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Cloud to ground Lightning in the global atmospheric

electrical circuit. This is an example of plasma

present at Earth's surface. Typically, lightning

discharges 30,000 amperes, at up to 100 million

volts, and emits light, radio waves, x-rays and even

gamma rays .[1] Plasma temperatures in lightning

can approach 28,000 kelvins and electron densities

may exceed 1024/m3.

Atmospheric electricityFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Atmospheric electricity is the regular diurnal variation ofthe Earth's atmospheric electromagnetic network or, morebroadly, any planet's electrical system in its layer of gases.The normal movement of electric charges among the Earth'ssurface, the various layers of the atmosphere, and especiallythe ionosphere, taken together, are known as the globalatmospheric electrical circuit. A part of Earth Science,much of the reasoning required to explain these currents canbe done within the field of electrostatics. Full understandingrequires knowledge of several disciplines, not justelectricity.

Eliminating, for the moment, consideration of the extremelydense charge populations that exist in the upper reaches ofthe atmosphere, a region called the ionosphere, filled withhot, dense, plasma gas whose ions give the ionosphere itsname, we note that there is always some amount ofunbound positive and negative, but net positive, electriccharge in the atmosphere closest to the surface of thenegatively charged Earth on a 'fine day'. When days are notso 'fine', the net unbound charge that exists in the clouds ofthunderstorms can be exceedingly negative.

The 'fine day' net positive charge sets up an electric fieldbetween the negative Earth and the net positive charge inthe air, and this electric field stores electrical energy. Thepositive charge acts by induction on the earth and

electromagnetic devices.[2]

Experiments have shown that the intensity of this electricfield is greater in the middle of the day than at morning ornight and is also greater in winter than in summer. In 'fineweather', the potential, aka 'voltage', increases with altitudeat about 30 volts per foot (100 V/m), when climbing against

the gradient of the electric field.[3] This electric field gradientcontinues up into the atmosphere to a point where the voltage reaches its maximum, in the neighborhood of

300,000 volts. This occurs at approximately 30–50 km above the Earth's surface.[4] From that point in theatmosphere up to its outer limit, nearly 1,000 km, the electric field gradient produced in the lower atmosphere eitherceases or has reversed.

Some authors hedge by making the following statement. In general, the atmospheric medium, by which the nearEarth is surrounded, contains not only electric charges bound in atoms or molecules, or any form of matter, but italso contains a quantity of charge in an unbound state. Sometimes the unbound charges are positive, sometimes

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negative, but as a general rule most are of an opposite polarity to that of the Earth. Different layers, or strata, of the

atmosphere, located at only small distances from each other, are frequently found to be in different electric states.[5]

Global daily cycles, with a minimum and a peak at roughly 16:00 hours later, was researched by Carnegie

Institution of Washington in the 20th century. This Carnegie curve[6] variation is the fundamental electrical frequency

of the planet.[7]

The phenomena characterizing atmospheric electricity are of at least three kinds. There are thunderstorms, whichcreate lightning bolts that 'instantaneously' discharge huge amounts of atmospheric charge to ground in a rapidrelease of energy stored in the electric field that built up to a particularly extreme degree in the storm clouds. There

is a related phenomenon of continual electrification (re-charging) of the air in the lower atmosphere.[8] A third

phenomenon is that of the polar auroras.[9]

Most authorities agree that whatever may be the origin of free electricity and the net unbound positive charge in theatmosphere, the generation of enormous currents (flow of electrons, negative charges), that flow between cloudsand ground during a lightning discharge, begins with condensation of water vapor within the clouds; each minutewater droplet moving through the air collects upon its surface a certain amount of negative charge by collecting 'free'electrons. As these tiny drops coalesce into larger drops, and still larger drops, there is a corresponding decrease inthe total exposed surface upon which the collected electronic charges can be carried, raising the negative voltage asdroplets combine. The combined negative electric potential of all the coalescing water drops rises until it overcomesthe resistance of the, usually non-conductive, air, and jumps to earth in a flash, moving negative electrons against theelectric field gradient. In effect, the lightning, acting as a charge pump, restores the positive charge of the loweratmosphere.

This remark will be more clearly understood when it is considered that, with a given charge, an object's potentialrises as the electrical capacity of the object holding the charge is decreased, which is the case when the minutedrops coalesce into larger drops. The similarity of lightning to the discharge of accumulated electrons developed on

an electrical machine was demonstrated by Franklin in his memorable kite experiments.[3]

Contents

1 History2 Description

2.1 Variations

2.2 Outer space and near space2.2.1 Cosmic radiation

2.3 Polar Aurora2.4 Earth-Ionosphere cavity

2.5 Atmospheric layers2.6 Thunderstorms and lightning

2.7 Electrification in the air3 Research and investigation

3.1 Low altitude3.2 High altitude3.3 Lightning

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4 See also

5 References and external articles5.1 Citations and notes

5.2 General references5.2.1 Pre-1930s

5.2.2 Post-1930s5.3 Journals

5.4 Other readings5.5 Websites

6 Further reading7 External links

History

Main article: history of electromagnetism

The detonating sparks drawn from electrical machines and from Leyden jars suggested to the early experimenters,

Hauksbee, Newton, Wall, Nollet, and Gray, that lightning and thunder were due to electric discharges.[9] In 1708,Dr. William Wall was one of the first to observe that spark discharges resembled miniature lightning, after observingthe sparks from a charged piece of amber.

In the middle of the 18th century, Benjamin Franklin's experiments showed that electrical phenomena of theatmosphere were not fundamentally different from those produced in the laboratory. By 1749, Franklin observed

lightning to possess almost all the properties observable in electrical machines.[9]

In July 1750, Franklin hypothesized that electricity could be taken from clouds via a tall metal aerial with a sharppoint. Before Franklin could carry out his experiment, in 1752 Thomas-François Dalibard erected a 40-foot (12 m)

iron rod at Marly-la-Ville, near Paris, drawing sparks from a passing cloud.[9] With ground-insulated aerials, anexperimenter could bring a grounded lead with an insulated wax handle close to the aerial, and observe a sparkdischarge from the aerial to the grounding wire. In May 1752, Dalibard affirmed that Franklin's theory was correct.

