Augustine and Aquinas on Political Authority

7/30/2019 Augustine and Aquinas on Political Authority

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Augustine and Aquinas on Original Sin and the Function of Political

Authority

Weithman, Paul J., 1959-

Journal of the History of Philosophy, Volume 30, Number 3, July 1992,

pp. 353-376 (Article)

Published by The Johns Hopkins University Press

DOI: 10.1353/hph.1992.0058

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August ine and Aquinas onOriginal Sin and the Function of

Political Autho rit,YP A U L J . W E I T H M A N

T HE R ED IS CO VE RY O F A r i s t o t e l i a n m o r a l t h o u g h t i n t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r yi n f l u e n c e d m e d i e v a l p o l i ti c al t h e o r y p r o f o u n d l y . R e c o v e r y o f A r i s t o t le ' s Pol i -tics,' f o r e x a m p l e , m a d e a v a il a b le t o p o l i ti c al t h e o r i s ts o f t h e p e r i o d a n a l y s es o fp o li ti c al i n s t i t ut i o n s t h a t d i f f e r e d s i g n if i c a nt l y f r o m t h o s e t h e y f o u n d i nP a tr i s ti c s o u r c es . D i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n A r i s t o tl e ' s v ie w s a n d t h o s e o f A u g u s t i n ew e r e e s p e c ia l ly s t r ik i n g . T h o m a s A q u i n a s w a s o n e o f t h e f i rs t a n d m o s t i n f lu -e n t ia l o f t h e t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y A r i s t o t e l ia n s . C h a r t i n g t h e m e d i e v a l a s s im i l a-t i o n o f A r i s t o t e l i a n p o l i t i c a l i d e a s a n d t h e r e j e c t i o n o f A u g u s t i n i a n p o l i ti c st h e r e f o r e r e q u i r e s a n a d e q u a t e a c c o u n t o f A q u i n a s ' s o w n p o l it ic al t h o u g h ta n d o f hi s d e p a r t u r e s f r o m p o l i t ic a l A u g u s t i n i a n i s m . "

A numb er of friends, colleagues, and advisors have commented on various drafts o f thisessay. Special thanks go to Sharon Lloyd, Alasdair Maclntyre, R. A. Markus, A. S. McGrade,Michael Pakaluk, John Rawis, Theresa Rice, and Judith Shklar. Thanks are also due to the editorsof theJournal ofth t Histo~ of Philosophy for helpful comments.' On the reception and interpretation of the Politics in the thirteenth and fourteenth centu-ries, see F. Edward Cranz, Aristotelianism in Medieval Political Theory (unpublished Ph.D. disserta-tion, Harva rd University, 1938); Co nor M artin, "S ome Medieval Com menta ries on Aristotle'sPolitics," History 36 0955 ): 2 9-44; Jean Dunbabin, "T he Reception and Interpre tation of Aris-totle's Politics," in Kretzmann et al., eds., Cambridge History of Later Medieval Philosophy (CambridgeUniversity Press, 1982), 723-3 8. On Aquinas's interpretation and reinterpretation of Aristotle,see Harry Jaffa, Thomism and Aristotelianisra (University o f Chicago Press, 1952); also Anth onyCelano "The Concept of Worldly Beatitude in the Writings of Thomas Aquinas," Journal of theHistory of Philosophy 25 ( 1987): 215- 26.9 Th e recov ery of Thom istic politics may be of mo re than historical interest, as recent at-tempts to bring versions of it into contact with contemporary political philosophy suggest. Forsuch attempts, see Jo hn Finnis, Natural Law and Natural Right (Oxford University Press, 198o);also Alasdair Maclntyre, WhoseJustice? Which Rationality? (University of Notre Da me Press, 1988).These attempts obviously raise a number of very important questions, but questions which liebeyond the scope of this paper.


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3 5 4 J O U R N A L O F T H E H I S T O R Y O F P H I L O S O P H Y 3 0 : 3 J U LY ~ 9 9 ~A c c o r d i n g t o m o s t s t a n d a r d w o r k s o n m e d i e v a l p o li ti ca l th e o r y , A u g u s t i n e

a n d A q u i n a s o f f e r v e r y d i f f e r e n t e x p l a n a t i o n s o f p o li ti ca l a u t h o r i t y a n d s u b je c -t i o n .s A u g u s t i n e , i t i s s a i d , t h o u g h t p o l i t i c a l a u t h o r i t y e s s e n t i a l l y c o e r c i v e . H ec o n s i d e r e d s u b j e c t i o n t o a c o e r c i v e p o li ti c al a u t h o r i t y n e c e s s a r y b e c a u s e h et h o u g h t t h a t w i t h o u t r e s t r a in t h u m a n b e i n g s a c ti n g o n t h e i r l us t , a v a ri c e , a n dd e s i r e f o r p o w e r w o u l d m a k e s o c i e t y i n t o l e r a b l e if n o t i m p o s s i b le . A q u i n a s , b yc o n t r a s t , f o u n d i n A r i s t o d e a m o r e p o s i t i v e p o l it ic a l t h e o r y a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c hl i fe i n a w e l l - f u n c t i o n i n g pol l s c o n d u c e s t o h u m a n f l o u r i s h in g . P o l it ic a l a u t h o r -i ty , o n A q u i n a s ' s v i ew , d o e s n o t e x i s t o n l y t o r e s t r a i n t h e v i c io u s a n d a g g r e s -s iv e ; i t a l so h a s t h e p o s i ti v e f u n c t i o n o f le a d i n g h u m a n b e i n g s t o v i r t u e .

S c h o l a rs h a v e l o n g a d d u c e d p a s sa g e s in w h i c h A u g u s t i n e a n d A q u i n a sd i sc u s s p r e l a p s a r i a n a u t h o r i t y in s u p p o r t o f t h is g e n e r a l a n d g e n e r a l l y h e l da c c o u n t .4 A u g u s t i n e ' s t r e a t m e n t o f a u t h o r i t y i n t h e s ta t e o f i n n o c e n c e i s c o n -f i n e d t o a b r i e f p a s s a g e i n T h e C i t y o f G o d. T h e r e h e s e e m s t o as s e rt t h a t t h e r ew o u l d b e n o p o l i ti c a l a u t h o r i t y h a d o r i g i n a l s in n o t b e e n c o m m i t t e d . T h i s i st h e v ie w h e w o u l d b e e x p e c t e d t o e n d o r s e i f h e t h o u g h t t h a t p o li ti ca l a u t h o r i tyis e x e r c i s e d o n l y t o c o e r c e a n d r e s t r a i n t h e v i c i o us , s i n c e t h e r e w o u l d b e n ov i ce if t h e r e w e r e n o s in . A q u i n a s , l ik e o t h e r S c h o la s ti c s, t r e a t e d t h e q u e s t i o no f p r e l a p s a r ia n r u l e a t s o m e w h a t g r e a t e r l e n g th t h a n d i d A u g u s t i n e . H e f ir stt o o k it u p i n hi s c o m m e n t a r y o n t h e S e n t e n c e s o f P e t e r L o m b a r d ; h e r e t u r n e dt o i t y e a r s l a t e r i n t h e P r i m a P a r s o f h i s S u m m a T h e o l o g i a e . B e c a us e h e t h o u g h tt h a t p o l it ic a l a u t h o r i t y m a k e s a p o s i t iv e c o n t r i b u t i o n t o a li f e o f v i r t u e , h ea r g u e d t h a t it w o u l d h a v e b e e n f o u n d h a d t h e Fa ll n o t o c c u r r e d .

T h e s e p a s s a g es o n p r e l a p s a r i a n a u t h o r i t y a r e o f t e n e m p l o y e d o n l y asp r o o f - t e x t s to e s ta b l i sh t h a t t h e t w o t h i n k e r s d i f f e r . B u t t h e i r analys i s c a n a l s ob e e x p e c t e d t o s h o w e x a c tl y h o w A u g u s t i n e a n d A q u i n a s d i f f e r b y s h o w i n ge x a c t ly w h a t f u n c t i o n s e a c h d e e m s e s s e n t ia l to p o l it i ca l a u t h o r i t y . A f t e r t h eF a ll i t i s d i f f i c u l t to d i s t i n g u i s h f u n c t i o n s t h a t h a v e a c c r u e d t o p o l it i c a l a u t h o r -i ty a s a r e s u l t o f h u m a n s i n f u l n e s s f r o m t h o s e t h a t A q u i n a s t h i n k s a r e e s s e n ti a lt o it. I n t h e s t a t e o f i n n o c e n c e a s A q u i n a s d e s c r i b e s it , h o w e v e r , f u n c t i o n s h e

s For this contrast, see A. P. d'Entreves, The Medieval Contribution to P olitical Tho ugh ( T heHumanities Press, 195 9), a4; O tto Gierke, Political T~ories o ft~e M iddle Age (Cambridge Univer-s i ty P ress , 1987) , 145, note 137; Alan Gewir th, Marsilius of Padua: Defeasor Pat/s, Volume x(Columbia Universi ty Press, 1951), 85 an d note 3.4 For the claim that Augustine locates the origins of poli t ical authority in the consequences ofthe Fall, see J.N . Figgis, The P olitical Aspects of St. Augu stine's "C@ of God" (Longmans, Green andCo., 19~,), 6~-63; Norman Baynes, The Political Ideas of St. Augustine's "De Ci~ita~ D eC' (TheHistorical Association, 1968), 6-7 ; He rbert Deane, The Political and Social Ideas of St. Augustine(Columbia University Press, ,963), 39; Dino Bigongiari, "The Political Ideas of St. Augustine,"Essays "on Dan te and Med ieval Cultur e (Biblioteca dell "Archivum R oma nicum," 1964), 94- For theclaim that Aquinas does not locate its origins in hu man sinfulness, see Bigong iari, "T he PoliticalIdeas of St. Thom as A quinas," in op. ci t. x ao .


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A U G U S T I N E A N D A Q U I N A S O N O R I G I N A L S I N 3 5 5t h i n k s c o n s e q u e n t o n s i n w o u l d , e x hypothesi , be a b s e nt ; o n l y th o s e h e d e e m se s s e n ti a l w o u l d b e e x e r c i s e d . H i s d i s c u s s i o n o f p r e l a p s a r i a n a u t h o r i t y is t h e r e -f o r e c r uc i a l f o r d e t e r m i n i n g h is c o n c e p t i o n o f p ol it ic a l a u t h o r i t y a n d h e n c ef o r lo c a t in g h is d e p a r t u r e f r o m A u g u s t i n e . I n s o f a r a s t h a t c o n c e p t i o n r e fl e c tsA q u i n a s ' s A r i s t o t e l i a n i s m , a n a l y s i s o f h i s d i s c u s s i o n w i l l a l s o r e v e a l w h a t r e -s o u r c e s r e c o v e r y o f t h e E t h i c s a n d Pol i t ics m a d e a v a il ab l e t o h i m a n d w h a t u s eh e m a d e o f th o s e r e s o u r c e s t o e f f e c t a b r e a k w i t h A u g u s t i n e ' s p o l it ic a lt h o u g h t .

