attitude Measurement n Scaling

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RESEARCH

METHODOLOGY

(Business Research Methods)

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Measurement and Scaling (1)

In business research, measurement of variables is a indispensable

requirement

Problem Defining what is to be measured, and how it is to be

accurately and reliably measured

Some things (or concepts) which are inherently abstract in their

nature (e.g. job satisfaction, employee morale, brand loyalty of

consumers) are more difficult to measure than concepts which can be

assigned numerical values (e.g. sales volume for employees X, Y and

Z)

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In order for a concept to have the quality of being measurable, it must

first be made operational

An operation definition may be defined as a definition that gives

meaning to concept by specifying the activities or operations which

are necessary in order to measure it

Example A satisfied consumer will make at least five

purchases of Product A from Shop T over a three-month period

of time

Note that sometimes depending on the context of the research

study - it may be difficult to make operational definitions

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Measurement and Scaling (3)A scale is basically a continuous spectrum or series of

categories and has been defined as any series of items that

are arranged progressively according to value or magnitude,

into which an item can be placed according to its

quantification

Four popular scales in business research are:

Nominal scales

Ordinal scales

Interval scales

Ratio scales

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A nominal scale is the simplest of the four scale types and in whichthe numbers or letters assigned to objects serve as labels for

identification or classification

The mode is the most frequent category - only statistics applicable

to nominal variable

Example:

Males = 1, Females = 2

Sales Zone A = Delhi, Sales Zone B = Gurgaon

Drink A = Pepsi Cola, Drink B = 7-Up, Drink C = Miranda

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An ordinal scale is one that arranges objects or alternatives according

to their magnitude

Examples:

Career Opportunities = Moderate, Good, Excellent

Investment Climate = Bad, inadequate, fair, good, very good

Merit = A grade, B grade, C grade, D grade

The mode and the median are the most meaningful measures of

central tendency for ordinal-scaled responses

A problem with ordinal scales is that the difference between

categories on the scale is hard to quantify, I,e., excellent is

better than good but how much is excellent better? 6


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An interval scale is a scale that not only arranges objects or

alternatives according to their respective magnitudes, but also

distinguishes this ordered arrangement in units of equal intervals (i.e.

interval scales indicate order (as in ordinal scales) and also the

distance in the order)

Examples:

Consumer Price Index

Temperature Scale in Fahrenheit

Interval scales allow comparisons of the differences of

magnitude (e.g. of attitudes) but do not allow determinations

of the actual strength of the magnitude 7


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Measurement and Scaling (7) A ratio scale is a scale that possesses absolute rather than relative

qualities and has an absolute zero.

Examples:

Money

Weight

Distance

Temperature on the Kelvin Scale

Ratio scales allow comparisons of the differences of magnitude

(e.g. of attitudes) as well as determinations of the actual strengthof the magnitude

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Type of Scale Numerical Operation Descriptive Statistics

Nominal Counting Frequency in each

category, percentage

in each category,mode

Ordinal Rank Ordering Median, range,

percentile ranking

Interval Arithmetic Operationson Intervals between

numbers

Mean, standarddeviation, variance

Ratio Arithmetic Operations

on actual quantities

Geometric mean,

coefficient of variation9


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Index Measures If a concept is simple, it can be measured easily usually with one

question or observation

Example: To what extent do consumers of Product X like theproducts packaging material? (very much, somewhat, not at all)

If, however, the concept to be measured is complex and abstract, two or

more questions or observations may be required in order to get accurate

data

Example: The level of a salespersons motivation depends on (1)job satisfaction (2) workplace environment (3) family life

Indexes (or composite measures) are meant to deal with the issue

of multidimensionalty (e.g. an index of social class may be the

variables residence, occupation and education)

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Criteria for Good Measurement (1)

Reliability Reliability is the degree to which measurements are

devoid of error and therefore in the position to yield consistent results,

also over repeated attempts over time (ordinal measures always yield

the same order, interval measurements always yield the same order

and same distance between the measured items)

Validity Validity is the ability of a scale or measuring instrument to

measure what it is intended to measure (e.g. is absenteeism from work

a valid measure of job satisfaction or are there other influences like a flu

epidemic which is keeping employees from work)

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Copyright Houghton Mifflin

Company. All rights reserved.