Franklin listed the following similarities between electricity and lightning:

producing light of a similar color;

rapid motion;being conducted by metals, water and ice;melting metals and igniting inflammable substances;

"sulfurous" smell (which is now known to be due to ozone);

magnetizing needles;

the similarity between St. Elmo's Fire and glow discharge.

Around June 1752, Franklin reportedly performed his famous kite experiment. The kite experiment was repeatedby Romas, who drew from a metallic string sparks 9 feet (2.7 m) long, and by Cavallo, who made many importantobservations on atmospheric electricity. L. G. Lemonnier (1752) also reproduced Franklin's experiment with anaerial, but substituted the ground wire with some dust particles (testing attraction). He went on to document the fairweather condition, the clear-day electrification of the atmosphere, and the diurnal variation of the atmosphere's

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Atmospheric electricity

utilization for the chemical

reaction in which water is

separated into oxygen and

hydrogen.

Vion, U.S. Patent 28,793

(http://www.google.com/pat

ents/US28793), "Improved

method of using atmospheric

electricity ('Electric

Apparatus')", June 1860.

electricity. G. Beccaria (1775) confirmed Lemonnier's diurnal variation data and determined that the atmosphere'scharge polarity was positive in fair weather. H. B. Saussure (1779) recorded data relating to a conductor's inducedcharge in the atmosphere. Saussure's instrument (which contained two small spheres suspended in parallel with twothin wires) was a precursor to the electrometer. Saussure found that the fair weather condition had an annualvariation, and found that there was a variation with height, as well. In 1785, Coulomb discovered the electricalconductivity of air. His discovery was contrary to the prevailing thought at the time, that the atmospheric gases wereinsulators (which they are to some extent, or at least not very good conductors when not ionized). His researchwas, unfortunately, completely ignored. P. Erman (1804) theorized that the Earth was negatively charged. J. C. A.Peltier (1842) tested and confirmed Erman's idea. Lord Kelvin (1860s) proposed that atmospheric positive chargesexplained the fair weather condition and, later, recognized the existence of atmospheric electric fields.

Over the course of the next century, using the ideas of Alessandro Volta and

Francis Ronald,[10][11][12] several researchers contributed to the growing body ofknowledge about atmospheric electrical phenomena. With the invention of theportable electrometer and Lord Kelvin's 19th century water-dropping condenser,a greater level of precision was introduced into observational results. Towards the

end of the 19th century came the discovery by W. Linss (1887)[13][14][15][16] thateven the most perfectly insulated conductors lose their charge, as Coulombbefore him had found, and that this loss depended on atmospheric conditions. H.H. Hoffert (1888) identified individual lightning downward strokes using early

cameras and would report this in "Intermittent Lightning-Flashes".[17] J. Elsterand H. F. Geitel, who also worked on thermionic emission, proposed a theory toexplain thunderstorms' electrical structure (1885) and, later, discovered

atmospheric radioactivity (1899).[18] By then it had become clear that freelycharged positive and negative ions were always present in the atmosphere, and

that radiant emanations could be collected.[18][19] F. Pockels (1897) estimated

lightning current intensity by analyzing lightning flashes in basalt (c. 1900)[20] and

studying the left-over magnetic fields.[21]

Using a Peltier electrometer, Luigi Palmieri researched atmospheric

electricity.[22] Nikola Tesla and Hermann Plauson investigated the production of

energy and power via atmospheric electricity.[23][24] Tesla also proposed to usethe atmospheric electrical circuit to transceive wireless energy over large

distances.[25][26] The Polish Polar Station, Hornsund, has researched the

magnitude of the Earth's electric field and recorded its vertical component.[27]

Discoveries about the electrification of the atmosphere via sensitive electricalinstruments and ideas on how the Earth’s negative charge is maintained were

developed mainly in the 20th century.[28] Whilst a certain amount of observationalwork has been done in the branches of atmospheric electricity, the science has

not developed to a considerable extent.[29] Up to the contemporary day, apparatus which extract industrial energyfrom atmospheric electricity have not been built and maintained.

Description

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Atmospheric electricity abounds in the environment above the surface of Earth with some traces of it are found less

than four feet above the surface and water bodies; on attaining greater height, it becomes more apparent.[30][31]

The main concept is that, during fine weather, the air above the surface of Earth is positively charged, i.e., positivewith respect to the charge on Earth's surface. That makes Earth's surface charge negative, relatively speaking.

Additionally, the presence of electrical action in Earth's atmosphere, due to the accumulation of static charges,generated by friction of the air upon itself, released to ground in an instant, in a massive down-rush of current(moving electronic charges) the moment the accumulated charge exceeds the breakdown voltage of air, accounts

for the phenomenon of lightning.[32]

Other sources of atmospheric charge include, evaporation of water from Earth's surface, chemical reactions whichtake place upon Earth's surface that release charged particles into the atmosphere, and expansion or condensation

of moisture contained in the atmosphere due to variation of temperature.[33]

According to Monsieur Peltier, the terrestrial globe is completely negative, and inter-planetary space positive; theatmosphere itself has no electricity, and is only in a passive state; so that the effects observed are due to the relativeinfluence of these two great stores of electricity. Researchers are disposed to assume that the terrestrial globepossesses, at least on its solid part, an excess of negative electricity, and that it is the same with bodies placed at itssurface; but it appears to them to follow, from the various observations made, that the atmosphere itself is positivelyelectrified. This positive electricity evidently arises from the same source as the negative of the globe. It is probablethat it is essentially in the aqueous vapors with which the atmosphere is always more or less filled that it resides,

rather than in the particles of the air itself; but it does not the less exist in the atmosphere.[34]

The measurements of atmospheric electricity can be seen as measurements of difference of potential between apoint of the Earth's surface, and a point somewhere in the air above it. The atmosphere in different regions is oftenfound to be at different local potentials, which differ from that of the earth sometimes even by as much as 3000