T h e f u n d a m e n t a l d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e t w o t h i n k e r s l ie s, I w i ll a r g u e , i nt h e d i f f e r e n t v a l u e s e a c h a s c ri b es t o c i ti z en s ' a t t a c h m e n t t o t h e c o m m o n g o o d .A c c o r d i n g t o A q u i n a s , a t t a c h m e n t t o t h e c o m m o n g o o d o f p ol it ic a l s o c ie t y isp a r t o f t h e v i r t u e o f l e g al j u s ti c e , t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t o f t h e n o n t h e o l o g i c a lv i r tu e s . S u c h a t t a c h m e n t is t h e r e f o r e a n e s s e n ti a l p a r t o f a w e ll -l iv e d h u m a nl if e. A q u i n a s t h i n k s t h a t p o s s e s s i o n a n d e x e r c i s e o f l e g al j u s t i c e m a k e s a v a i l a b l ea n o t h e r c e n t r a l f e a t u r e o f t h e g o o d l i fe : p a r ti c i p a t i o n i n t h e c iv i c f r i e n d s h i pt h a t g r ow s o u t o f co l le c ti v e p u r s u i t o f a c o m m o n g o o d . F o s t e r i n g a t t a c h m e n t t ot h e c o m m o n g o o d is t h e r e f o r e a m o n g t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t c o n t r ib u t io n sA q u i n a s t h i n k s p o l i t ic a l a u t h o r i t y m a k e s t o a l if e o f v i r tu e ; i n t h is h e d e p a r t ss ig n if ic a n tl y f r o m A u g u s t i n e . A u g u s t i n e d e n i e s t h a t a t t a c h m e n t t o t h e c o m m o ng o o d s o f po l it ic a l s o c i e t y - - e a r t h l y p e a c e a n d n a t i o n a l g l o r y - - a r e v i r t u e s at a ll5a n d h e d e n i e s t h a t m e a n i n g f u l t ie s o f f r i e n d s h i p c a n d e v e l o p i n po l it ic a l s o c i e ty .T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n A u g u s t i n e a n d A q u i n a s p o i n t st o im p o r t a n t c h a n g e s i n th e n o t i o n s o f ci vi c v i r tu e a n d t h e c o m m o n g o o d , a n dt h u s t o t h e c o n c e p t u a l c h a n g e s p o l i ti c a l A r i s t o t e li a n i s m o c c a s i o n e d . I t is a l so , Iw ill a r g u e , b a s e d u p o n a m o r e f a i t h f u l r e a d i n g o f t h e p a s s ag e s i n w h i c h t h e t w ot h i n k e r s d is c us s p r e l a p s a r i a n a u t h o r i t y t h a n o t h e r i n t e r p r e t e r s p r o p o s e . L e t m eb e g i n m y a r g u m e n t b y p r e s e n t i n g A u g u s t i n e ' s v ie w s.

2 .

A u g u s t i n e n e v e r w r o t e a b o o k o r a t r e a ti s e d e v o t e d e x c l u s iv e l y t o p o li ti c a lt h e o r y . R e m a r k s a b o u t p o l i t ic s c a n b e f o u n d i n a n u m b e r o f hi s w o r k s , b u t t h ed i f f e r e n t c o n c e r n s t h a t g a v e r i s e to t h o s e w o r k s , t h e d i f f e r e n t v ie w s e x -p r e s s e d 6 a n d t h e s p a n o f t i m e o v e r w h i c h t h e y w e r e w r i t te n m a k e v i rt u a ll y

5 Aug ustinemakes an exception to this claim for Christ ian emperors, fo r who m this at tach-men t is virtuous, " if they p ut their power at th e service of God's majesty": City of God, V, ~4-Than ks to A lasdair Maclntyre f or rem inding me of the significance of this passage.References throu gho ut are to the corpva Christianorum,Series Latina; I have also relied up onCity of God (Penguin Books, 1972 trans. Bettenson.r As on the question o f whether heres y ought to be suppressed by poli tical authority. T hebest treatmen t o f this issu e is Peter Brown, "St. Augustine's A tt itude to Religious Coercion,"Journal of Roman Stud.s 54 (1964): 107- -16"


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3 5 6 J O U R N A L O F T H E H I S T O R Y O F P H I L O S O P H Y 3 0 : 3 J U L Y X 9 9 ai m p o s s i b l e t h e i s o l a t i o n o f a p ol it ic a l t h e o r y w h i c h c o u l d b e d e s c r i b e d a s A u -g u s t i n e' s c o n s i d e r e d v i e w : E v e n T h e C /ty o f G o d , t h e r i c h e s t s o u r c e o f p o l i ti c a lm a t e r i a l in A u g u s t i n e ' s c o r p u s , w a s c o m p o s e d o v e r a p c ri o c l o f t w e n t y y e a r sa n d a d d r e s s e s a g r e a t v a r i e t y o f i ss u es . T h e ~ c ~ s l/ c us o f A u g u s t i n e ' s v ie w so n s i n a n d p o l it i ca l a u t h o r i t y , h o w e v e r , is B o o k X I X o f t h a t w o r k , e s p e c ia l l yC h a p t e r s 1 4 a n d 1 5 ; i t i s t o th e s e t h a t r e a d e r s u s u a l l y t u r n t o s u b s t a n ti a t ed i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n A u g u s t i n e a n d A q u i n a s. I s ha ll t h e r e f o r e c o n c e n t r a t e o nt h e v ie w s t h a t A u g u s t i n e p u t s f o r w a r d t h e r e .

I n t h e o p e n i n g s e n t e n c e s o f C h a p t e r 1 5 o f B o o k X I X , A u g u s t i n e a s s er tst h a t s e r v it u d e i s a c o n d i t i o n o r i n s ti tu t io n n o t f o u n d i n " t h e o r d e r o f n a t u r e "i n w h i ch G o d c r e a t e d m a n . G o d , A u g u s t i n e w r i te s , i n t e n d e d h u m a n b e i n g s t oe x e r c is e d o m i n i o n o r d o m i n i u r a o n l y o v e r i rr a t io n a l c r e a t u r e s , a n d n o t o v e ro t h e r h u m a n b e i n g s; h e q u o t e s G e n e s i s 1 : 2 6 a s e v i d e n c e o f G o d ' s i n t e n t io n . '" T h e f ir st j u s t m e n , " h e c o n t i n u e s , w e r e th e r e f o r e s h e p h e r d s r a t h e r t h a nk i n gs ; s l a v e ry , A u g u s t i n e s a ys i m m e d i a t e l y , e n t e r e d t h e w o r l d a s a re s u l t o fs i n .

I t is i m p o r t a n t t o s ee j u s t w h a t t h e se b r i e f r e m a r k s i n C h a p t e r 1 5 a r eu s u al ly t a k e n t o a ss e rt . A u g u s t i n e t h o u g h t t h a t h u m a n b e i n g s w o u l d h a v el iv e d a s o c ia l l i fe e v e n h a d t h e F a ll n e v e r o c c u r r e d . H e d o e s n o t d e n y t h a ts o m e e x e r c i s e o f a u t h o r i t y w o u l d h a v e b e e n n e c e s s a ry i n a s t a te o f i n n o c e n c e .B u t A u g u s t i n e ' s r e m a r k s i n C h a p t e r 1 5 a r e g e n e r a l l y t a k e n t o i n d i c a t e h i sb e l i e f t h a t s u b j e c t i o n t o p o l i t i c a l a u t h o r i t y a s w e l l a s t h e s u b j e c t i o n o f s l a v er yw e r e i n s ti t u te d a s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f h u m a n s in f u ln e s s. W h a t a u t h o r i t y w o u l dh a v e b e e n e x e r c i s e d i n a s ta t e o f i n n o c e n c e w o u l d , A u g u s t i n e is t h o u g h t t oh a v e sa id , h a v e b e e n p a t e r n a l a u t h o r i t y l i ke t h a t t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t p a t r i a rc ho r R o m a n p a t e r f a m i l i a s e x e r c i s e d o v e r h is w if e a n d c h i l d r e n . I t w o u l d n o t h a v eb e e n t h e p o l i t ic a l a u t h o r i t y a k i n g e x e r c i s e s o v e r h i s s u b j e c ts . 9

C h a p t e r 1 5 is c l e a r e n o u g h a b o u t t h e o r i g i n s o f s l a v e r y b u t i t c o n t a i n s n oe x p l i ci t a s s e r t i o n t h a t p o l i t ic a l a u t h o r i t y w a s e s t a b l is h e d o n l y a s a c o n s e q u e n c eo f si n; i n d e e d t h e c o n t r a s t d r a w n i n p a ss i ng b e t w e e n s h e p h e r d s a n d k i ng s ist h e c h a p t e r ' s o n l y m e n t i o n o f p o l it ic a l a u t h o r i ty . I t m i g h t t h e r e f o r e s e e mq u e s t io n a b l e w h e t h e r t h e c o n c l u s io n s A u g u s t i n e r e a c h e s a b o u t s l av e r y i nC h a p t e r ~5 a p p l y t o p o l i t ic a l s u b j e c t i o n a s w e ll .

On th e unsy stematic character o f Augustine's political philosophy , see Baynes, The PoliticalIdeas of S t . August ine ' s "De Civitatr De/," 3, 15; Brown, "S t. Aug ustine," in Smalley, ed., Trends inMedieval Pol i t ical Thought (Barnes and Noble, 1965), 1 Deane, The Social and Pol i t ical Ideas of S i .August ine, vii-viii; Figgis, The Pol i t ical Aspects of S t . August ine ' s " 'The Ci ty o f Go d," 7- 8 .' "Hoe naturalis or do praescribit, ira De us hom inem condidit. Nam : 'Dominetur', inquit,'piscium maris et volatil ium caeli et omnium repentium, que re pu nt su per terram '." The RevisedStandard Version translates the q uoted verse: "[A]nd let them have dominion over the fish of thesea and ov er the birds of the air , [ . . .] and o ver every creeping thing th at creeps upon the earth."9 For this interpretat ion, see the sources cited above in note 3.


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A U G U S T IN E A N D A Q U IN A S O N O R IG IN A L S IN 357B u t R . A . M a r k u s , w h o h a s w r i t t e n t h e m o s t p e n e t r a t i n g s t u d y o f p as s a g e s

i n w h i c h A u g u s t i n e a n d A q u i n a s d i sc u s s p r e l a p s a r i a n a u t h o r i t y , ' ~ c it es t h r e er e a s o n s f o r t h i n k i n g t h a t t h e y d o . F i r st , h e a r g u e s , " i n t h e a b s e n c e o f p o s it iv eg r o u n d s f o r e x c e p t i n g p o l it ic a l a u t h o r i t y , t h e m o s t n a t u r a l w a y o f r e a d i n gw h a t A u g u s t i n e s a y s a b o u t t h e s u b j e c t i o n o f m a n t o m a n i s t o t a k e i t q u i t eg e n e r a l ly , i n c l u d i n g w i t h in i t s s c o p e t h e s u b j e c ti o n o f m e n t o t h e i r r u l e r s . " "S e c o n d , M a r k u s p o i n t s t o A u g u s t i n e ' s q u o t a t i o n o f G e n e s is i n th i s c h a p t e r . I nt h a t v e r s e , G o d g i v e s h u m a n b e i n g s d o m i n i o n o v e r b i r d s , f i s h , a n d r e p t i l e s .A u g u s t i n e q u o t e s i t t o u n d e r l i n e t h e f a c t t h a t G o d d i d n o t g i ve s o m e h u m a nb e i n gs d o m i n i o n o v e r o t h e r s . M a r k u s a r g u e s t h a t t h e j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f t h i sq u o t a t i o n w i th A u g u s t i n e ' s c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n s h e p h e r d s a n d k i n g s i m p l ie s t h a tA u g u s t i n e i n t e n d e d h is r e m a r k s a b o u t t h e o r i g i n o f s la v e r y t o a p p l y to p o l it i-c a l a u t h o r i t y a s w e l l . ', F i n a l ly , M a r k u s d r a w s o n a l e n g t h y d i sc u s s io n o f d o m i n -i o n in A u g u s t i n e ' s c o m m e n t a r y o n P s a l m 12 4 t o a r g u e t h a t " s l a v e r y a n d o t h e ri n st i tu t io n s o f h u m a n s u b j e c t io n a r e n o t f u n d a m e n t a l l y d i s ti n g u i s h e d i n A u -g u s t i n e ' s m i n d . " ' s

