontheotherparameters.Thus,animprovementinoneparametercanbeaccompaniedbythedeclineofanother.Thismakesitnecessarytodevelopelectrochemicalstoragetechnologiestailoredtotherequirementsofaspecificapplication.

Thisroadmapisfocusedonhighlightingtheinnovationsofeachofthevariouschemistries,however,itshouldalsobestressedthatcombiningbatterychemistriesintelligentlyalsoprovidessynergies,suchasinrecentdevelopmentsformild-hybridEVsorinBEVswheretheHVlithiumpropulsionbatteryissupportedbytheLVadvancedleadbatterytoensurethefunctionalsafety.

Overview of the targeted key performance indicators by 2030 for each battery technology, demonstrating the continuation of the complementarity of the technologies in the market

500

1200

800

1400

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12000

30

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250 600

700 60

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Recycling Rate(%)

Lithium-Ion 2020 Lithium-Ion 2030

Fig.5Lithiumbasedtechnologies:keyperformanceparameter data – state-of-the-art 2020 andtargetsfor2030


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Application profile:

Thecharacteristicparametersforauxiliaryautomotiveapplicationsinallkindsofhybridisation,frommicroHEVtofullEV,arevibrationendurance,energydensity,longcyclelifeandhightemperaturelife,aswellaslowtemperatureperformance.Safetyandrecyclabilityarealsokeycharacteristicsfortheseapplications,whilecostisalsoanissuefororiginalequipmentmanufacturers.

Mainstream battery technologies and key performance indicators:

Thedominanttechnologyforthisapplicationtodayislead,bothfloodedandAGM.Togetherwithlead,lithium,mostlyLFP,willalsofulfilfuturerequirements.

Keyperformance indicators for the innovationofautomotive12Vauxiliarybatteriesareenergyandpowerdensity,systemcost,hightemperaturelife,lowtemperatureworkingconditions,cyclinglifeandrecyclingefficiency.

Hightemperaturelife,lowtemperatureperformance,recyclingefficiencyandcostwillcontinuetobeadvantageousforleadbatteriesinauxiliaryapplications,whilecyclelifeandenergydensitiesshouldbefurtherimproved.

Lithiumbatterieswillbeadvantageousforparameterssuchasenergyandpowerdensities,andcyclelifeatambienttemperatures.Nevertheless,highcost,safetyandrecyclability,aswellasextremetemperatureperformance,needtoimprovemorethanexpectedinordertobecomecompetitivewithleadtechnologies.Asthesafetyaspectfortheauxiliaryservicesisalsocrucial,leadwillgenerallyremainthepreferredoption,bothfloodedandAGMbatterytypes.Forlithiumbasedbatteries,LFPandLTObatterieswillbecometheanodechemistryofchoiceforsuchapplications.

European production capacities:

AnnualEuropeanproductionforleadbatteriesiscurrently2GWhandisforecasttoreach12GWhby2030,assumingthatleadwillremainthedominanttechnologyforauxiliarybatteries

Area 1 Automotive Mobi l i ty

Mainst ream bat tery technologies and KPIs per application

5

• Auxiliary 12V batteries • Start-Lighting-Ignition 12V batteries (SLI batteries)• Heavy Commercial Vehicle Stand-by batteries (HCV Stand-by batteries)• Battery Electric Vehicle propulsion batteries (BEV batteries)

Auxi l iary 12V batter ies


30


Crankinga thermalenginewithinawideambient temperature range is themainfeatureofthe12VSLIbattery,aswellasprovidingenergytopowerthelightsandotheraccessoriesinthecarwhentheengineisnotrunning,orwhentheengineisrunningbuttheenergydemandishigherthanthealternatorcansupply.Crankingthethermalengineandprovidingenergytomultipleaccessorieswhentheengineisnotrunninghasbecomethemajorchallengetomeettheeverincreasingdemandsof thewidespreadstart-stopmicrohybridarchitectures thatare introduced in theoriginalequipmentmarket(OEMs).


ThedominanttechnologytodayisleadAGMandEFB.Togetherwithlead,lithiumwillalsofulfiltherequirementsinfuture.Bothleadandlithiumtechnologieswillco-existinthiscategoryinthefuture,althoughleadwillremainthedominanttechnologyforthenextdecade.

Thesuccessful introductionofstart-stopmicrohybridarchitectures,whicharebecomingincreasinglypowerfulwithlongerstops,forexamplewhencuttingtheenginebeforethecarstops,therequirementsofthisapplicationareincreasedhighcyclelifeandenergy/powerdensities.