Volts within 100 feet (30 m).[35] The electrostatic field and the difference of potential of the earth field according toinvestigations, is in summer about 60 to 100 volts and in winter 300 to 500 volts per meter of difference in height, asimple calculation gives the result that when such a collector is arranged for example on the ground, and a secondone is mounted vertically over it at a distance of 2000 meters and both are connected by a conducting cable, there

is a difference in potential in summer of about 2,000,000 volts and in winter even of 6,000,000 volts and more.[36]

In the upper regions of the atmosphere the air is highly rarefied, and conducts like the rarefied gases in Geissler'stubes. The lower air is, when dry, a non-conductor. The upper stratum is believed to be charged with positiveelectricity, while the Earth's surface is itself negatively charged; the stratum of denser air between acting like the

glass of a Leyden jar in keeping the opposite charges separate.[9] The theory of atmospheric electricity explainsequally many phenomena; free electricity, which is manifested during thunder-storms, being the cause of the former;

and electricity of a lower tension, manifested during a display of the aurora borealis, causing the latter.[34]

The electric atmosphere is the most frequent cause which deters or prevents electrical transmissions. During storms,it is seen that the some apparatus works irregularly, interrupting the passage of strong currents instantaneously, andoften produces upon the apparatus in the offices, between metallic points, bright sparks; in telegraphic systems thearmatures of the electro-magnets are drawn up with great force, and the wires and other metallic substances aboutthe instruments fused. It is also observed, but more rarely, currents, which continue for a longer or shorter time, that

prevent working of communication systems.[34]

Variations

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Electric currents created in sunward

ionosphere.

There have been various speculative conjectures regarding the origin of these semi-diurnal meteorological periods,but they have been usually of a secondary character. A primary cause is clearly to be ascribed to the many complexprocesses which are due to the thermodynamics of radiation. It isthought that with sufficient experience the formulas that have beendeduced here, and illustrated, can be made to yield other valuabledata regarding the atomic and subatomic activities which areconcerned in the variations of the fundamental terms and their very

numerous derivatives.[37]

Diurnal variations found by the daily indications (during fineweather) showed two maxima occurring in summer at roughlytwelve hours apart and two minima which in summer were at thehours of which were roughly nine hours apart. The maximacorrespond fairly with hours of changing temperature, the minima

with those of constant temperature.[9] Atmospheric electricity,considered in a general manner, attains its maximum in January,then decreases progressively until the month of June, whichpresents a minimum of intensity; it increases during the following

months to the end of the year.[34] The difference between themaximum and minimum is much more sensibly felt during sereneweather than during cloudy weather. During the different months, the electricity of the air is more powerful when thesky is serene than when it is cloudy, except toward the months of June and July, when the electricity attains a

maximum, the value of which is nearly the same, whatever be the state of the sky.[34]

The electric intensity observed during fogs has, at a mean, almost exactly the same value as that observed duringsnows. This value is very high, and corresponds to the mean maxima observed for the former and the latter monthsof the year. A very remarkable fact, which appears from recent observation, is that moisture acts in a manneraltogether different in the cold months and in the hot ones; it increases the electricity in the winter months, itdiminishes it in the summer months. The fundamental fact is, that humidity acts in two manners, the effects of whichtend to oppose each other. On the one hand, it facilitates the escape of the electricity accumulated in the upperregions of the atmosphere to the stratum in which the observation is made; on the other hand, it facilitates theescape into the ground of the electricity which this stratum possesses: thus, on the one hand it increases the intensity

of the electric manifestations of the instrument, on the other hand it diminishes them.[34]

Outer space and near space

In outer space, the magnetopause flows along the boundary between the region around an astronomical object(called the "magnetosphere") and surrounding plasma, in which electric phenomena are dominated or organized bythis magnetic field. Earth is surrounded by a magnetosphere, as are the magnetized planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranusand Neptune. Mercury is magnetized, but too weakly to trap plasma. Mars has patchy surface magnetization. Themagnetosphere is the location where the outward magnetic pressure of the Earth's magnetic field is counterbalancedby the solar wind, a plasma. Most of the solar particles are deflected to either side of the magnetopause. However,some particles become trapped within the Earth's magnetic field and form radiation belts. The Van Allen radiationbelt is a torus of energetic charged particles (i.e. a plasma) around Earth, trapped by Earth's magnetic field.

At elevations above the clouds, atmospheric electricity forms a continuous and distinct element (called theelectrosphere) in which the Earth is surrounded. The electrosphere layer (from tens of kilometers above the surfaceof the earth to the ionosphere) has a high electrical conductivity and is essentially at a constant electric potential. The

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Relationship of the atmosphere and

ionosphere

ionosphere is the inner edge of the magnetosphere and is the part of the atmosphere that is ionized by solarradiation. (Photoionisation is a physical process in which a photon is incident on an atom, ion or molecule, resultingin the ejection of one or more electrons.)

See also: Electrodynamic tether

Cosmic radiation

Main articles: Background radiation and Cosmic ray

The Earth, and all living things on it, are constantly bombarded by radiation from outer space. This radiationprimarily consists of positively charged ions from protons to ironand larger nuclei derived sources outside our solar system. Thisradiation interacts with atoms in the atmosphere to create an airshower of secondary radiation, including X-rays, muons, protons,alpha particles, pions, electrons, and neutrons. The immediatedose from cosmic radiation is largely from muons, neutrons, andelectrons, and this dose varies in different parts of the world basedlargely on the geomagnetic field and altitude. This radiation ismuch more intense in the upper troposphere, around 10 kmaltitude, and is thus of particular concern for airline crews andfrequent passengers, who spend many hours per year in thisenvironment. During their flights airline crews typically get an extra

dose on the order of 2.2 mSv (220 mrem) per year.[41]

Polar Aurora

Main article: Polar Aurora

The Earth is constantly immersed in the solar wind, a rarefied flow of hot plasma (gas of free electrons and positiveions) emitted by the Sun in all directions, a result of the million-degree heat of the Sun's outermost layer, the solarcorona. The solar wind usually reaches Earth with a velocity around 400 km/s, density around 5 ions/cc andmagnetic field intensity around 2–5 nT (nanoteslas; Earth's surface field is typically 30,000–50,000 nT). These aretypical values. During magnetic storms, in particular, flows can be several times faster; the interplanetary magneticfield (IMF) may also be much stronger.