M a r k u s' s th i r d a r g u m e n t e x p l a i n s i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e s o f C h a p t e r 15 a n d i nd o i n g s o s u p p o r t s i ts t r a d i ti o n a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . F o r o n e t h i n g , t h e e l is io n o fs la v e ry a n d p o li ti c al s u b j e c ti o n s h o w s w h y A u g u s t i n e m a d e w h a t m i g h t o t h e r -w i s e s e e m a n i r r e l e v a n t a l l u s io n t o k i n g s h i p i n t h e m i d d l e o f h i s d i s c u s s io n o fs l a ve ry . I t a ls o e n t a il s t h a t A u g u s t i n e ' s r e m a rk s a b o u t t h e o r i g i n s o f s l a v e rya p p l y t o p o li ti c al a u t h o r i t y a s w el l, a n d p r o v i d e s m o r e c o n c l u s i ve g r o u n d s f o rt h a t c l a im t h a n d o M a r k u s ' s o t h e r t w o a r g u m e n t s . B e c a u s e o f t h e w e i g h t it b e a rsa n d b e c a u s e i t p u r p o r t s t o e x p l a i n t h e t e x t in w h i c h A u g u s t i n e d i s e us s es t h eo r i g in s o f po l it ic a l a u t h o r i t y , I w a n t t o e x a m i n e t h e a r g u m e n t m o r e c l os e ly .

T h a t t h e r e is n o f u n d a m e n t a l d i s ti n c t io n b e t w e e n s la v e r y a n d s u b j e c ti o n top o li ti ca l a u t h o r i t y s e e m s h i g h l y i m p l a u s ib l e a n d a p o s i t io n t h a t o u g h t n o t t o b ea s c r ib e d t o A u g u s t i n e . O n l y t h e m o s t t y r a n n i c a l r e g i m e s s u b j e c t t h e i r p e o p l et o a c o n d i t i o n t h a t c a n p l a u s i b l y b e d e s c r i b e d a s s l a v e ry ; A u g u s t i n e ' s s t u d y o fh i s t o r y s h o u l d h a v e t a u g h t h i m a s m u c h . B u t M a r k u s r i g h t l y p o i n t s o u t t h a tA u g u s t i n e d i s t i n g u i s h e s t h e i n s t i t u t i o n o f a u t h o r i t y , w h i c h i s t h e s u b j e c t o fC h a p t e r 1 5, f r o m t h e w a y i n w h i c h a u t h o r i t y i s e x e r c i s e d , w h i c h is t h e s u b j e c to f th e p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r . T h u s A u g u s t i n e i m p l ie s , in C h a p t e r 14 o f B o o k

' ~ A . M a r k u s , " T w o C o n c e p t i o n s o f P o l it i ca l A u t h o r i t y : A u g u s t i n e , De Cimtazt Dei , X I X .1 4 - 1 5 , a n d S o m e T h i r t e e n t h - C e n t u r y I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s ," Journal of Thtological Studies , N e w S e r i e s1 6 ( 1 96 5 ): 6 8 - l o t . T h i s e s s a y a p p e a r s , b i f u r c a t e d , a s t w o a p p e n d i c e s t o M a r k u s ' s Saeculum ( C a m -b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 8 8 ) , 1 9 7 - ~ i t a n d a I l - S o .

'~ M a r k u s , " T w o C o n c e p t i o n s o f P o l i t ic a l A u t h o r i t y , " 7 a ." M a r k u s , " T w o C o n c e p t i o n s o f P o li ti c al A u t h o r i ty , " 7 a .~s M a r k u s , " T w o C o n c e p t i o n s o f P o l i ti c a l A u t h o r i t y , " 7 2 - 7 3 ; M a r k u s r e f e r s t o Enarrcaionts inPsalmos t ~ 4 , 7 - 8 .


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3 5 8 J O U R N A L O F T H E H I S T O R Y O F P H I L O S O P H Y 3 0 : 3 J U L Y I 9 9 2X I X , t h a t p a t e r n a l a u t h o r i t y c a n b e e x e r c i s e d e it h e r c r u e l l y o r f o r t h e b e n e f i to f t h o s e in o n e ' s c a r e ; t h e s a m e a p p l i e s t o p o li ti c al a u t h o r i t y o r a u t h o r i t y o v e rs la v es . T h e c l a im t h a t A u g u s t i n e d o e s n o t d i s t in g u i s h s l a v e r y f r o m p o li ti c ala u t h o r i t y t h e r e f o r e d o e s n o t i m p l y t h a t A u g u s t i n e t h i n k s p o l i ti c a l a u t h o r i t y a sr e p r e s s i v e a s s l a v e r y o f t e n is .

M o r e o v e r , A u g u s t i n e ' s c o m m e n t a r y o n P s a lm 1 , 4 c o m p o r t s w e ll w it ho t h e r r e m a r k s o f hi s i n C h a p t e r 1 5 o f The C i ty o f God , B o o k X I X . I n t h ep a r a g r a p h s o f h is c o m m e n t a r y t o w h i c h M a r k u s r e f e rs , A u g u s t i n e t a k e s u pt h e q u e s t io n o f w h y t h e g o o d a r e o f t e n s u b j e c t t o t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e b a d . H ee m p h a s i z e s t h a t e a r t h l y a u t h o r i t y s h o u l d b e o b e y e d f o r t h e s a k e o f h e a v e n lya n d t h a t r e n d e r i n g s e r v i c e t o m a s t e r s o f s la v e s a n d t o p o li ti c a l a u t h o r i t y f o s-t e r s h u m i l i ty . B o t h f o r m s o f s u b j e c t io n , h e a r g u e s , t h e r e b y p r e p a r e t h e g o o d" to p o s s e s s [ th e i r] e t e r n a l i n h e r it a n c e . "' 4 B o t h a r e t e a c h e r s o f h u m i l i ty , b o t hr e l y o n c o e r c i o n o r t h e t h r e a t o f it , a n d b o t h a r e n e e d e d o n l y a s a r e s u l t o fo r i g in a l s in , b e c a u s e o f w h i c h h u m a n b e i n g s n e e d t o b e t a u g h t h u m i l i t y .' sT h u s t h e c o m m e n t a r y d o e s in d e e d s u g g e s t t h a t t h e r e a r e i m p o r t a n t r e s p e c tsi n w h i c h A u g u s t i n e t h i n k s t h e t w o f o r m s o f s u b j e c t i o n s i m il a r. T h e c o m m e n -t a ry ' s e m p h a s i s o n s a l u t o r y h u m i l it y i s e c h o e d i n t h e r e l e v a n t p a s s a g e s o f T heCi ty o f God w h e r e A u g u s t i n e s t r es s e s th a t s l a v e ry w a s i n s t i tu t e d b y G o d a s ad i s ci p li n e t o h u m b l e t h o s e s u b j e c t e d t o it. T h i s s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e c o n c e p t i o n o fp o li ti c al a u t h o r i t y a t w o r k i n A u g u s t i n e ' s c o m m e n t a r y o n P s a l m 1 ~ 4 is a l s o a tw o r k in C h a p t e r 1 5, B o o k X I X o f The C i ty o f God . T h i s c o n c e p t i o n , t a k e nt o g e t h e r w i th A u g u s t i n e 's r e m a r k s a b o u t s l av e ry , d o e s i n d e e d s u p p o r t t h et r a d it i o n a l r e a d i n g o f A u g u s t i n e o n t h e o r i g i n s o f p ol it ic a l a u t h o r i t y .

M a r k u s 's r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f A u g u s t in e ' s a r g u m e n t d e p e n d s c r uc ia l ly u p o nt h e s i m i la r it ie s A u g u s t i n e s e e s b e t w e e n s l a v e ry a n d p o l it ic a l s u b j e c t i o n a n d ,t h e r e f o r e , o n t h e i m p o r t a n c e A u g u s t i n e a t t a c h e s t o p o l i t i c a l a u t h o r i t y ' s p u n i -t iv e a n d d i s c i p li n a r y f u n c t i o n s . B u t A u g u s t i n e a s c r i b e s a n o t h e r f u n c t i o n t op o l i t i c a l a u t h o r i t y , o n e w h i c h p o l i t i c a l a u t h o r i t y d o e s n o t s h a r e w i t h t h e m a s -t e r s h i p o f s la v e s. A n d h e h a s a v a i la b l e to h i m a n a r g u m e n t t h a t i t t o o h a s it so r ig i ns i n th e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f th e F all. T h a t f u n c t i o n - - o f w h i c h M a r k u s t a k e sn o a c c o u n t w i s t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f w h a t A u g u s t i n e c a l ls " e a r t h l y p e a c e " i n ag e o g r a p h i c a l t e r r i t o r y o v e r w h i c h t h a t a u t h o r i t y e x e r c i s e s s u p r e m e p o w e r . ~6

T h e e a r t h l y p e a c e w h i c h p o l i t i c a l a u t h o r i t y e x i s t s t o s e c u r e i s "a c o m p r o -m i s e b e t w e e n h u m a n w i ll s i n r e s p e c t o f th e p r o v i s i o n s r e l e v a n t t o t h e m o r t a ln a t u r e o f m an ." ~7 A m o n g t h e w a y s i n w h i c h it d i f f e r s f r o m t r u e p e a c e , A u g u s -

~4"ad possidendam sempiternam haereditatem," Ennarationes l ~4, 8.,5 The hum bling function of political subjection s also stressed at Brow n, "St. Augustine," 5.,6 See also Geo rge J. Lave re, "The P roblem of the Comm on Good in Sa int Augustine's CivitasTerrena," Augu stinian Studies 14 0983): 6.', C ity of God, XIX , 17.


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A U G U S T I N E A N D A Q U I N A S O N O R I G I N A L S I N 359t i n e in s is ts , is i n t h e s e c u r i t y a n d f e l l o w s h i p t h e l a t t e r p r o v i d e s . T h e c o n d i t i o no f e a r th l y p e a c e is m a r k e d b y t r e a c h e r y a n d t h e e v e r - p r e s e n t d a n g e r o f c iv ila n d d o m e s t i c s t r i f e . ' s P o l it i ca l a u t h o r i t y i s a r e g r e t t a b l e n e c e s s it y ., 9 I t e m p l o y sc o e r c i v e m e t h o d s t o i n s u r e t h e l a c k o f o v e r t h o s t il i ty n e c e s s a r y s o t h a t a l l c a nh a v e a c c e ss t o t h e m a t e r i a l n e c e s s i ti e s ; it c a n n o t b e s u r e o f s e c u r i n g b e t t e rc o n d i t i o n s t h a n t h e s e n o r c a n i t r e l i a b l y l e a d i t s s u b j e c t s t o v i r t u e .