Thekeyperformanceindicatorsfortheinnovationareincreasedvibrationendurance,energyandpowerdensity,systemcost,energythroughput,dynamicchargeacceptance,operatingtemperaturerangeandrecyclingrate.

Opportunitychargingtocapturethekineticenergyofthecarwillbekeytoimprovingenergyefficiency.HighvoltageandlowvoltageLi-ionsystemsaredevelopingfurther,butleadcanalsosupportthecaptureofexcessenergy.Dynamicchargeacceptanceisakeyinnovationinsuchapplications.Thepriorityistoincreasethisdynamicchargeacceptancefivefoldto2Amps/Ahalreadyby2022tomeetmarketdemand.

European production capacities:

Today’sannualEuropeanproductionforleadbatteriesis60GWh,whichisforecasttoreach70GWhby2030.Lithium,however,is0.5GWhtodayandexpectedtoreach5GWhby2030.


Whenchargingordischargingtrucksincitieswhentheengineisturnedoff,averyhighenergysupplyisneededtoservetheheavyloads.Thisrequiresspecificallydesignedhigh-energybatterieswithdeep-cycleperformances.


Thedominanttechnologyforthisapplicationislead.Togetherwithlead,lithiumcouldalsofunctioninthiscategorytocaterforfuturerequirements.

Keyperformanceindicatorsforinnovationareenergyandpowerdensity,totalcostofownership,energythroughput,dynamicchargeacceptance,vibrationrobustnessandrecyclingrate.

Deep-cycleleadbatterieshavethepotentialtoimprovethroughincreasingthechargeacceptanceanddecreasingthetotalcostofownership.Thecurrentconventionalstartingordual-purposeleadbatteriescannotmeetsuchdeep-cycleperformances.Today,onlyleadisinthisnewmarket,butinfuturelithiummightalsobreakthrough,althoughthetemperaturewindowandtotalcostofownershipwillbechallenges.

EU production capacities:

TheannualproductionofleadbatteriesinEuropetodayis10GWh,whichisestimatedtoreach18GWhby2030.

Star t-L ight ing-Igni t ion 12V batter ies (SL I batter ies)

Heavy Commercial Vehicle Stand-by batter ies


31


ForEVapplications,theemphasisisonstrongpowerandhighenergyneedsaslongerran-gesandfasterchargingarerequired.Theenvironmental,safetyandsecurityaspectsalsoplayacrucialroleforthisapplication. Mainstream battery technologies and key performance indicators:

Themainstream technology today is lithiumNMC/LFP,whileNMCand solid statetechnologieswillbetargetedfordevelopmentby2030.

Keyperformance indicators for innovationareenergyandpowerdensity, systemcost,energy throughput, chargeacceptance,operatingtemperaturerangeandrecyclingrate.

EVbatteries,inparticular,needfasterchargingregimesandtodeveloptheirenergyapplicationinordertoextendtherange.Inthisrespect,theEVapplicationrequiresmaterialresearchinordertocontinuetoincreasethevolumetricandgravimetricenergydensities.Solidstatetechnologywillhelptoincreasecellvoltagesandthustheenergycontent.Atthesametime,itwillcontributetothesecurityandsafetyaspectsbypreventingthermalrunawayinthebatteries,asapotentialresultofanaccidentorotherhighphysicalstress.Recyclingis50%today,butwith2ndlifeandfurtherresearch,weexpectprogresstobemadeby2030.


AnnualEuropeanproductionofEVlithiumbatteriestodayisbetween5and15GWhandisestimatedtoreach200-400GWhby2030,dependingonthemarketscenarioused.

Battery E lectr ic Vehicle propuls ion batter ies (BEV batter ies)


Materialhandlingvehiclesareusedinwarehousinganddistributionforloadingandunloading,handlingpallets,andpickingandstoring inventory.For this reason, theapplication requires high power charge and discharge rates, high energy content,cyclelifeandoperatingtimes.