The IMF originates on the Sun, related to the field of sunspots, and its field lines (lines of force) are dragged out bythe solar wind. That alone would tend to line them up in the Sun-Earth direction, but the rotation of the Sun skewsthem (at Earth) by about 45 degrees, so that field lines passing Earth may actually start near the western edge

("limb") of the visible sun.[42]

When the solar wind is perturbed, it easily transfers energy and material into the magnetosphere. The electrons andions in the magnetosphere that are thus energized move along the magnetic field lines to the polar regions of theatmosphere.

Earth-Ionosphere cavity

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Estimate of the maximum dose of radiation

received at an altitude of 12 kilometres

(7.5 mi) January 20, 2005, following a solar

flare. (microsieverts[38] per hour[39])[40]

0; 25; 50; 75; 100;

125; 150

See also: Cosmic rays in ambient radiation and

Orders of magnitude (radiation)

Aurora Borealis as seen over Canada at

11,000m (36,000 ft)

Main article: Schumann resonance

Potential difference between the ionosphere and the Earth ismaintained by thunderstorms' pumping action of lightningdischarges. In the Earth-ionosphere cavity, the electric field andconduction current in the lower atmosphere are primarilycontrolled by ions. Ions have the characteristic parameters such asmobility, lifetime, and generation rate that vary with altitude.

The Schumann resonance is a set of spectrum peaks in the ELFportion of the Earth's electromagnetic field spectrum. Schumannresonance is due to the space between the surface of the Earthand the conductive ionosphere acting as a waveguide. The limiteddimensions of the earth cause this waveguide to act as a resonantcavity for electromagnetic waves. The cavity is naturally excitedby energy from lightning strikes.

Atmospheric layers

The electrical conductivity of the atmosphere increasesexponentially with altitude. The amplitudes of the electric andmagnetic components depend on season, latitude, and heightabove the sea level. The greater the altitude the more atmosphericelectricity abounds. The exosphere is the uppermost layer of theatmosphere and is estimated to be 500 km to 1000 km above theEarth's surface, and its upper boundary at about 10,000 km. Thethermosphere (upper atmosphere) is the layer of the Earth'satmosphere directly above the mesosphere and directly below theexosphere. Within this layer, ultraviolet radiation causes ionization.Theories that have been proposed to explain the phenomenon ofthe polar aurora, but it has been demonstrated by experiments thatit is due to currents of positive electricity passing from the higher

regions of the atmosphere to the earth.[43]

The mesosphere (middle atmosphere) is the layer of the Earth'satmosphere that is directly above the stratosphere and directly below the thermosphere. The mesosphere is locatedabout 50-80/85 km above Earth's surface. The stratosphere (middle atmosphere) is a layer of Earth's atmospherethat is stratified in temperature and is situated between about 10 km and 50 km altitude above the surface atmoderate latitudes, while at the poles it starts at about 8 km altitude. The stratosphere sits directly above thetroposphere and directly below the mesosphere. The troposphere (lower atmosphere) is the densest layer of theatmosphere.

The planetary boundary layer (PBL), also known as the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL), is the lowest part ofthe atmosphere and its behavior is directly influenced by its contact with the planetary surface. It is also known asthe "exchange layer". (see also:p-n junction.)

There is a potential gradient at ground level ("Atmosphere ground layer") and this vertical field[44] corresponds to

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Electric density increases 88 DC volts

with each metre of altitude above the

earth, or, in feet equivalents, 1-19 DC

volts per foot of altitude.

World map showing frequency of

lightning strikes, in flashes per km²

per year (equal-area projection).

Lightning strikes most frequently in

the Democratic Republic of the

Congo. Combined 1995–2003 data

from the Optical Transient Detector

and 1998–2003 data from the

Lightning Imaging Sensor.

There is a potential gradient at ground level ("Atmosphere ground layer") and this vertical field[44] corresponds tothe negative charge in and near the Earth's surface. The negative potential gradient falls rapidly as altitude increasesfrom the ground. Most of this potential gradient is in the first fewkilometers. The positive potential gradient rises rapidly as altitudeincreases from the ground. Volta, over two centuries before the 21stcentury, discovered with some degree of exactitude that the proportionsof the ordinates of the curve or gradient of electric potential increased asthe distance from the earth increases, and, more recently, Engel hasprovided data to calculate the increase (Image to the right).

Thunderstorms and lightning

Main articles: Thunderstorms and lightning

If the quantity of water that is condensed in and subsequently precipitatedfrom a cloud is known, then the total energy of a thunderstorm can becalculated. In an average thunderstorm, the energy released amounts to

about 10,000,000 kilowatt-hours (3.6 × 1013 joule), which is equivalentto a 20-kiloton nuclear warhead. A large, severe thunderstorm might be

10 to 100 times more energetic.[45]

How lightning initially forms is still a matter of debate:[46] Scientists havestudied root causes ranging from atmospheric perturbations (wind,humidity, and atmospheric pressure) to the impact of solar wind and

accumulation of charged solar particles.[47] Ice inside a cloud is thoughtto be a key element in lightning development, and may cause a forcibleseparation of positive and negative charges within the cloud, thus assisting

in the formation of lightning.[47]

An average bolt of lightning carries a negative electric current of 40kiloamperes (kA) (although some bolts can be up to 120 kA), andtransfers a charge of five coulombs and 500 MJ, or enough energy topower a 100-watt lightbulb for just under two months. The voltage depends on the length of the bolt, with thedielectric breakdown of air being three million volts per meter; this works out to approximately one gigavolt (onebillion volts) for a 300 m (1000 ft) lightning bolt. With an electric current of 100 kA, this gives a power of 100terawatts. However, lightning leader development is not a simple matter of dielectric breakdown, and the ambientelectric fields required for lightning leader propagation can be a few orders of magnitude less than dielectricbreakdown strength. Further, the potential gradient inside a well-developed return-stroke channel is on the order ofhundreds of volts per meter or less due to intense channel ionization, resulting in a true power output on the order of

megawatts per meter for a vigorous return-stroke current of 100 kA .[48]

Lightning sequence (Duration: 0.32 seconds)

Electrification in the air

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Electrostatics involves the buildup of charge on the surface of objects due to contact with other surfaces. Althoughcharge exchange happens whenever any two surfaces contact and separate, the effects of charge exchange areusually only noticed when at least one of the surfaces has a high resistance to electrical flow. This is because thecharges that transfer to or from the highly resistive surface are more or less trapped there for a long enough time fortheir effects to be observed. These charges then remain on the object until they either bleed off to ground or arequickly neutralized by a discharge: e.g., the familiar phenomenon of a static 'shock' is caused by the neutralization ofcharge built up in the body from contact with nonconductive surfaces.