A u g u s t i n e w o u l d a r g u e t h a t t h is s e c o n d f u n c t i o n o f p ol it ic a l a u t h o r i t y , l ik et h e f i r s t , w o u l d n o t b e e x e r c i s e d h a d t h e F a l l n e v e r o c c u r r e d . P o l i t i c a l a u t h o r -i ty e x i s ts t o e s t a b l i s h e a r t h l y p e a c e b e c a u s e e a r t h l y p e a c e i s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h eb e s t li f e h u m a n b e i n g s c a n l iv e a f t e r t h e F a ll . B u t i f o r i g i n a l s i n h a d n o t b e e nc o m m i t t e d , c o n d i t i o n s o f tr u e p e a c e w o u l d h a v e p r e v a i l e d w h i c h f a r s u p e r -c e d e e a r t h l y p e a c e ~ i n t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s t h e y a f f o r d t o c ul ti v a te f r i e n d s h i p sa n d e x e r c i s e t h e v i r t u e s . A f a r b e t t e r l i f e, a li f e o f w h a t A u g u s t i n e c o n s i d e r sg e n u i n e v i r tu e , w o u l d h a v e b e e n p o s s ib l e . T h e q u a li f ie s o f c h a r a c t e r d e v e l -o p e d a n d e x e r c i s e d i n p u r s u i t o f e a r t h l y p e a c e a r e n o t , t h e r e f o r e , q u a l i ti e st h a t s in le s s p e o p l e w o u l d p o s s e ss . T h i s i s c o n f i r m e d b y A u g u s t i n e ' s a t t a c k o nt h e h e r o e s o f t h e R o m a n r e p u b l i c . I t is c r u c i a l t o t h i s a t t a c k t h a t t h e v i r t u e s ,l ik e c o u r a g e a n d s e l f -r e s t ra i n t , w h i c h p u r s u i t o f e a r t h l y p e a c e s e e m e d t o e li ci ti n th e R o m a n s w e r e r e a l ly f o r m s o f si nf u l p r id e . " T h e y t h e r e f o r e w o u l d n o tb e d e v e l o p e d a n d e x e r c i s e d h a d t h e F a l l n o t o c c u r r e d .

A u g u s t i n e d o e s n o t i n d i c a t e w h i c h o f t h e t w o f u n c t i o n s o f p o li ti c al a u t h o r -i ty h e t h i n k s t h e m o r e e s s e n t i a l. N o d o u b t t h e t w o w e r e c l o s e ly l i n k e d i n h i sm i n d , f o r th e l a w a n d t h e p e n a l t i e s b y w h i c h p o l it ic a l a u t h o r i t y h u m b l e s a n dd i sc i p li n e s t h o s e s u b j e c t to i t a r e m e a s u r e s t a k e n t o s e c u r e e a r t h l y p e a c e . T h ei m p o r t a n c e o f n o t i n g t h is s e c o n d f u n c t i o n i s t h a t i t s h o w s w h a t is a t t h e h e a r to f A u g u s t i n e ' s c r i t i q u e o f p o l i t i c s . A u g u s t i n e l o c a t e s t h e o r i g i n s o f p o l i t i c a la u t h o r i t y i n t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f si n b e c a u s e h e t h i n k s th a t t h e m o r a l i m p r o v e -m e n t t o w h i ch p o l i ti c a l su b j e c t i o n c o n d u c e s is e i th e r r e m e d i a l o r i ll u so r y . T h ef i ln c t io n o f p o li ti c a l a u t h o r i t y o n w h i c h M a r k u s f o c u s e s p r o d u c e s g e n u i n em o r a l i m p r o v e m e n t , b u t it is i m p r o v e m e n t t h a t o n ly th o s e p r o n e t o p r i d er e q u i r e . T h e s e c o n d f u n c t i o n a i m s a t a n e n d p u r s u i t o f w h i c h d o e s n o t e li c itg e n u i n e l y v i r t u o u s b e h a v i o r a t a l l. R e c o g n i z i n g t h is c r i ti q u e o f t h e m o r a l l yi m p r o v i n g f u n c t i o n s o f p o li ti c s s u g g e s t s a v e r y d i f f e r e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o fA q u i na s 's d e p a r t u r e f r o m A u g u s t i n e t h a n t h e o n e M a r k u s d e f e n d s .

T h e p r o b l e m w i t h M a r k u s ' s r e a d i n g i s t h a t it o b s c u r e s i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r -e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e w a y s i n w h i c h A u g u s t i n e a n d A q u i n a s t h i n k p o l it ic a l s u b -

,s City of G od, XIX, 5; see also William Riordan O 'Con nor " The Uti/Frui Distinction in Augus-tine's Ethics," Aug~ tinian Studies 14 (1983): 59-

~gCL City of God XIX, 6.9*Cf. Cityo]'God XIV, IO."' See C ~ o f G o d V, 12 and i S.


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3 6 0 J O U R N A L O F T H E H I S T O R Y O F P H I L O S O P H Y 3 o : 3 J U LY t 9 9 2j e c t i o n m o r a l l y i m p r o v i n g . F o r A u g u s t i n e , p o l i ti c al s u b j e c t i o n i m p r o v e s b yh u m b l i n g a n d d i s ci p li n in g ; o t h e r q u a l it ie s th a t p u r s u i t o f th e c o m m o n g o o dr e q u i r e s a r e n o t t r u e v i r t u e s . F o r A q u i n a s , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , p o l it ic a l a u -t h o r i t y g e n u i n e l y i m p r o v e s t h o s e s u b j e c t to it b y f o s t e r i n g i n t h e m a c o n c e r nf o r th e c o m m o n g o o d o f p o l it ic a l s o ci et y . T h e i m p r o v e m e n t is n o t m e r e l y ar e m e d y f o r s in ; t h is f u n c t i o n o f p o l it ic a l a u t h o r i t y w o u l d , A q u i n a s s a ys , h a v eb e e n e x e r c i se d e v e n h a d o r i g i n a l s in n o t b e e n c o m m i t t e d . T h e m o s t p r o -f o u n d d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n A u g u s t i n e a n d A q u i n a s is t h e r e f o r e i n th e v a l u ee a c h a t t a c h e s t o a c i ti z e n 's c o n c e r n f o r t h e c o m m o n g o o d o f p o li ti c a l s o c ie t y .This w a y o f c a s ti n g t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e t w o t a k es s e r i o u s ly t h e s e c o n da s w el l a s t h e f i r st o f t h e t w o f u n c t i o n s A u g u s t i n e a s c r ib e s t o p o l i ti c a l a u t h o r -i ty . It a l s o , I w il l a r g u e , f it s m u c h b e t t e r w i t h A q u i n a s ' s d i s c u s s i o n o f t h ec o n d i t i o n s o f a s ta te o f i n n o c e n c e t h a n d o e s M a r k u s 's a c c o u n t .

.

A q u i n a s f ir s t b r o a c h e s t h e i s su e o f r u l e i n t h e s t a te o f i n n o c e n c e i n h is c o m -m e n t a r y o n B o o k I I , d is t in c t i o n 4 4 o f P e t e r L o m b a r d ' s Sen tences . " T h e q u e s -t io n A q u i n a s p o s e s - - " U t r u m i n s ta t u i n n o c e n t i a e f u is s e t d o m i n i u m " - - i s n o ta b o u t w h a t A d a m a n d E v e d i d i n t h e g a r d e n o f E d e n b e f o r e t h e i r c o m m i s s i o no f o ri g in a l s in , b u t a b o u t w h a t p o w e r (domin ium) w o u l d h a v e b e e n e x e r c i s e d , i nE d e n a n d e l s e w h e r e , i f o r i g i n a l si n h a d n e v e r b e e n c o m m i t t e d a n d i n n o c e n t sh a d m u l t i p l i e d t o p e o p l e t h e e a r t h . '~

A q u i n a s b e g i n s h i s a n s w e r b y d i st i n g u is h i n g t w o f o r m s o r m o d e s o f ru l i n g .T h e f i r st , h e s a ys , is " o r d e r e d t o g o v e r n i n g " ( a d regimen ordinatus) a n d t h es e c o n d is " f o r th e s a k e o f d o m i n a t i o n " ( ad dominanclura). A q u i n a s i m m e d i a t e l ye q u a t e s t h e s e c o n d m o d e o f r u l i n g w i t h th a t e x e r c is e d b y a m a s t e r o v e r h i ss la v es . I n o r d e r t o e l u c i d a t e t h i s s e c o n d m o d e a n d d i s t i n g u i s h i t f r o m t h e f ir s t,h e i n t r o d u c e s a c o m p a r i s o n w i t h p o l it ic a l r u l e , s a y i n g t h a t " t h e r u l e o f am a s t e r o v e r s l a ve s is li k e t h a t o f a t y r a n t o v e r h i s s u b j ec t s , as t h e P h i l o s o p h e rs a ys i n th e e i g h t h b o o k o f t h e Ethics ." .4 T h e r u l e o f a t y r a n t d i f fe r s f r o m t h a to f a k i n g , A q u i n a s s a ys , i n t h a t a k i n g o r d e r s h i s r u l e f o r t h e g o o d o f t h o s e

"' Thom as A quinas, Scripture Sup er Libros Senl~atmrum in Opera Omnia (Parma Edition), vol-ume 6. All subsequent re ference s to and quotations from A quinas's work will be to and from thisedition.9 Thu s Aquinas usesfuisset, the pluperfect subjunctive, ra ther than the pe r fect or pluperfectindicative. I t seem s to have been standard to address the issue of power and original sin coun-terfactually, for Bonaventure in his own Sentence commentary uses the same form of the verbwhen he says that there w ould have been n o power o f one person ov er anothe r had original sinnot been com mitted: "Si enim hom o stetisset [ . . .] ." See Bonaventure, Opera Omnia (LudovicusVives, 1864), volum e 3-,4 "Domini autem ad servum, ut in 8 EthicorumPhilosophu s dicit, est praelatio sicut tyra nni adsubditum" (my translation).


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A U G U S T I N E A N D A Q U I N A S O N O R I G I N A L S I N 3 6 1subject to it while a tyrant or de rs his rule for his own good. Ther efor e,Aquinas concludes, the difference between the two modes of rule is that thefirst aims at the good of those ru led; the second aims primarily at the good ofthe r uler and benefits those subject to it only incidentally.

With his opening distinction thus elucidated, Aquinas proceeds to arguethat thou gh the second mode o f rule would not be fou nd in a state of innocence,the first would be. Rulership a imed primarily at the good of the ruler would notbe fou nd in a state of innocence, Aquinas says, because rational creatures are dese ; they exist, not for the sake of othe r rational creatures, but f or their own sake.Orderi ng or governing some h uman beings for the benefit of others happensonly when man " is compa red to irrational cr eatures," as in Aristotle's compari-son of slaves to animate instruments.'5 But the likening of human beings toirrational creatures, Aquinas says, occurs as a result of sin and theref ore wouldnot have been found had original sin not been committed.Aquinas then returns to what he calls rule "ordered to governing" anddistinguishes three of its functions: the direction of subjects " i n what is to bedone," the suppl ementa tion o f certain defects (his example is a king's defenseof the populace), an d the corre ction of morals by the puni shmen t of evil andthe employment of coercion to induce acts of virtue. The last two functions,Aquinas asserts, would not have been necessary had original sin not beencommitted. However, Aqui nas says, there would be some authori ty providingdirection "in things to be done and known" even in a state of innocence,because even in that state some would have greater wisdom and intellect thanothers.