Thethreemainstreamtechnologies,lead,nickelandlithiumarecomplementaryandallhavethepotentialforinnovationintheseapplications.Thegeneraltechnicalrequirementsforenergystoragesystemsinmaterialhandlingarehighchargeanddischargerates,highenergycontent,cyclelifeandoperatingtimes,highrecyclability,lowinvestmentcostandtheneedtomeetstrictsafetyrequirements.Otherincreasinglyimportantrequirementsarehighcapacities(increasedtruckdynamics),namelythepowerdensity,hightemperatureperformanceandenergyefficiencyinparticularformultipleshiftoperationswithimprovedPSOCcyclingoropportunitychargingandneedforlowmaintenance.Lithiumtechnologiesfaceanumberofissues,suchascost,safetyandhighmassenergydensity.R&Dshouldfocusonthesefeaturessothatthesebatteriescanpenetratethemarket.

appl icat ions

Area 2 Material handling and logist ic

• Batteries for material handling • Batteries for Automated Guided Vehicles and carts (AGV/AGC batteries)

Batter ies for mater ial handl ing

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TheworkloadofAGVsandAGCscanvaryconsiderably,dependingontheapplicationprofile,buttheyaremostlyheavy-dutybecauseofhighloads.Majorrequirementsareexceptionally high cycling capability, particularly in partial state of charge (PSOC)operations,extremely low internal resistance,highpowerdensity, fast chargingcapability(15-20minutes),highchargeacceptance,lowmaintenanceandmechanicalandelectrochemicalstability.


Lead-basedbatteriesstillhavethebiggestmarketsharetoday.TherobustNiCdtechnology,originallythechoiceforAGVapplicationsinharshenvironmentalconditions,willcontinuetokeepitssmallbutsignificantmarketshare.

Lithiumisalsoenteringthemarketsuccessfullytomeetincreasedrequirementsintermsofautonomy,poweringloadsandlimitingthecostofownership.Therefore,energyandpowerdensity,aswellascyclability,needtobefurtherimprovedtomeetthesechallenges.

Batter ies for Automated Guided Vehicles/Carts (AGV/AGC)


New upcoming applications for battery systems are the hybridisation and electrification of rail power traction,mainlyforcommuterandmetrotrains,whichrequirehighenergy,powerdensityandcyclability.


Thedominanttechnology is lead,bothfloodedandsealed,butnickelandlithiumalsohaveasignificantshareofthemarket.

Thedevelopmenttrendsforon-boardunitsfavourlithium.Forthe hybridisation and electrification of rail power traction,mainlyforcommuterandmetrotrains,therequisitehighenergy,powerdensityandcyclabilityisclearlyanadvantageforlithiumbatteries,whichalsoensuremaintenance-freeandlongerlifetimeoperations.To power auxiliary functions,aswellaslightsandfansinhighspeedandmetrotrains,thenickel-basedchemistryisthepreferredtechnologybecauseitcanfunctioninrushoperationalconditions.

Asforfurtherdevelopmentsininfrastructure,differentbatterytechnologieswillco-existgiventhevarietyofapplications,includingleadbatteries,bothfloodedandsealed.

Duetodevelopmenttrendsforon-boardunitswithsmallerfootprints,weightrestrictionsandconstantreliabilityneeds,thefuturerequirementsforenergystoragesystemsconsistmainlyofimprovementstovolumetricenergydensity,lifetimeandoperatingtemperatureranges.

Area 3 Off-road transportat ion • Railway batteries• Marine batteries

Rai lway batter ies

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Smallerbattery electric boats, such as canal, river and lake vessels, are boatspropelled bymechanical systems consisting of an electricmotor turning a propellertoreducenoiseandoperatewithzeroemissions.Batteryelectricboatsareoftenintegratedintoafleetofvesselswhichhasanonshorecharginginfrastructureinplace.


Thedominanttechnologytodayis lead,bothfloodedandsealed,butLithiumNMCisalsobreakingthroughinthismarket.

Themarketforsmallelectricpropelledvesselswillincreaseconsiderablyinfuturetomeetdemand.Duetohighsafetyrequirementsforon-boardsystemusewithsevereventilationrequirements,reducedneedformaintenance,highvibrationresistanceandhorizontalinclinationaspects,wepredictthatbothleadandlithiumbatterieswillco-exist.Leadbatterieswillshifttowardsvalveregulatedtechnologies,bothAGMandEFB,andlithiumbatteriestowardsNMCbutalsoLFPduetosafetyreasons.

Keyperformanceindicatorsforinnovationareenergyandpowerdensity,energythroughput,chargeacceptance,operationaltemperaturerangeandrecyclingrate.

ApartfromR&D,furtherbatterystandardisationisanopportunitytoincreasereliabilityandsafety,aswellastoreducethetotalcostofownership.