St. Elmo's Fire is an electrical phenomenon in which luminous plasma is created by a coronal discharge originatingfrom a grounded object. Ball lightning is often erroneously identified as St. Elmo's Fire. They are separate and

distinct phenomena.[49] Although referred to as "fire", St. Elmo's Fire is, in fact, plasma. Saint Elmo's fire is anotherphase of atmospheric electricity to be considered in this connection. It is otherwise known as the fire of Saint Elias,of Saint Clara, of Saint Nicholas and of Helena, as well as composite, composant or corposant (that is, corpussanctum [ed., holy body]). The phenomenon is observed, usually during a thunderstorm, at the tops of trees, spires,

etc., or on the heads of animals, as a brush or star of light.[3]

The electric field around the object in question causes ionization of the air molecules, producing a faint glow easilyvisible in low-light conditions. Approximately 1,000 – 30,000 volts per centimetre is required to induce St. Elmo'sFire; however, this number is greatly dependent on the geometry of the object in question. Sharp points tend torequire lower voltage levels to produce the same result because electric fields are more concentrated in areas of

high curvature, thus discharges are more intense at the end of pointed objects.[50] St. Elmo's Fire and normalsparks both can appear when high electrical voltage affects a gas. St. Elmo's fire is seen during thunderstorms whenthe ground below the storm is electrically charged, and there is high voltage in the air between the cloud and theground. The voltage tears apart the air molecules and the gas begins to glow. The nitrogen and oxygen in the Earth'satmosphere causes St. Elmo's Fire to fluoresce with blue or violet light; this is similar to the mechanism that causes

neon signs to glow.[50]

Research and investigation

To detect the presence of free electricity in the air a pointed metal rod projecting into the air several feet andconnected at its lower end to a gold leaf electroscope may be used. When this rod is projected into the air a fewfeet the leaves diverge. Kites and balloons have also been used to detect and, so to speak, draw down the freeelectricity of the air. The origin of atmospheric electricity is still unknown. Some physicists have ascribed it to thefriction of the air upon the ground, others to the gradual oxidation of plant and animal life, others again to

evaporation, to induction from the sun, and to differences of temperature.[3]

Low altitude

Main article: electrometer

For ascertaining the electric state of the atmosphere near the surface of the earth, Volta's electrometer is sufficient.An electrometer is an instrument which serves to indicate and measure electricity. The one just mentioned consistsof a glass jar, surmounted by a pointed, metallic rod; and to the lower end of the rod, which enters the jar, two finestraws are loosely attached. The pointed rod, collecting the electricity from the air, the two straws become similarly

electrified and recede from each other; the amount of divergence measuring the intensity of the fluid.[51]

High altitude

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Main articles: Weather balloon and Aerostat

Experiments are made in the higher regions of the atmosphere by the aid of kites and balloons. The string of the kitemust be wound with fine wire, in order to convey the electricity from the sky; and it must also be insulated, byattaching the lower end either to a silken cord or glass pillar. Small, stationary balloons are sometimes employed,the strings of which are arranged and fastened in the same manner. Occasionally meteorologists ascend in balloons

for the purpose of making observations.[52]

See also: High-altitude wind power

Lightning

Main article: Lightning rocket

A lightning rocket consists of a rocket launcher that is in communication with a detection device that measures thepresence of electrostatic and ionic change in close proximity to the rocket launcher that also fires the rocketlauncher. This system is designed to control the time and the location of a lightning strike.

See also

General

Geophysics, Atmospheric sciences, Atmospheric physics, Atmospheric dynamics, Journal of Geophysical

Research, Earth system model, Atmospheric chemistry, Ionosphere, Air quality

Electromagnetism

Earth's magnetic field, Sprites and lightning, Whistler (radio), Telluric currents, relaxation time, electrodeeffect, potential gradient

Other

Charles Chree Medal, Electrodynamic tethers, Solar radiation

People

Egon Schweidler, Charles Chree, Nikola Tesla, Hermann Plauson, Joseph Dwyer

References and external articles

Citations and notes

1. ^ See Flashes in the Sky: Earth's Gamma-Ray Bursts Triggered by Lightning(http://www.nasa.gov/vision/universe/solarsystem/rhessi_tgf.html)

2. ^ Richard Spelman Culley, A Handbook of Practical Telegraphy. Longmans 1885. Page 104(http://books.google.com/books?id=i5JRAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA104)

3. ̂a b c d The Encyclopedia Americana; A library of universal knowledge. (1918). New York: EncyclopediaAmericana Corp. Page 181.

4. ^ Retrieved 9Jan. 2013. Posted by MIT graduate student Jason Goodman on Oct. 27, 2000 on the Mad ScientistNetwork at http://www.madsci.org/posts/archives/2000-10/972662284.Es.r.html

5. ^ Bird, 204

6. ^ R. Giles Harrison, The Carnegie Curve. Springer. http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10712-012-9210-2

7. ^ Atmospheric electricity affects cloud height - physicsworld.comhttp://physicsworld.com/cws/article/news/2013/mar/06/atmospheric-electricity-affects-cloud-height

11/27/13 Atmospheric electricity - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_electricity 12/17

8. ^ Atmospheric charging is best observed when the weather is fair.

9. ̂a b c d e f Silvanus Phillips Thompson, Elementary Lessons in Electricity and Magnetism(http://books.google.com/books?id=hLk3AAAAMAAJ). 1915.