It is important that Aquinas does not depart from Augustine in thinkingthat human beings would live socially in a state of innocence. Moreover, thetwo thinkers do not disagree about w hethe r or not some would have directedothers had the Fall never occurr ed. T he significant differ ence between themis on the question of whether rule exercised in a state of innocence couldproperly be described as an exercise o f p o l i ti c a l authority.

Aquinas's remarks throughout his discussion of rule in the state of inno-cence suggest that he had a much clearer conception of political authoritythan did Augustine. He equates rule for the sake of domination with slavery,but as we saw he explicates the relationship between master and slave byanalyzing that between a ty rant a nd his subjects. The consequent analysis ofruling for the sake of domination is less than thorough. Aquinas's argumentdoes, however, show that far from assimilating tyranny to slavery, Aquinasrelies upon an understanding of the former to explain the latter.

"s Aristotle,Poliz~;s t253b3off.; for Aquinas's commentaryon this passage, see in Libros Pol~-~:o, u~ Book 1, lect. 9.


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3 6 z J O U R N A L O F T H E H I S T O R Y O F P H I L O S O P H Y 3 o : 3 J U L Y t 9 9 2T h i s u s e o f a p o l it ic a l a n a l o g y t o e x p l i c a t e s la v e r y s e r v e s a s a r e m i n d e r o f

h o w f r e q u e n t l y A q u i n a s e m p l o y s su c h a n a lo g i es t o e l u c id a t e p h e n o m e n a t h a ta r e n o t a t a ll p o li ti c a l. T h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y s o in h i s l a t e r w o r k . A q u i n a s f r e -q u e n t l y u s e s p o l i ti c a l m o d e l s t o e x p l a i n v a r i o u s s o r t s o f f a m i li a l a u t h o r i t y ,t h o u g h h e f o l l o w s A r i s t o t l e i n t h i n k i n g p o l it i c a l a n d f a m i l ia l a u t h o r i t y q u i t ed i s ti n c t. '~ E l s e w h e r e , A q u i n a s u s e s t h e r u l e o f a k i n g o v e r h i s s u b j e c t s t od e s c r i b e th a t o f t h e m i n d o v e r t h e p a s s i o ns . '7 A n e s p e c i al ly r e m a r k a b l e e x a m -p l e o c c u r s i n A q u i n a s ' s d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e e f f e c t s o f f e a r . T h e r e h e n o t e s t h a tf e a r c a u s es h e a t t o c o n t r a c t t o w a r d t h e i n t e r io r o f t he b o d y , a p h e n o m e n o n h el ik e n s to t h e c i ti z en s o f a n e n d a n g e r e d c i ty f o r s a k i n g it s e x t e r i o r a n d r a c i n gf o r i ts i n t e r i o r p a r t s . ' s

T h e s e e x a m p l e s s u g g e s t th a t c a r e m u s t b e t a k e n i n d r a w i n g c o n c l u s io n sf r o m A q u i n a s ' s e m p l o y m e n t o f p o li ti c a l a n a l o g i e s a n d i m a g e r y . T h i s i s e s p e -c ia ll y i m p o r t a n t t o b e a r i n m i n d w h e n i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e p a s s a g e f r o m A q u i n a s ' sSentence c o m m e n t a r y o n a u t h o r i t y i n t h e s ta t e o f i n n o c en c e . T h e i m p o r t a n c eo f th i s p a s s a g e i s i ts a r g u m e n t t h a t t h e a u t h o r i t y e x e r c i s e d i n th e s t a t e o fi n n o c e n c e w o u l d h a v e b e e n p o li ti c al . B u t t h e o c c u r r e n c e s o f p o li ti c al l a n g u a g ei n t h e p a s s a g e c a n d e c e i v e th e r e a d e r a b o u t w h a t p a r t s o f t h e p a s s a g e b e a r t h eb u r d e n o f t h is a r g u m e n t .

T h e d i s t i n c t io n b e t w e e n m o d e s o f ru l e w i t h w h i c h A q u i n a s o p e n s h i s di s-c u s s io n o f p r e l a p s a r i a n a u t h o r i t y m i g h t b e t h o u g h t t o p r o v i d e s o m e r e a s o nf o r t h i n k in g t h a t p o l it ic a l a u t h o r i t y w o u l d b e f o u n d i n a s t a te o f i n n o c e n c e .T h e f ir s t o f t h e t w o m o d e s A q u i n a s d i s t i n g u i s h e s is r u l e " o r d e r e d t o g o v e r n -i ng , " ordinatus ad regimen. T h i s c h a r a c t e r i z a t io n o f th e f i r st m o d e d o e s n o t ,h o w e v e r , i m p l y t h a t i t i s p o l i t i c a l . W h i l e A q u i n a s o f t e n e m p l o y s t h e w o r dregimen t o d e n o t e p o l i t i c a l r u l e , h i s Sentence c o m m e n t a r y c o n t a i n s m a n y i n -s t a nc e s o f t h e w o r d i n w h i c h i t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e g o v e r n i n g b e i n g d e s c r i b e d i sn o n p o li ti c a l. T h u s A q u i n a s s p e a k s o f t h e regimen rationis t o d e s c r i b e r e a s o n ' sr u l e o v e r t h e s e n s e s ' 9 a n d o f regimen m ulieris w h e n t a lk i ng a b o u t a h u s b a n d ' sr u l e o v e r h i s w if e. so T h a t A q u i n a s t h i n k s a u t h o r i t y i n t h e s t a t e o f i n n o c e n c ew o u l d b e ordinatus ad regimen d o e s n o t i t s e lf i m p l y , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t h e t h i n k st h a t a u t h o r i t y w o u l d b e p o l i t i c a l .

N o t e v e n t h e a n a l o g y A q u i n a s d r a w s b e t w e e n t h e f i rs t m o d e o f r u le a n d,6 T h i s i s e s pe c i al ly w e ll d o c u m e n t e d i n J a m e s B i y th e , " F a m i ly , G o v e r n m e n t a n d t h e M e d i e v a l

A r i s t o t e l i a n s , " H / s to r y o f P o l it i c a l Th o u g h t l o ( 1 9 8 9 ) : 3 - 7 .9~ F o r e x a m p l e , S u m m a T h e o /o g /a e I , 8 1 , 3 ; I - I f , 1 7 , 7 ; I - 1 I , 5 6 , 4 ; I - I I , 5 8 , 2 ; t h i s w o r k w i l l

h e r e a f t e r b e c i t e d a s S T ., s S T 1 - 1 1 , 4 4 , I .,9 II Sentences d . z 4 , q . 3 , a .4 ; I I Sentences d . 3 o , q . l, a . ~ I l l Sentences d . ] 7 , q - 1, a .~; 111 Sentences

d . 3 7 , q . l , a . 3 .3~ Sentences d . ~ 2 , q . l , a . 3 ; I V Sentences d . 3 5 , q . l , a . 4 .


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AUGUSTXNZ AND AQUXNAS ON ORIGXNAL SIN 363t h e r u l e e x e r c i s e d b y a k i n g o v e r h is s u b j e c t s e s ta b l i s h e s t h a t. A q u i n a s ' s o p e n -i n g d is t i nc t i o n b e t w e e n t h e t w o m o d e s i s a d i s ti n c t io n b e t w e e n t w o w a y s o fe x e r c i s i n g a n y k i n d o f r u l e , a n d n o t j u s t t w o w a y s o f e x e rc i s i n g p o l i t i c a l r u l e .T h u s A q u i n a s t h i n k s t h a t p o l i ti c a l, f a m i l i a l, o r e c c l e si a s ti c a [ a u t h o r i t y c a n b ee x e r c i s e d i n e i t h e r o f t h e t w o w a y s o r m o d e s . T h e p a r a ll e ls h e d r a w s b e t w e e nk i n g sh i p a n d t h e f ir st m o d e , a n d b e t w e e n t y r a n n y a n d t h e se c o n d , a r e d r a w nt o e x p l a in a n d i ll u s tr a t e t h e t w o w a y s o f r u l i n g t h a t A q u i n a s d i s t in g u i s h e s .T h e u s e o f p o l it ic a l a n a l o g y f o r i l lu s t r a ti v e o r e x p l a n a t o r y p u r p o s e s i s n o t , a sa l r e a d y n o t e d , u n c o m m o n i n A q u i n a s ' s w o r k . H i s u s e o f s u c h a n al o gi e s d o e sn o t i m p l y t h a t h e t h i n k s t h e p h e n o m e n o n b e i n g e x p l a i n e d is i ts e l f p o li ti c al . I nt h is c a s e, h is a p p e a l t o k i n g s h i p a n d t y r a n n y t o e x p l a i n t w o w a y s o f r u l in g d o e sn o t i m p l y t h a t t h e r u l e h e h a s i n m i n d i s p o l i t i c a l r u l e .

T h e s t r o n g e s t e v i d e n c e t h a t A q u i n a s i s t a l k i n g a b o u t p o l it ic a l r u l e in th i sp a s s a g e is h is e n u m e r a t i o n o f th e f u n c t i o n s o f r u l e " o r d e r e d t o g o v e r n i n g . "T h e t h r e e f u n c t io n s h e d i s t in g u i s h e s - - g u i d a n c e , s u p p l e m e n t a t i o n o f d e f e c ts ,a n d c o r r e c t i o n o f m o r a l s - - a r e a s c r i b e d t o p o li ti c a l r u l e o r p o l i ti c al s o ci e ty inA q u i n a s ' s l a t e r w o r k s . I n t h e p a s s a g e o f hi s S e n t e n c e c o m m e n t a r y u n d e r d i s c u s -s i on , A q u i n a s s a y s t h a t t h e l a st o f t h e s e f u n c t i o n s i s fu l f il le d b y p u n i s h i n g t h ee v il a n d l e a d i n g t h e m t o a c t s o f v i rt u e . T h e p u r p o s e o f h u m a n l a w i s d e s c r i b e di n v i r t u a l l y t h e s a m e t e r m s i n t h e S u m m a T h e o l o g i a e . s ~ A n d t h e p r o p a g a t i o n o fl a w s w h i c h s e r v e t h i s p u r p o s e i s , A q u i n a s i n s is t s, a f u n c t i o n p r o p e r t o p o li t ic a la u t h o ri t y. 3 , T h e s e c o n d o f t h e s e f u n c t i o n s , t h e s u p p l e m e n t a t i o n o f d e f e c t s , isp r o m i n e n t a m o n g t h e r e a s o n s A q u i n a s c i te s fo r th e h u m a n n e e d t o li ve i np o li ti c al s o c ie t y i n t h e o p e n i n g p a r a g r a p h s o f D e R e g n o . s s T h e s e s u g g e s t t h a ta n a u t h o r i t y w h i c h c o m b i n e s t h e s e t w o fu n c t i o n s w i t h th a t o f g u i d a n c e " i nt h i n g s t o b e d o n e a n d k n o w n " i s p o l it ic a l a u t h o r it y , a n d t h a t A q u i n a s i s a n a ly z -i n g p o l it ic a l a u t h o r i t y a t t h e c l o s e o f h i s r e m a r k s a b o u t d o m i n i u m a n d o r i g i n a ls in .