Marine batter ies


UPSbatteriesprovide instantaneouspower toasystem if themainpowersourcefails.Newrequirementsforthesebatteriesareincreasedcriticalloadsandadditionalfunctions,suchaspeak-shaving,aswellasauxiliaryservicesfordoubleconversionandline-interactivesystems.


Thedominanttechnologiesusedtodayarelead,VRLAwithabsorbentglassmatandNiCd.LithiumisalsoenteringthemarketwithLFP,LMPandNMCwithCarbonanodesby2030totargetNMCwithCarbon-Siliconanodes.

Increasingthepowerdensityisparticularlynecessarybecauseofthefurtherelectrificationofcriticalloads,whichrequiregreateroutput fromthebattery.Also,asnewUPSbatteriesshouldprovideadditionalvalue,suchaspeak-shaving,thereisaneedtoworkonthechargeacceptanceofthebatteries.

Batter ies Area 4 S t a t i o n a r y E n e r g y S t o r a g e

• Uninterrupted Power Supply Batteries (UPS batteries)• Telecom batteries• Residential and Commercial Energy Storage Batteries behind the meter• Utility grid-scale Energy Storage Batteries (ESS Batteries)

Uninterrupted Power Supply Batter ies (UPS Batter ies)

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Thetechnologyofchoiceisnotonlyrelatedtothetypeofload,butalsodependsontheclimate(temperaturerobustness),qualityofthegrid,configurationoftheUPSandenergythroughput,whilecostremainsakeyfactor.

Keyperformanceindicatorsforinnovationareenergyandpowerdensities,systemcost,energythroughput,chargeacceptance,operationaltemperaturerangeandrecycling.


Today,annualEuropeanproductionof leadbatteries is2.4GWh,while lithium is forecast to rise from0.05GWhto0.5GWhby2030.


Atelecomunitisaninformationandcommunicationtechnologyortelecomsitewithcriticalloads.Incaseofunavailabilityorinsufficiencyofthemainpowersource,telecombatteriesprovideinstantandcontinuedDCvoltagepowertoallredundantequipmenttoensurethatthetelecomapplicationcontinuestofunction.


The dominant technology used today is lead VRLA absorbent glassmat for reliable grids and VRLAwith gelledelectrolyte(GEL)inweakgrids.Lithiumhasasmallbutsignificantshareinthesemarkets,bothLFPandNMCwithcarbonanodestotargetNMCcarbon-siliconanodesby2030.

IncontrasttoUPSbatteries,telecombatteriesserveonlytelecomapplications,connectedtothe48VDCelectricitysupplynetforaninformationandcommunicationtechnologyortelecomsite.Thesebatterieswilltakeovertheelectricitysupplyincasesofunavailabilityorinsufficiencyofthemainpowersource.Asthebatteryispartofadoubleconversionsystem,animportantdriveristhedemandforincreasedenergythroughput,particularlybecauseoftherollingoutof5Gnetworks.

Keyperformance indicators for innovationareenergyandpowerdensity, systemcost,energy throughput, chargeacceptance,operatingtemperaturerangeandrecyclability.


AnnualEuropeanproductionof leadbatteriestodayis3GWh.Productionofbothleadandlithiumisexpectedtoincreaseby2030.


Theprimary taskof thesebatteries is to supply the loadwhenelectricity cost is highorrenewablepoweroutputtoolow.Driversforresidentialandcommercialstorageareincreasedself-consumption and the need to ensure power continuity. Home storage batteriesshouldbedesignedandsizedaccordingtothelocationandlocalpowerneeds.


Thedominanttechnologiestodayarelithium-based,mostlyNMCandLPF.Leadbatteries–AGM/GEL–arelesspresentinthesemarketsbuttheymightcomebackinfuturewithadvancedleadbatteriestoservethismarketandcompetewithNMCsolidstate.

Telecom batter ies

Residential and commercial Energy Storage Batteries behind the meter

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Largescaleenergystoragebatteriescoveralargevarietyofoperationalranges,dependingonthegridfunctionitwillfulfil.Hereunderisatabulationincludingtheapplicationprofiles forsomekeygrid functions,suchasvoltage/frequencyregulation, arbitrage, black-start, back-up, investment deferral and gridindependentpowersupply(GIPS).

Ut i l i ty large gr id-scale Energy Storage Batter ies (ESS Batter ies)

Bothleadandlithiumwillcompeteinthismarket,eachwiththeirownfeatures.Lithiumhasanadvantageintermsofspace,butsafetycanbeanissueforin-housestoragerequirements,necessitatingamovetosolidstatetechnology.Forlead,bipolartechnologywillincreaseenergydensityandchargeefficiencies.