10. ^ Sir Francis Ronald constructed an electric telegraph, 8 miles long, in 1816. See Nature, Volume 25 edited by SirNorman Lockyer, page 515 (http://books.google.com/books?id=0MMKAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA515).

11. ^ "Ronalds, Sir Francis (http://www.oxforddnb.com/templates/article.jsp?articleid=24057)" Oxford DNB

12. ^ He later willed and disposed his personal library to the Society of Telegraph Engineers.

13. ^ Linss, Meteorol. Zeitschr. iv. p. 352, 1887; Etektrotechn. Zeitschr. i. 11, p. 506, 1890, 38th issue.

14. ^ Ueber einige die Wolken-und Luftelectricitat betreffende Probleme (tr., Over the clouds and some relevant airelectricity problems). 17 pp. Contained in Meteorologische Zeitschrift. Herausgegeben Von Der ÖsterreichIschenGesellschaft Für Meteorologie Und Der Deutschen MeteoroLogischen Gesellschaft. Redigirt von Dr. J. Hann undDr. W. Koppen. October–December 1887.

15. ^ Terrestrial magnetism, Volumes 3-4 edited by Louis Agricola Bauer. Page 65 (http://books.google.com/books?id=_UbOAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA65).

16. ^ Conduction of electricity through gases By Sir Joseph John Thomson. Page 3 (http://books.google.com/books?id=01xDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA3).

17. ^ Proceedings of the Physical Society: Volumes 9-10. Institute of Physics and the Physical Society, PhysicalSociety (Great Britain), Physical Society of London, 1888. Intermittent Lightning-Flashes. By HH Hoffert. Page176 (http://books.google.com/books?id=EHwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA176).

18. ̂a b Alessandro De Angelisa, Atmospheric ionization and cosmic rays: studies and measurements before 1912.http://arxiv.org/pdf/1208.6527.pdf.

19. ^ William Ramsay. The Gases of the Atmosphere: The History of Their Discovery. Page 300(http://books.google.com/books?id=HhFDAAAAIAAJ&lpg=PA300)

20. ^ Vladimir A. Rakov, Martin A. Uman. Lightning: Physics and Effects. Page 3.

21. ^ Basalt, being a ferromagnetic mineral, becomes magnetically polarised when exposed to a large external fieldsuch as those generated in a lightning strike. See Anomalous Remanent Magnetization of Basaltpubs.usgs.gov/bul/1083e/report.pdf for more.

22. ^ Nature - Volume 40 - Page 209 (http://books.google.com/books?id=0jAVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA209)

23. ^ Nikola Tesla, The Problem of Increasing Human Energy.

24. ^ The Engineering Index. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 1921.Page 230(http://books.google.com/books?id=ZDAzAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA230)

25. ^ Thomas Valone Harnessing the wheelwork of nature: Tesla's science of energy (http://books.google.com/books?id=ZNqo1zaZRTYC)

26. ^ See his Wardenclyffe Tower and Magnifying Transmitter)

27. ^ Polish Polar Station Hornsund, Spitsbergen http://hornsund.igf.edu.pl/index_en.php

28. ^ Encyclopedia of Geomagnetism and Paleomagnetism (http://books.google.com/books?id=O-wA0ocxAiIC) - Page359

29. ^ Atmospheric electricity Lieut. C. D. Stewart R.E., B.Sc., F.R.MetSoc. Article first published online: AUG 15,2007 DOI: 10.1002/qj.49704318406

30. ^ The Earth's Electrical Environment. National Academies, Jan 1, 1986. Page 181 (http://books.google.com/books?id=7j4rAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA181).

31. ^ Quantitative estimation of global circuit Masahiko MakinoToshio Ogawa Article first published online: SEP 21,2012 DOI: 10.1029/JD090iD04p05961

32. ^ Victor Lougheed, Vehicles of the Air: A Popular Exposition of Modern Aeronautics with Working. The Reillyand Britton Co. 1909

33. ^ Wells, 392

34. ̂a b c d e f George Bartlett Prescott, History, Theory, and Practice of the Electric Telegraph(http://books.google.com/books?id=NK83AAAAMAAJ). Ticknor and Fields, 1860.

35. ^ Alfred Daniell, A Text Book of the Principles of Physics, Atmospheric electricity(http://books.google.com/books?id=dK8LAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA559). Macmillan and co. 1884.

11/27/13 Atmospheric electricity - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_electricity 13/17

36. ^ US patent 1,540,998, Conversion of Atmospheric Electricity, issued to Hermann Plauson, June 9, 1925, offersmethods of obtaining atmospheric electricity using anchored metallic kite balloons from which extracted electricalenergy is converted into electro-dynamic energy in the form of high frequency vibrations.

37. ^ Bigelow, 345

38. ^ 0.0001 rem = 0.1 mrem = 1 µSv = 0.000001 Sv = 0.001 mSv = 1 µSv

39. ^ Comprised of 60 minutes, or 3,600 seconds. It is approximately 1/24 of a mean solar day.

40. ^ Except for the equator and tropics (or, the equatorial zone), there is approximately a minimum of 1x10-2 µSv persecond

41. ^ "Radiation Exposure During Commercial Airline Flights"(http://www.hps.org/publicinformation/ate/faqs/commercialflights.html). Retrieved 2011-03-17.

42. ^ Solar wind forecast (http://gse.gi.alaska.edu/recent/javascript_movie.html) from a University of Alaska website

43. ^ Poyser, 157

44. ^ Electrical Overstress/Electrostatic Discharge Symposium, EOS/ESD Association., & Institute of Electrical andElectronics Engineers. (1990). Electrical Overstress/Electrostatic Discharge Symposium proceedings, 1990: LakeBuena Vista, Florida, September 11–13, 1990. Rome, NY (201 Mill Street, Rome 13440: The Association). Page 4.

45. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica article on thunderstorms

46. ^ Micah Fink for PBS. "How Lightning Forms"(http://www.pbs.org/wnet/savageplanet/03deadlyskies/01lforms/indexmid.html). Public Broadcasting System.Archived(http://web.archive.org/web/20070929174806/http://www.pbs.org/wnet/savageplanet/03deadlyskies/01lforms/indexmid.html) from the original on September 29, 2007. Retrieved September 21, 2007.