B u t a n a u t h o r i t y t h a t a c t s o n l y t o g u i d e t h o s e s u b j e c t t o it a n d w h i c h h a sb e e n s t r i p p e d o f i ts c o e r c i v e f u n c t i o n s d o e s n o t m u c h r e s e m b l e p o li ti c al a u -t h o r i t y a s w e a f t e r t h e F a ll a r e f a m i l i a r w i t h i t. A q u i n a s m a y b e j u s t i f ie d i nc l a i m i n g t h a t s o m e f u n c t i o n s o f p o l it ic a l a u t h o r i t y w o u l d h a v e b e e n e x e r c i s e de v e n h a d o r i g i n a l s in n o t b e e n c o m m i t t e d . D e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e a u t h o r i t y e x e rc i s -i n g t h a t f u n c t i o n a s i t s e l f a p o l it i c a l a u t h o r i t y , h o w e v e r , m i g h t s e e m f a r l es sl e g i t i m a t e .

M a r k u s ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f A q u i n a s ' s p o s i t io n a n d h is d i f f e r e n c e s f r o mA u g u s t i n e d e p e n d s h e a v i ly u p o n t h e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s f o r it s p l au s ib i li ty . A r is -

s ~ S T I - I I , 9 5, t .S T 1 - I I , 9 o , 3 a n d a d a.33De Regn o Book I, chapter I .


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3 6 4 . J O U R N A L O F T H E H I S T O R Y O F P H I L O S O P H Y 3 0 : 3 J U L Y ~ 9 9 2t o tl e 's c la i m t h a t h u m a n b e i n g s a r e n a t u r a l l y p o l it ic a l, M a r k u s a r g u e s , i m p l i e st h a t h u m a n b e i n g s a r e n a t u r a l l y s u b j e c t t o a n a u t h o r i t y t h a t is f u ll y p o l it ic a la n d n o t j u s t o n e t h a t e x e r c i s e s o n e o f th e f u n c t i o n s o f p o li ti c al a u t h o r it y . T h ep r e l a p s a r i a n a u t h o r i t y o f A q u i n a s 's S e n t e n c e c o m m e n t a r y i s n o t , M a r k u s s a y s,a n a u t h o r i t y A r i s t o t l e w o u l d r e c o g n i z e a s p ol it ic a l ; f id e l i t y t o A r i s t o t l e t h e r e -f o r e r e q u i r e d t h a t A q u i n a s l o c a t e a ll t h r e e f u n c t i o n s o f p o li ti c a l a u t h o r i t y e v e ni n p r e l a p s a r i a n r u l e . M a r k u s a r g u e s t h a t a s A q u i n a s b e c a m e m o r e d e e p l yi m b u e d w i t h A r i s t o t l e ' s p o l i t i c a l t h e o r y i n t h e y e a r s a f t e r h e c o m m e n t e d o nt h e S e n t e n c e s , h e c a m e i n c r e a s i n g l y t o r e c o g n i z e t h e f o r c e o f th i s r e q u i r e m e n t .W h e n h e r e t u r n e d t o th e s e i ss u e s i n t h e S u m m a T h e o l o g i a e , M a r k u s s a y s ,A q u i n a s r e j e c t e d h i s e a r l i e r c o n c e p t i o n o f p o l it i ca l a u t h o r i t y a s " a c i ti z e n s 'a d v i c e b u r e a u , " r e c o g n i z e d t h a t p o l i ti c a l a u t h o r i t y i s i n h e r e n t l y c o e r c i v e a n dc l ai m s th a t p o l it ic a l a u t h o r i t y " w i t h t h e f u l l a p p a r a t u s o f g o v e r n m e n t a n d t h ep o w e r o f e n f o r c e m e n t " w o u l d h a v e b e e n f o u n d i n a st a te o f i n no c en c e. s4T h e t e n s i o n s i n A q u i n a s ' s v i e w b e g i n t o s h o w w h e n h is v ie w s a b o u t t h ec e n t r a li t y o f c o e r c i o n a r e c o n j o i n e d w i th h i s e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e o r i g in s o fp o l it ic a l a u t h o r i t y . A q u i n a s ' s c l a i m t h a t p o l i ti c a l a u t h o r i t y i s n o t a c o n s e q u e n c eo f si n im p l i e s t h a t i t w o u l d h a v e b e e n f o u n d e v e n h a d o r i gi n a l s in n o t b e e nc o m m i t t e d . T h e v i ew s a b o u t c o e rc i o n M a r k u s i m p u t e s t o t h e m a t u r e A q u i n a st h e r e f o r e i m p l y t h a t c o e r c i o n w o u l d h a v e b e e n f o u n d e v e n a m o n g t h e i n n o -c e n t . T h e p r o b l e m is t h a t A q u i n a s , l ik e A u g u s t i n e , t h o u g h t t h a t si n le s s h u m a nb e i n g s w o u l d h a v e b e e n f u l l y fr e e . I n d e e d , M a r k u s s a y s , i t w a s A u g u s t i n e ' sv i ew s a b o u t t h e f r e e d o m o f th e s in l es s w h i c h f o r c e d h i m t o d e n y t h a t c o e r c iv ep o li ti ca l a u t h o r i t y w o u l d h a v e b e e n f o u n d i n a s ta t e o f in n o c e n c e . B u t t h i sr o u t e w a s n o t o p e n t o A q u i n a s . A q u i n a s ' s s o l u ti o n t o t h e p r o b l e m , M a r k u sa r g u e s, w a s to a d o p t a n o t io n o f " p o s i t i v e f r e e d o m " a c c o r d i n g t o w h ic h h u m a nb e i n g s a r e f r e e e v e n i f c o e r c e d , p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e y a r e b e i n g d i r e c t e d t o t h e i ro w n o r t h e c o m m o n g o o d . D i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n A q u i n a s a n d A u g u s t i n e o nt h e o r ig i n o f p o li ti c a l a u t h o r i t y i n h u m a n s i n f u ln e s s a r e t h e r e f o r e t ie d ,M a r k u s c o n c l u d e s , to d e e p e r d i f f e r e n c e s " a b o u t t h e m e a n i n g o f 'f r e ed o m ' . "s s

o

M a r k u s ' s c l a im t h a t A q u i n a s l o c a t e d t h e e x e r c i s e o f c o e r c i o n i n t h e s t a t e o fi n n o c e n c e i s d e f i n i t e l y a m i n o r i t y i n t e r p r e ta t i o n , 3 6 o n e w h i c h m u s t e x p l a i nw h y A q u i n a s t h o u g h t s i n le s s h u m a n b e i n g s w o u l d n e e d t o b e c o e r c e d . H i sc l ai m t h a t A q u i n a s t h o u g h t c o e r c i o n a n e s s e nt ia l f u n c t i o n o f p ol it ic a l a u t h o r -

s4 Markus, " Tw o Conc eptions of Political Authority," 94-s5 Markus, "T wo Conceptions of Political Authority," loo.See for exam ple Bigongiari, "The Political Ideas of St. Thoma s Aquinas," i lo; d'Entreves,The M edieval Con:rib~ion to Political Thought, a4.


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A U G U S T I N E A N D A Q U I N A S O N O R I G I N A L S I N 365i ty a n d t h e t e x t u a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n h e b u i l d s u p o n t h a t c la i m d o , h o w e v e r , h a v em u c h to r e c o m m e n d t he m .F i rs t, i n t e r p r e t e r s w h o d e n y t h a t A q u i n a s t h o u g h t t h e e x e r c i s e o f c o e r c i o ne s se n ti a l to p o l i ti c a l a u t h o r i t y m u s t d e f e n d t h e p r o p r i e t y o f A q u i n a s ' s d e sc r i b -i n g n o n c o e r c i v e p r e l a p s a r i a n a u t h o r i t y a s p o li ti c al . F o r i t m i g h t s e e m n a t u r a lt o t h in k t h a t A q u i n a s w o u l d a s s im i l a te t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e s t a t e o f in n o c e n c et o t h a t f o r m o f p o s t la lS s a ri a n a u t h o r i t y w h i c h i t w o u l d m o s t h a v e r e s e m b l e d .S i n c e a u t h o r i t y t h a t e x e rc i s e s n o c o e rc i v e p o w e r s e e m s s o l i t t l e l i k e p o l i t i c a la u t h o r i t y a s it ex i st s a f t e r t h e F a ll , d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e f o r m e r i n t e r m s o f t h el a t te r s e e m s i l l e g it i m a te . M a r k u s ' s c l a i m t h a t p r e l a p s a r i a n a u t h o r i t y w o u l dh a v e b e e n c o e rc i v e a v o i d s t h i s d i f f ic u l ty . s 7

S e c o n d , M a r k u s ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n l i n k s A q u i n a s 's a p p r e c i a t i o n o f c o e rc i o n ' sc e n t r a l i t y t o p o l i ti c a l a u t h o r i t y w i t h h i s g r a d u a l a b s o rp t i o n o f A r i s t o t l e ' s p o l it i -c a l t h e o r y . M a r k u s t h e r e f o r e c o n c e d e s th a t t h e y o u n g A q u i n a s w a s m u c h l e ssr e a d y t h a n t h e m a t u r e o n e t o n u m b e r t h e e x e rc i s e o f c oe r c iv e p o w e r a m o n gp o l i t i c a l a u t h o r i t y ' s e s s e n t i a l o r d e f i n i t i v e fu n c t i o n s . M a rk u s a p p e a l s t o t h ed e v e l o p m e n t o f A q u i n a s ' s p o l it ic a l t h o u g h t i n t h i s r e s p e c t to e x p l a i n w h a ta p p e a r t o b e v e r y d i f f e r e n t t r e a t m e n t s o f p r e l a p s a r i a n p o li ti c al a u t h o r i t y int h e Sentence c o m m e n t a r y a n d t h e Summa.sS

T h i r d , t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f n e w p o li ti c al t h e o r i e s o f t e n i n v o lv e s , n o t o n l yt h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f n e w p o li ti c al c o n c e p t s , b u t a l so t h e r e d e f i n i t io n o f c o n -c e p ts l o n g r e g a r d e d a s f u n d am e n t a l .s g I n d e e d c o n c e p t u a l c h a n g e o f t h e l a t te rs o r t o f t e n p l a y s a c ru c i a l r o l e i n t h e a c c e p t a n c e o f n o v e l i d e a s i n p o l i t i c a lt h e or y . T h e r e f o r e a n a d e q u a t e e x p l a n a t io n o f a t h e o r y 's n o v e lt y a n d o f h o w i ts e c u r e d a c c e p t a n c e o v e r p r e v i o u s l y d o m i n a n t v ie w s o f t e n r e q u i r e s a n a c c u r a t em a p p i n g o f t h e c o n c e p t u a l c h a n g e s t h a t t h e o r y e n ta i ls . M a r k u s , b y f o c u si n go n t h e n e w m e a n i n g A q u i n a s g a v e t o t h e n o t i o n o f po l it ic a l f r e e d o m , p u r p o r t st o p r o v i d e j u s t s u c h a n e x p l a n a t i o n o f h o w p o li ti c al A r i s t o te l i a ni s m d i f f e r sf r o m p o li ti ca l A u g u s t in i a n i s m a n d o f h o w t h e f o r m e r g a i n e d a c c e p ta n c e o v e rthe latter.4o

sv T h i s i s t h e a r g u m e n t M a r k u s p r e s s e s a g a i n s t t h e v i e w th a t p t e l a p s a r i a n a u t h o r i t y w o u l dh a v e b e e n n o n c o e r c i v e ; s e e M a r k u s , " T w o C o n c e p t i o n s o f P o l it ic a l A u t h o r i t y , " 9 4 . A v a r i a n t o nM a r k u s 's o b j e c t i o n t o t h e u s u al r e a d i n g s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n a n t i c i p a t e d b y D e a n e ; see The Politicaland So cial Ideas of St. Augustine, ~3 4 , wh e r e D e a n e c o n t ra s t s Aq u i n a s ' s " i d e a l i z a t i o n " o f p o l i ti c s wi t ht h e p o l i t i c a l r e a l i sm o f Au g u s t i n e . Fo r Au g u s t i n e ' s p o l i t i c a l r e a l i sm, se e a l so F i g g i s , The PoliticalAspects of St. Augustine's "City of God," 6 3 .s s M a r k u s , " T w o C o n c e p t i o n s o f P o l i ti c a l A u t h o r i t y , " 9 1 - 9 4 .s9 F o r b u t o n e d i s c u ss i o n o f t h i s a p p r o a c h t o t h e h i s t o r y o f p o l i ti c a l t h eo r y , s e e A n t h o n yP a g d e n ' s " I n t r o d u c t i o n " to The Languages of Political Theory in Early Modern Europe ( C a m b r i d g eUn i v e rs i t y P re s s , 1 9 87 ) , e d . Pa g d e n , l - 1 7 ; StL~3 f , f o r d i s c u s si o n o f h o w t h is m e t h o d o l o g y a p p l i e st o p o l i t ic a l Ar i s t o t e l i a n i sm .40 Fo r t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h i s c o n c e p t u a l c h a n g e i n t h e a c c e p t a n c e o f p o l i t i c a l Ar i s t o t e l i a n i smb y A q u i n a s ' s s u c c e ss o r s , s e e M a r k u s , " T w o C o n c e p t i o n s o f P o l it ic a l A u t h o r i t y , " 9 6 - 9 7 .