Leadtodayisnotonlyalmostfullyrecyclable,butalsohaseconomiesofscaleinplacethatworkwithoutanysubsidies.Forlithium,thereisstillprogresstobemadeforrecyclingtobeeconomicallyviableby2030.Designlifeneedstobeimprovedforbothtechnologies,aswellasthecyclelife.

ThePSOCcyclesofthebatteries,accordingtotheEuropeanreferenceteststandards,shouldincreasefrom1,500cyclesto2,500by2025.

KeyperformanceindicatorsforinnovationaretheBatteryManagementSystem(BMS)requirements,designlife,cyclelife,hightemperatureoperation,chargeefficiency,energydensityandeconomyofrecycling.

Fig.7Overviewofapplicationprofi lesfordifferentgridfunctions,whichbatteriescanfulf i l

Keytechnicalrequirementsforgridfunctionsarereliability,safety,scalabilityofthepowersupplyandlowmaintenanceandservicecostaswellasthelifetimeandthecharging/dischargingefficiency.


For largestoragesystems, lithiumand leadtechnologiesareconsidered thereferencetechnologies.Nickel-basedbatterieswerepreviouslypreferredforlargesystemstorageinlowtemperatureapplications.Lithiumisrelevantforhigh-currentapplications likeoptimisingself-consumption through the integrationof renewablesandpeak-shaving(100kW–5MW).Adistinctionmustbemadebetweenenergyandpowerapplications.

©HOPP

ECKE

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Drivers and trends for grid support applicationsaremajorinfrastructurechangesinthepowersupplyindustry,theintegrationofrenewables,emergingelectro-mobilityanddemandforhigherpowerquality.General technical requirementsarePSOCcyclability,highpowerdensityandwideoperatingtemperatureranges.Drivers and trends for off-grid applications are increaseddemand for independent power supplies and reduced infrastructure costs.General technical requirements arehighreliability,scalablepowersupplyandlowmaintenance/servicecost.The development of the multi-use aspect will increase profitability for the user.Duetotheirmultifunctionalcapabilities,storagesystemsareoftenefficientlyusedintheformofmixedoperatingmodelsinwhichseveralareasofapplicationarecombined(“multi-usestoragesystems”).

Advantagesfor lithiumstorage innon-automotiveapplicationswerefirstexpectedforpeak-shavingapplications.Theseadvantagesconsistofalargepotentialmarket,lowsafetyrisksandashortamortisationtimeofaroundfiveyears.Tenyearsago,thisapplicationwasdrivenbythehighercostoflithiumcells.Asthecostoflithiumcellshasfallen,theapplicationshavebeenupgradedtotheextentthatlithiumcellsnowcompetewithlargerleadcells.

Othergridapplicationsincludefrequencyregulation,voltagesupport,blackstart,energytimeshiftandpeak-shaving.Aparticularfeatureistheprojectedservicelifeof20years,whichlowersinvestmentcosts.AwayofreducingcostsforLi-ionsystemsforpeakshavingandenergytimeshiftforrenewablesistodeploysecond-lifeEVbatteries.

Researchprioritiesforleadarecyclelife,upto6,000cyclesat70%DOD,2,500PSOCcyclesaccordingtotheEuropeanperformanceteststandards,andchargeefficiencyhigherthan95%,accordingtoIECstandards,by2025.AdvancedlargeindustrialVRLAleadbatteries(withcapacitiesupto15MWh)withcarbonadditivesenteredintoservicerecentlyinGermany.LeadcarbonbatteriescanmatchthePSOCcyclelifeoflithiumbatteriesforvoltagestabilisationinsolarpowerplants.

Researchprioritiesforlithiumaresafety,capacity,retentionofthenegativegraphiteelectrodesandmaterialcostreductionofthepositiveelectrode,e.g.throughreducedcobaltandhighernickelcontent.

Althoughleadbatteriescurrentlyrepresentlessthan2%oflargeutilitygrid-scaleESS,intelligentlycombininglead-andlithium-basedbatteriescouldincreasethemarketsignificantlyforleadasitwouldofferconsiderablebenefitsintermsoflowerenergyreservecosts.Thiscouldbeachievedbyinstallinglead-basedandsmallerlithium-basedbatteriesforpowerpeaks.BatterysystemswithstringsofLi-ionbatterieshavealreadybeenconsideredintelecomapplications.Alithiumbatterywoulddeliveralmost100%oftheloadatthebeginning,whereasaleadbatterywouldtakechargeinthemiddleandfinalstagesofdischarge.