47. ̂a b National Weather Service (2007). "Lightning Safety" (http://www.lightningsafety.noaa.gov/science.htm).National Weather Service. Archived(http://web.archive.org/web/20071007110300/http://www.lightningsafety.noaa.gov/science.htm) from the originalon October 07 2007. Retrieved September 21, 2007.

48. ^ Rakov, V; Uman, M, Lightning: Physics and Effects, Cambridge University Press, 2003

49. ^ Barry, J.D. (1980a) Ball Lightning and Bead Lightning: Extreme Forms of Atmospheric Electricity(http://books.google.com/books?id=KHdIE3_lv1cC). 8–9. New York and London: Plenum Press. ISBN 0-306-40272-6

50. ̂a b Scientific American. Ask The Experts: Physics (http://www.sciam.com/askexpert_question.cfm?articleID=000CB330-61BF-1C71-9EB7809EC588F2D7&catID=3&topicID=13). Retrieved on July 2, 2007.

51. ^ Foster et al., 131

52. ^ Foster et al., 132

General references

Pre-1930s

Transcript of hand-written article (http://earlyradiohistory.us/1872loom.htm) signed by Dr. Mahlon Loomis,January 7, 1872. (from Radio News, November, 1922, pages 974–978 (Loomis lecture extract))

"Atmospheric electricity (http://www.dge.inpe.br/elat/hp2005_800/english/eletricidade_i.htm)",dge.inpe.br.

Chree, Charles, "Atmospheric electricity", Britannica Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica, 1926."Chauncy J. Britten’s Atmospheric Electrical Generator(http://www.rexresearch.com/feg/britten.htm)", Rex Research.

Arthur William Poyser, Magnetism and Electricity (http://books.google.com/books?id=dvs4AAAAMAAJ). Longmans, Green and Co. 1901.

Jeremiah Joyce, Scientific dialogues, with corrections by O. Gregory (http://books.google.com/books?id=Hi4EAAAAQAAJ). Darton 1846.

11/27/13 Atmospheric electricity - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_electricity 14/17

Dionysius Lardner, Popular Lectures on Science and Art, Atmospheric electricity

(http://books.google.com/books?id=BkUPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA147). Henry W. Law 1856.Mr Wilson, On a Portable Gold-leaf Electrometer, etc. (http://books.google.com/books?id=AaA1AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA184). Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society

Alfred Urbanitzky, Electricity in the Service of Man. Atmospheric electricity(http://books.google.com/books?id=rkgOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA91). Cassell & Company, Limited 1886.

Willis Isbister Milham, Meteorology, Atmospheric electricity (http://books.google.com/books?id=1ctAAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA454). The Macmillan Company 1912.

William Allen Miller, Elements of Chemistry: Theoretical and Practical, Atmospheric electricity(http://books.google.com/books?id=kCZKAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA360).

Jacques Wardlaw Redway, Handbook of Meteorology: A Manual for Cooperative Observers andStudents, Atmospheric electricity (http://books.google.com/books?id=S-APAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA108)..John Wiley & Sons, inc. 1921.

Experiments on Atmospheric Electricity (http://books.google.com/books?id=_EE3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA504). By Dr. L. Weber. Elektrotechnische Zeitschrift, 1889, p. 521.

Francis Rolt-Wheeler, The Science-history of the Universe, Electrostatics – Atmospheric electricity(http://books.google.com/books?id=FtEEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA155). The Current Literature Publishing

Company 1909.Golding Bird, Elements of Natural Philosophy, Atmospheric electricity (http://books.google.com/books?id=TEwJAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA204). Lea and Blanchard 1848.

George Carey Foster, Alfred William Porter, Jules François Joubert, Elementary Treatise on Electricityand Magnetism, Atmospheric electricity (http://books.google.com/books?

id=5bdCAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA577). Longmans, 1909.John Brocklesby Elements of Meteorology, Atmospheric electricity (http://books.google.com/books?

id=8tY4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA131). Sheldon and company 1869.Terrestrial electricity (http://books.google.com/books?id=OvsCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA296), Year Book –Carnegie Institution of Washington.

Frank Hagar Bigelow, A Treatise on the Sun's Radiation and Other Solar Phenomena, AtmosphericElectricity and the Diurnal Convection (http://books.google.com/books?

id=krkxAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA342). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1918.Louis Agricola Bauer, John Adam Fleming, Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity

(http://books.google.com/books?id=gj8PAAAAIAAJ). University of Cincinnati 1919.David Ames Wells, Wells's Natural Philosophy, Atmospheric electricity (http://books.google.com/books?id=m_EPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA391). Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor & co. 1876.

Karl Friedrich Peschel, Ebenezer West (Tr.), Elements of Physics, Atmospheric electricity and theelectrical phenomena of life (http://books.google.com/books?id=JqsLAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA173). Longman,

Brown, Green, and Longmans 1846.

Post-1930s

Journals

Articles

Anderson, F. J., and G. D. Freier, "Interactions of the thunderstorm with a conducting atmosphere". J.

11/27/13 Atmospheric electricity - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_electricity 15/17

Geophys. Res., 74, 5390–5396, 1969.

Brook, M., "Thunderstorm electrification", Problems of Atmospheric and Space Electricity. S. C. Coroniti

(Ed.), Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 280–283, 1965.Farrell, W. M., T. L. Aggson, E. B. Rodgers, and W. B. Hanson, "Observations of ionospheric electricfields above atmospheric weather systems", J. Geophys. Res., 99, 19475-19484, 1994.

Fernsler, R. F., and H. L. Rowland, "Models of lightning-produced sprites and elves". J. Geophys. Res.,101, 29653-29662, 1996.

Fraser-Smith, A. C., "ULF magnetic fields generated by electrical storms and their significance togeomagnetic pulsation generation". Geophys. Res. Lett., 20, 467–470, 1993.

Krider, E. P., and R. J. Blakeslee, "The electric currents produced by thunderclouds". J. Electrostatics,16, 369–378, 1985.Lazebnyy, B. V., A. P. Nikolayenko, V. A. Rafal'skiy, and A. V. Shvets, "Detection of transverse

resonances of the Earth-ionosphere cavity in the average spectrum of VLF atmospherics". Geomagn.Aeron., 28, 281–282, 1988.