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366 JO U R N A L O F T H E H IS T O R Y O F P H IL O S O P H Y 30 :3 JU L Y X 992M a r k u s ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s u f f e r s , h o w e v e r , f r o m a f u n d a m e n t a l f l a w . F i d e l -

i t y t o A r i s t o t l e ' s c l a i m t h a t s u b j e c t i o n t o p o l i t i c a l a u t h o r i t y i s n a t u r a l d o e s n o tr e q u i r e t h a t A q u i n a s r e j e c t o r m o d i f y t h e a n a ly s is o f h is Sentence c o m m e n t a r y .N o r d o e s i t d e m a n d t h a t h e l o c a t e a n A r i s t o t e l i a n c o n c e p t i o n o f p o l i t i c a la u t h o r i t y i n th e s t a t e o f i n n o c e n c e . I t o n l y r e q u i r e s A q u i n a s ' s a c k n o w l e d g e -m e n t th a t th e n a t u r a l p r o c e s s e s o f h u m a n d e v e l o p m e n t a n d p e r f e c t i o n r e -q u i r e h u m a n s u b j e c t i o n to p o li ti c a l a u t h o r i t y . T h i s a c k n o w l e d g e m e n t is c o m -p a t i b l e w i t h t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e Sentence c o m m e n t a r y b e c a u s e A q u i n a s i n s i s t st h a t th e s t a te o f i n n o c e n c e w o u l d b e n e i t h e r a s t a te in w h i c h h u m a n b e i n g se x is t i n a p u r e l y n a t u r a l c o n d i t i o n n o r o n e i n w h ic h t h e p r o c e s s e s o f p e r f e c -t i o n a r e e n t i r e l y n a t u r a l . T h i s i s a p o i n t o n w h i c h A q u i n a s ' s w r i ti n g s , b o t he a r l y a n d l a t e , a r e c o n s i s t e n t . I t is o n e h e m a k e s m o s t c l e a r l y a n d s u c c i n c t l y i nq u e s t i o n 5 , a r ti c l e a o f t h e Summa's Secunda Secundae. T h e r e h e c o n t r a s t s h i so w n v i e w t h a t " m a n [ w a s] c r e a t e d w i th t h e g i f t o f g r a c e " w i t h t h e p o s i t io n t h a tm a n w a s c r e a t e d i n a p u r e l y n a t u r a l s t a t e . E a r l ie r , i n h i s Sentence c o m m e n t a r y ,A q u i n a s h a d m a d e t h e s a m e p o in t . T h e r e , h e a r g u e d t h a t th e s t at e o f i nn o -c e n c e w o u l d b e o n e i n w h ic h h u m a n b e i n g s w e r e su p e r n a t u r a l l y p e r f e c t e d o rw e r e " e l e v a t e d " a b o v e t h e i r n a t u r e b y g ra ce .4 ~

A m o n g t h e e l e v a t i n g e f f e c t s o f g r a c e , h e s a y s t h e r e , w a s " t h e p e r f e c t o b e d i -e n c e o f t h e i n f e r i o r p o w e r s t o re a s o n ," 4 , s o t h a t h u m a n b e i n g s i n a s ta t e o fi n n o c e n c e w o u l d h a v e b e e n l e s s d i s t r a c t e d b y s e n s u o u s d e l i g h ts t h a n a r e h u -m a n b e i n g s a f t e r t h e F a l l. I t is p r e c i s e l y t h e a t t r a c t i o n t o w h a t A q u i n a s c a l ls" i m p r o p e r d e l i g h t s " t h a t h e s a y s m a k e s t h e c o e r c iv e f u n c t i o n o f h u m a n l a wn e ce s sa ry .4 s T h e r e w o u l d h a v e b e e n n o n e e d f o r p o li ti c a l a u t h o r i t y t o e x e r c i s ec o e r c i o n in a s ta t e o f i n n o c e n c e , b e c a u s e i n t h e s ta t e o f i n n o c e n c e h u m a nb e i n g s w o u l d b e e l e v a t e d a b o v e t h e i r n a t u r e b y th e e f f e c t s o f g ra c e . I t ist h e r e f o r e n e i t h e r s u r p r i s i n g n o r p r o b l e m a t i c t h a t A q u i n a s t h i n k s i n n o c e n t sw o u l d n e e d o n l y th e d i r e c ti v e g o v e r n m e n t m e n t i o n e d i n t h e Sentence c o m m e n -t ar y. A n d b e c a u s e A q u i n a s c o n s i d e r e d t h e s ta t e o f i n n o c e n c e a n e l e v a t e dc o n d i t io n , h e w o u l d s e e n o i n c o n s i s t e n c y b e t w e e n t h e A r i s t o t e li a n d i c t u m t h a th u m a n b e i n g s a r e n a t u r a l l y s u b j e c t to p o li ti c a l a u t h o r i t y a n d t h e d e s c r i p t i o no f n o n c o e r c i v e p r e l a p s a r i a n a u t h o r i t y a s p ol it ic a l.

C o n t r a c t t h e or y ' s e m p l o y m e n t o f a h y p o th e t ic a l s t at e o f n a t u r e h a s p e r -h a p s i n c l i n e d h i s t o r i a n s o f p o l i t i c a l t h o u g h t t o r e a d t h i s i n t e l l e c t u a l d e v i c eb a c k i nt o A q u i n a s . T h i s r e a d i n g is n o d o u b t f a c i li ta t e d b y A q u i n a s ' s h a v i n gt a k e n o v e r f r o m A r i s to t l e a r o b u s t n o t i o n o f n a t u r e . A n d i t n o d o u b t g a i n ss o m e p l a us i b il it y f r o m t h e i m p u t a t i o n t o A q u i n a s o f m o d e r n p h i l o s o p h ic a l

4, II I S t n t e n c e s d . ~ , q.t, a.2 ad 9.4, [I Sentences 29, t , 3"4 s S T l - I f , 95, t .


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A U G U S T I N E A N D A Q U I N A S O N O R I G I N A L S I N 3 6 7i n t e r e s t s - - t h e i n t e r e s t , f o r e x a m p l e , i n a s t a te o f p u r e n a t u r e i n w h i c h a r ed i s p l a y e d t h e m o t i v e s t h a t g i v e ri s e t o p o l i ti c a l s o c i e t y .B u t t h e c o n c e r n s t h a t l e d A q u i n a s t o c o n s id e r w h a t a u t h o r i t y w o u l d b ee x e r c i s e d i n a s ta t e o f i n n o c e n c e a r e v e r y d i f f e r e n t t h a n t h o s e w h i c h l e dH o b b e s a n d L o c k e t o c o n s i d e r w h a t l i f e w o u l d b e l ik e in a st a te o f n a t u r e .H o b b e s a n d L o c k e w e r e i n t e r e s t e d p r i m a r i l y in q u e s ti o n s a b o u t w h a t i n te r e s tsa r e s e c u r e d b y s u b j e c t in g o n e s e l f t o p o li ti c a l a u t h o r i t y , u n d e r w h a t c i r c u m -s t a n c es a n a u t h o r i t y is l e g i t i m a t e a n d i n t o w h a t c o n s t i t u t io n a l f o r m i t is r a -t i o n a l to c o n t r a c t . T h e s e q u e s t i o n s r e f le c t a n i n t e r e s t i n p o l it ic a l t h e o r y .A q u i n a s , b y c o n t r a s t , w a s m o v e d b y i n t e r e s t s t h a t w e r e p r i m a r i l y t h e o l o g i c a l.I n h i s d is c u s s io n o f w h a t r u l e t h e r e w o u l d b e i n a s ta t e o f i n n o c e n c e , h e w a sc o n c e r n e d t o e s ta b l is h , n o t t h a t p o l i ti c a l s u b j e c ti o n i s n a t u r a l , b u t t h a t s u b j e c -t i o n t o p o l i ti c a l a u t h o r i t y i s n o t t h e r e s u l t o f s i n .

O n c e A q u i n a s ' s t h e o l o g i c a l c o n c e r n s a r e a p p r e c i a t e d , t h e r e i s l es s i n c li n a -t i o n t o a s si m i la t e h i s s ta t e o f i n n o c e n c e t o a s ta t e o f n a t ur e .4 4 T h e r e i s c o r r e -s p o n d i n g l y l es s r e a s o n t o s u p p o s e h e t h o u g h t t h a t t h e c o e r c i v e f u n c t i o n s o fp o l it ic a l a u t h o r i t y w o u l d b e e x e r c i s e d t h e r e . T h e r e is t h e r e f o r e f a r le s s r e a s o nt o e n d o r s e a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a c c o r d i n g t o w h ic h A q u i n a s b e c a m e d i ss a ti sf ie dw i t h t h e t r e a t m e n t g i v e n i n h i s S e n t e n c e c o m m e n t a r y , l a t e r l o c a t e d c o e r c i v ea u t h o r i t y in a s t at e o f i n n o c e n c e a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y d e p a r t e d f r o m A u g u s t i n eo n t h e n a t u r e o f f r e e d o m .

T h e c h a l l e n g e t h a t r e m a i n s i s t o d e v e l o p a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w h i c h s h a r est h e s t r e n g t h s o f M a r k u s ' s r e a d i n g , b u t a v o i d s th i s e r r o r . A q u i n a s ' s c la i m i n t h ec o m m e n t a r y o n th e S e n t e n c e s t h a t p o l i t ic a l a u t h o r i t y h a s o n e f u n c t i o n t h a t isn o t a c c o u n t e d f o r e n t i r e l y b y h u m a n s i n f u l n e s s is in i t s e lf a s ig n i f ic a n t d e p a r -t u r e f r o m A u g u s t i n e ' s p o li ti ca l t h o u g h t . P r o p e r l y t o u n d e r s t a n d t h a t d e p a r -t u r e , i t w ill b e h e l p f u l t o a t t e n d t o w h a t s u b t l e d i f f e r e n c e s d o r e v e a l t h e m s e l v e sw h e n A q u i n a s' s e a rl y t r e a t m e n t o f p r e la p s a r i a n a u t h o r i t y is c o m p a r e d w i tht h a t o f t h e S u m m a .