ThePrimaryresearchprioritiesfor lead is to increasethecycle lifeat70%DODfrom1,000/3,000cyclesto6,000cyclesby2025and6,800cyclesby2030,whichismaineconomicindicatorforenergystorageapplications.

Today,chargeefficiencyofAGMbatteries,accordingtoIECstandards,is85-90%andistargetedtoreach95+%by2030.

Keyperformanceindicatorsforutilityandrenewableenergystoragearelifetime,charging/dischargingefficiencyandsafety.Theresearchpriorityforleadupto2030iscyclelife(upto6,800cyclesat70%DOD)inordertoloweroperatingcosts,andforlithiumitisprimarilysafety.

Thekeybatteryperformanceindicatorsforinnovationaresafety,reliability,powerandvolumetricenergydensity,highandlowoperatingtemperatures,floatlife,cyclelifeandPSOCcycling.

G l o s s a r y

AGM:AbsorbentGlassMat;thedifferencewith‘flooded’isthattheelectrolyteisheldinglassmatsAGV:AutomatedGuidedVehicleAGC:AutomatedGuidedCartsBatteries 2030+:ECinitiativetobringresearchandindustrytogethertodevelopnextgenerationbatteriesBatteRIes Europe:EuropeanTechnologyandInnovationplatformforR&DonBatteriesBattery cyclability:ThenumberoftimesthatabatterycanberechargedatagivenDODBEV:BatteryElectricVehicleBMS:BatteryManagementSystemDC:DirectCurrentDOD:DepthofDischargeDSO:DistributionSystemOperatorsEBA:EuropeanBatteryAllianceEFB:EnhancedFloodedBatteries.Floodedmeans‘wet’,filledwithamixtureofacidandwaterERRAC:TheEuropeanRailResearchAdvisoryCouncil.ESS:EnergyStorageSystemETIP SNET:EuropeanTechnologyandInnovationPlatformSmartNetworksforEnergyTransitionEV:ElectricVehicleFLOODED:Or‘wet’meansitoperatesbymeansofaliquidelectrolytesolutionGEL:AVRLAbatterywithagelifiedelectrolyteinwhichthesulphuricacidismixedwithfumedsilica,whichmakestheresultingmassgel-likeandimmobileGIPS:GridIndependentPowerSupplyICE:InternalCombustionEngineHCV:HeavyCommercialVehicleHEV:HybridElectricVehicleHV:HighvoltageLFP:LithiumironphosphateLTO:Lithiumtitanateoxide,atypeofmodifiedlithiumbatterywhichuseslithium-titanatenanocrystals,insteadofcarbononthesurfaceofitsanodeLV:LowVoltageNMC:NickelManganeseCobaltOxide,atypeoflithiumbatterymadeofseveralmaterialscommoninotherlithium-ionbatteries,involvingacathodecombinationofnickel,manganeseandcobalt.PSOC:PartialStateofChargePHEV:Plug-inHybridElectricVehicleSLI:Start-Lighting-IgnitionTTPL:ThinPlatePureLeadAGMdesignTSO:TransmissionSystemOperatorsUPS:UninterruptedPowerSupplyUPSaaR:UPSasareservepowerVehicleon-boardnet:theon-board12VDCsystemtopowerdifferentloadsVPP:VirtualPowerPlantVRLA:ValveRegulatedLeadAcidWLTC: Worldwide Harmonised Light Duty Vehicles Test Procedure: https://dieselnet.com/standards/cycles/index.php#eu

S o u r c e R e f e r e n c e s

(1) EUROBAT internal best estimates(3) CBI/Avicenne study report 2019(4) IEA Global EV report 2019(5) Frost & Sullivan Global Study report 2018(6) IEA Tracking report 2019

Authors:

EUROBAT, Taskforce Innovation

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Copyright © 2020 EUROBATAssociation of European Automotive and Industrial Battery Manufacturers

Date of publication : June 2020

DisclaimerThispublicationcontains thecurrentstateofknowledgeabout the topicaddressed in it. Itwaspreparedby theEUROBATOfficeincollaborationwiththemembersoftheAssociation.NeitherEUROBATnoranyothermemberoftheorganisationcanacceptanyresponsabilityforlossoccasionedtoanypersonactingorrefrainingfromactionasaresultofanymaterialinthispublication.

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