Ogawa, T., "Fair-weather electricity". J. Geophys. Res., 90, 5951–5960, 1985.Sentman, D. D., "Schumann resonance spectra in a two-scale-height Earth-ionosphere cavity". J.

Geophys. Res., 101, 9479–9487, 1996.Wåhlin, L., "Elements of fair weather electricity". J. Geophys. Res., 99, 10767-10772, 1994.

Other readings

Richard E. Orville (ed.), "Atmospheric and Space Electricity". ("Editor's Choice" virtual journal) –"American Geophysical Union (http://www.agu.org/)". (AGU) Washington, DC 20009-1277 USA

Schonland, B. F. J., "Atmospheric Electricity". Methuen and Co., Ltd., London, 1932.MacGorman, Donald R., W. David Rust, D. R. Macgorman, and W. D. Rust, "The Electrical Nature ofStorms". Oxford University Press, March 1998. ISBN 0-19-507337-1

Cowling, Thomas Gilbert, "On Alfven's theory of magnetic storms and of the aurora", TerrestrialMagnetism and Atmospheric Electricity, 47, 209–214, 1942.

H. H. Hoffert, "Intermittent Lightning-Flashes". Proc. Phys. Soc. London 10 No 1 (June 1888) 176–180.

Volland, H., "Atmospheric Electrodynamics" , Springer, Berlin, 1984.

Websites

Bateman, Monte, "Atmospheric Electricity Homepage (http://ae.nsstc.uah.edu/)".

"International Commission on Atmospheric Electricity (http://www.atmospheric-electricity.org/)".Commission of the International Association of Meteorology And Atmospheric Physics.

"Lightning and Atmospheric Electricity (http://thunder.msfc.nasa.gov/)". Global Hydrology and ClimateCenter, NASA.

Kieft, Sandy, "The Langmuir Laboratory for Atmospheric Research(http://www.ee.nmt.edu/~langmuir/)". New Mexico Institute of Mining & Technology.

"Power from the Air (http://www.nuenergy.org/alt/GernsbackOnPlausonFebruary1922.htm)". Scienceand invention (Formerly Electrical Experimenter), Feb. 1922, no. 10. Vol IX, Whole No. 106. New York.(nuenergy.org)

"Power from the Air (http://www.nuenergy.org/alt/PlausonMarch1922.htm)". Science and invention

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en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_electricity 16/17

(Formerly Electrical Experimenter), March 1922. (nuenergy.org)."RF Energy via Ionosphere (http://home.netcom.com/~sbyers11/RFenergy_Iono.html)". RF EnergyConcepts Sec. 101 Rev. Nov., 2003Peter Winkler, "Early observations of and knowledge on air electricity and magnetism at

Hohenpeißenberg during the Palatina(http://www.meteohistory.org/2004polling_preprints/docs/abstracts/winkler_abstract.pdf)". German

Weather Service, Meteorological Observatory. (PDF)"Atmospheric Electricity (http://www.meridian-int-res.com/Energy/Atmospheric.htm)". Meridian

International Research."Atmospheric Electricity and Plants (http://www.maverickexperiments.com/AtmosElec/AtmsoElec.html)"

Do cosmic rays cause lightning? (http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=experts-do-cosmic-rays-cause-lightning) Ask the Experts – sciam.com January 24, 2008"The Earth's Electrical Environment (http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?

record_id=898&page=206)". CPSMA, USA National Academies Press.

Further reading

Auguste de La Rive, Explanation of the Diurnal Variations of the Magnetic Needle, and of theAurora

Borealis (http://books.google.com/books?id=Y1oEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA286) (1894)James R. Wait, Some basic electromagnetic aspects of ULF field variations in the atmosphere. Journal

Pure and Applied Geophysics, Volume 114, Number 1 / January, 1976 Pages 15–28 Birkhäuser BaselISSN 0033-4553 (Print) 1420-9136 (Online) DOI 10.1007/BF00875488

Charles Chree, Observations on Atmospheric Electricity at the Kew Observatory(http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0370-1662(1896%2F1897)60%3C96%3AOOAEAT%3E2.0.CO%3B2-8). Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Vol. 60, 1896–1897 (1896–1897), pp. 96–132

G. C. Simpson, C. S. Wrigh, Atmospheric Electricity over the Ocean (http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0950-1207(19110510)85%3A577%3C175%3AAEOTO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-B). Proceedings of the

Royal Society of London. Series A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical and Physical Character, Vol. 85,No. 577 (May 10, 1911), pp. 175–199

National Research Council (U.S.)., & American Geophysical Union. (1986). The Earth's electricalenvironment (http://books.google.com/books?id=7j4rAAAAYAAJ). Washington, D.C: National AcademyPres

Solar Dynamics and Its Effects on the Heliosphere and Earth (http://books.google.com/books?id=yXgF1ugrr6YCh) By D. N. Baker, International Space Science Institute

Solar variability, weather, and climate (http://books.google.com/books?id=tUQrAAAAYAAJ) By NationalResearch Council (U.S.). Geophysics Study Committee

Philosophical magazine.(1839) London: Taylor & Francis. Instruction for the scientific expedition to thearctic region, Electrometers. pg 219 (http://books.google.com/books?id=-E0wAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA219).

External links

Electric Current through the Atmosphere (http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2006/TerryMathew.shtml)The Global Circuit (http://globalcircuit.phys.uh.edu/), phys.uh.eduSoaking in atmospheric electricity (http://science.nasa.gov/newhome/headlines/essd15jun99_1.htm) 'Fair

weather' measurements important to understanding thunderstorms. science.nasa.gov

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en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_electricity 17/17

Atmospheric Electricity HomePage (http://ae.nsstc.uah.edu/), uah.eduTjt, Fair-weather atmospheric electricity (http://www.ava.fmi.fi/~tjt/fairw.html). ava.fmi.fi

ICAE – International Commission on Atmospheric Electricity Homepage (http://icae.jp/)

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