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Validity

The validity of a scale is the extent to

which it is a true reflection of the

underlying variable it is attempting to

measure


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Content Validity

Face validity or content validity is the

extent to which the content of a

measurement scale seems to tap all

relevant facets of an issue that caninfluence respondents attitudes


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Construct Validity

Construct Validity is the nature of the

underlying variable or construct measured

by the scale


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Predictive Validity

Predictive Validity refers to how well the

attitude measure provided by the scale

predicts some other variable or

characteristic


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Reliability

Reliability measures how consistent or

stable the ratings generated by the scale

are likely to be


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Test-Retest Reliability

Test-Retest Reliability measures the

stability of ratings over time and involves

administering the scale to the same group

of respondents at two different times


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Split-Half Reliability

Split-Half Reliability measures the degree

of consistency across items within a scale

and can only be assessed for multiple-item

scales


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Sensitivity

Sensitivity focuses specifically on its

ability to detect subtle differences in the

attitudes being measured


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Criteria for Good Measurement (2)

Sensitivity Sensitivity is the ability of a measurement

instrument to accurately measure variability in stimuli or

responses (e.g. on a scale, the choices very strongly

agree, strongly agree, agree, dont agree offer more

choices than a scale with just two choices - agree and

dont agree and is thus more sensitive)

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Attitude Measuring Attitude is a frequent undertaking in business

research

Attitude may be defined as an enduring disposition toconsistently respond in a given manner to various aspects

Attitude has three dimensions:

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Affective

Component

Cognitive

Component

Behavioural

Component


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Components of Attitude

Affective ComponentReflective of a persons general feelings or

emotions towards an object or subject (like, dislike, love, hate)

Cognitive ComponentReflective of a persons awareness of and

knowledge about an object or subject (know, believe)

Behavioural ComponentReflective of a persons intentions and

behavioural expectations, and predisposition to action

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Measuring Attitude

It can be difficult to measure attitude, therefore, indicators such as

verbal expression, physiological measurement techniques and overt

behaviour are used for this purpose. The three different components

of attitude may require different measuring techniques

Common techniques used in business research to determine

attitude include rating, ranking, sorting and the choice technique

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Rating Techniques to Measure Attitude

Rating Scales are frequently employed in business research formeasuring attitude, and many scales have been developed for thispurpose, including:

1. Simple Attitude Scales2. Category Scales

3. Likert Scale

4. Semantic Differential

5. Numerical Scales

6. Constant-Sum Scale7. Stapel Scale

8. Graphic Scales

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Simple Attitude Scales

In attitude scaling, individuals are typically asked whether they agree

or disagree with a question (or questions) put to them, or they are

asked to respond to a question or questions

Simple attitude scales have the properties of a nominal scale and the

disadvantages that go with it, also, they do not permit fine

distinctions in the respondents answers because their choice of

answers is limited, but they can be useful in instances where the

respondents education level is low and questionnaires lengthy

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Category Scales

A category scale consists of several response categories to provide

the respondent with alternative ratings

Category scales are more sensitive than rating scales which allow

only two answer categories (because of the larger number of

choices), and thus provides more data and information (see text

example)

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The Likert Scale

A likert Scale is a measure of attitudes designed to allow respondents

to indicate how strongly they agree or disagree with carefully

constructed statements that range from very positive to very negative

towards an object or subject

The number of alternatives on the Likert scale can vary, often five

alternatives are foreseen (see text book examples)

A Likert Scale may include a number of question items, each covering

some aspect of the respondents attitude, and these items collectively

form an index 27


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6.

5.

4.

3.

2.

1.

________________________________________

The auction site support

system is confusing

________________________________________

The auction site is not

careful with personal information

________________________________________

The auction site responds

to complaints quickly

________

________

________

Agree

________

________

________

Strongly

Agree

________________________

The auction site commission

is reasonable

________________________

User registration

is complex at this site

________________________

The online auction site

contains an abundance of

exhibits

Neither

Agree nor

Disagree

DisagreeStrongly

Disagree

Likert Scale Items


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The Semantic Differential

The semantic differential is an attitude measuring technique that

which consists of a series of seven bi-polar rating scales which

allow response to a concept (e.g. organization, product, service,

job)

See text book example

An advantage of the semantic differential is its versatility, on the

other hand, it uses extremes which may influence respondents

answers

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Semantic-Differential

Scale Items


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Pictorial Profiles Based on Semantic-Differential

Ratings


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Other Scales

Numerical Scales

Constant-Sum Scals

Stapel Scales

Graphic Rating Scales:Example: Indicate your overall opinion about

eBay by placing a mark at an appropriate position on the line

below.

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-5-5-5-5-5-5

-4-4-4-4-4-4

-3-3-3-3-3-3-2-2-2-2-2-2

-1-1-1-1-1-1

+1+1+1+1+1+1

+2+2+2+2+2+2

+3+3+3+3+3+3+4+4+4+4+4+4

+5+5+5+5+5+5

ConfusingSupport

System

Poor

Protection

of Personal

Information

Good

Response

to Complaints

Low

Commission

Complex

User

Registration

Abundance

of

Exhibits

Stapel Scale


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Measuring Behavioral Intentions

Behavioural intentions relate to will, shall or may questions:

Examples:

I will purchase Product X

I shall change my job from 1st January 2006

I may participate in Training Workshop Z

The Behavioural Differential: This is an instrument for measuring the

behavioural intentions of subjects towards an object or category of

objects. Example:

A Housewife

Would ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ Would Not

Purchase this laundry detergent 34

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attitude Measurement n Scaling