.

I n t h e S u m m a a s i n t h e S e n t e n c e c o m m e n t a r y , A q u i n a s s p e ak s o f tw o m o d e s o fd o m i n i u m . T h e f i rs t is t h e m a s t e r y o f sl av e s ; t h e s e c o n d is c l o m i n i u m " i n ag e n e r a l s e n s e r e f e r r e d t o a n y k i n d o f su b j ec t .' 4 ~ It is e x e m p l i f i e d b y r u l e o v e r

I have tried to suggest that the equation o f a state of innocence with one o f nature underl iesMarkus's reading o f the development of Aquinas's poli t ical thought. T he re is, however, only onebrief passage--at Markus, "Tw o Conceptions of Polit ical Authority," 93 --in which the equation isexplicit . Th e equation is much more flagrant in D. E. Luscomhe, "Th e State of Nature and theOrigin o f the State," Cambridge Histo"O of Later Medieval Philosophy, 757- 7 o .45"A1io mo do accipitur dominium, secundum quod commu niter refe rtur ad subjectumqualitercumque" S T I, 96, 4.


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368 JOURNA L OIg THE HISTORY OF PHILOS OPHY 30 "3 JULY ~9 9 afree per sons . Th e f i rst mode, Aqui nas says, would not be fou nd in a s ta te ofinnocence. The arg ume nt Aquinas provides is much the same as that fou nd inhis earlier work, though without the analogy between slavery and tyranny.Aquinas argues that being ruled for the utility or good o f another is a cause ofsadness and can happ en only as a pun ish men t for sin. This argume nt like theearlier one turns on the claim that human beings are created for their ownsake rather than to be used for the good of another. Aside from the absence ofthe political analogy, the argument of the Summa differs from that of theSentence comm entar y only in its allusion to unhappiness, which makes clearerthan did the earlier work in what the punitive character of slavery consists.

Aquinas offers two arguments to support the claim that the second modeof rule would be fo und in a state of innocence. One re turns to considerationsmentioned briefly at the end of his discussion in the commentary on theSentences. He says in the Summa as he did in the earlie r work that even in a stateof innocence, some would be wiser than others. The gift of superior wisdom,he argues, should be used for the benefit of others and would be so used werethe wisest emp loye d in the direc tion o f those whom t hey exceed.46 The secondargu men t is premised on the claim that h um an beings are naturally social andso would have lived socially even had original sin not been committed. Sociallife, Aquinas argues, is not possible without someone presiding who intendsthe comm on good. In defen se of this claim, he writes that "many people per seintend many ends; one, however, only one." Even in a state of innocence,Aquinas concludes, there would have to be some authority to direct all to thecommon good.

The treatment o f the Summa, like that o f the Sentence comment ary, lacks aclear statement that political authority would have been exercised had originalsin not been committed. Th e second mo de of rule is authority taken generallyand not specifically political authority. And direction to common goods is afunction of paternal as well as political authority. Aquinas seems to concludethat some authority would be needed in a state of innocence, but seems toleave open what sort of authority it would be. The problem of interpretingAquinas's remarks is complicated by the "elevated" condition of the innocent,for not all the functions of political authority would nee d to be exercised in astate of innocence.

Here reference to Aquinas's earlier work is helpful. In the Sentence com-mentary, Aquinas had argued that one of the functions of political authority

46 For an interpret ation that makes much of this line of reasoning, see Samuel H. Beer, "TheRule of the Wise and the Holy: Hierarchy in the Thomistic System," Political Theory 14 (1986):$9~-42a ; for a convincing response, see Brian Tierne y, "Hierarchy, Consent and the 'WesternTradition',"Political Theory 15 (1987): 646-52.


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A U G U S T I N E A N D A Q U I N A S O N O R I G I N A L S I N 369w o u l d b e e x e r c i s e d i n a s ta t e o f i n n o c e n c e . H e s h o w s n o s i g n s o f h a v i n gr e p u d i a t e d h i s e a r l i e r vi ew s . T h e r e f o r e t h e m o s t n a t u r a l w a y to r e a d t h ep a s s a g e f r o m t h e Summa i s a s c o n c l u d i n g t h a t b o t h p a t e r n a l a n d p o li ti c a la u t h o r i t y w o u l d h a v e b e e n e x e r c i s e d e v e n h a d o r i g i n a l s i n n o t b e e n c o m m i t -t e d . P a t e r n a l a u t h o r i t y w o u l d h a v e b e e n e x e r c i s e d i n f a m i l y l if e a n d p o l it ic a la u t h o r i ty o v e r o t h e r g r o u p s . O f c o u r s e t h e g r a c e d c o n d i t io n o f t h e i n n o c e n te n t a il s th a t t h e d i s c i p l in a r y f u n c t i o n s o f t h e s e f o r m s o f a u t h o r i t y w o u l d n o t b ee x e r c i s e d . B u t i n t h e Summa as i n t he Sentence c o m m e n t a r y , A q u i n a s a r g u e st h a t o n e f u n c t io n w o u l d b e . T h e m o s t s ig n if ic a n t d e p a r t u r e f r o m t h e c o m m e n -t a r y o n t h e Sentences is t h e f u n c t i o n o f p o l i ti c a l a u t h o r i t y t h a t A q u i n a s s a y si n n o c e n ts w o u l d r e q u i r e . W h e r e t h e A q u i n a s o f th e Sentence c o m m e n t a r ys p o k e v a g u e l y o f g u i d i n g t h e i n n o c e n t " in t h in g s t o b e d o n e a n d k n o w n , " t h el a te r A q u i n a s e m p h a s i z e s i n t h e Summa t h a t e v e n i n n o c e n t s w o u l d n e e d d i r e c -t i o n t o t h e i r c o m m o n g o o d .T h a t A q u i n a s c o n s i d e r e d p u r s u i t o f t h e c o m m o n g o o d a n i m p o r t a n t f u n c -t io n o f p o li ti c al a u t h o r i t y i s n o t o p e n t o d o u b t . P u r s u i t o f t h e c o m m o n g o o d isd e f i n it iv e o f w h a t A q u i n a s c a l ls " r e g n a t i v e p r u d e n c e , " t h e v i r t u e b y w h i c hp o l it ic a l a u t h o r i t y i s w i s e l y o r p r u d e n t l y e x e rc i se d . 47 I n De Regno, A q u i n a sa r g u e d t h a t p o l it ic a l a u t h o r i t y i s n e e d e d t o d i re c t m e m b e r s o f p o li ti c a l so c i e tyt o t h e c o m m o n g o o d . T h a t a r g u m e n t i s v i r tu a l ly id e n t ic a l to th e s e c o n d a r g u -m e n t A q u i n a s a d d u c e d i n t h e Summa t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t e ve n t h e i n n o c e n tw o u l d n e e d t o b e g o v e r n e d . 4 8 D i r e c t i o n t o t h e c o m m o n g o o d i s t h u s t h ef u n c t i o n o f p o li t ic a l a u t h o r i t y t h a t , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e Summa, w o u l d b e e x e r -c i s e d e v e n h a d t h e F a l l n e v e r o c c u r r e d .

T h e c e n tr a li ty o f t h e n o t i on o f th e c o m m o n g o o d t o A q u in a s 's m a t u r ep o l it ic a l t h o u g h t h a s l o n g b e e n r e c o g n i z e d . D e v e l o p m e n t o f t h a t n o t i o n i nA q u i n a s ' s t h o u g h t h a s n o t , h o w e v e r , b e e n s t u d i e d s u ff ic i e n tl y . A t t e n t i o n t o t h et e x t u a l e v i d e n c e o f th i s d e v e l o p m e n t s u g g e s t s w h y , b y t h e t i m e A q u i n a s w r o t eth e Summa, h e c h a r a c te r i z e d t h e g o v e r n m e n t a l f u n c ti o n e x e r c is e d a m o n g t h ei n n o c e n t a s d i re c t io n t o w a r d t h e c o m m o n g o o d r a t h e r t h a n i n t h e t e r m s e m -p l o y e d i n h is d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e s a m e i s s u e i n h is Sentence c o m m e n t a r y . I t a l sop r o v i d e s a p r o m i s i n g c l u e t o t he n a t u r e o f h is d e p a r t u r e f r o m A u g u s t in e .

T h e n o t io n o f th e c o m m o n g o o d i s p r e s e n t i n t h e c o m m e n t a r y o n t h eSentences. I n B o o k I I I , f o r e x a m p l e , A q u i n a s n o t e s t h a t le g i sl a to r s f r a m e l aw st o p r o m o t e t h e c o m m o n g oo d.4 9 N o n e t h e l e s s , t h e c o m m o n g o o d p l ay s a f a rl e ss i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n t h e Sentence c o m m e n t a r y t h a n i t d o e s in A q u i n a s ' s la t e rw o r k . T o s e e th i s , it i s h e l p f u l t o c o n s i d e r A q u i n a s ' s d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e v i r t u e o f

4 7 S T I I - I I , 5 ~ , I.4SDe Regno, B o o k I , c h a p t e r 1 .4 9 I l l Sentences d . 3 7 , q . l , a . 2 , q . a a d 5 .


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3 7 ~ J O U R N A L O F T H E H I S T O R Y O F P H I L O S O P H Y 3o:3 JULY 1992legal justice, which h e says in the S u m m a has the common good as its object.5oComparison o f Aquinas's later tr eatme nt o f legal justice with that of t he Sen-tence comm enta ry suggests that as Aquinas's thoug ht m atur ed, his grasp of t hecommon good became firmer and the importance he accorded it as a motiveincreased.

In the S e n t e n c e commentary, the link between the common good and thevirtue of legal justice is tenu ous at best. In that work, legal justice is character-ized as the virtue by which one obeys the law.5, While he says that laws areframed for the common good, the impression his remarks convey is that thevirtue of legal justice moves those who possess it to obey only the letter of th elaw. He contrasts legal justice with the vir tue o f ep ie ike ia which, he says, "obeysthe int ention of t he legislator.%" In the S e n t e n c e commentary, there is no clearstatement that the person of legal justice obeys the law because her obedienc epromotes the common good.In his commentary on the N i c o m a c h e a n E t hi c s, by contrast, Aquinas illus-trates how the common good can function as a motive by appealing to anexample taken over from Aristotle--that of a soldier who holds his place inbattle. The courageous soldier holds his place because of equanimity in theface of dan ger and because of the disho nor associated with forsaking his post.The soldier exercising the virtue o f lega] justice, however, is moved to an actof courage primarily by his attachment to the common good of his politicalcommunity. While Aquinas notes that acts of courage are requir ed by law, heimplies that it is the soldier's knowledge that his community will be open togreater d ange r if he forsakes his post that motivates him to remain and fight.s3The example of the steadfast soldier shows how attachment to the commongood can functi on as the reason or the motive to perfor m acts of other virtueslike courage which the law requires; Aquinas also thinks that such atta chmen tcan be the motive for performing acts of temperance.

Indeed Aquinas argues in the S u m m a that attachment .to the c ommon goodcan provide a motive for performing acts of all the other virtues.~ Acts ofbravery, temper ance, prud ence, or par ticular justice can all be motivated,ultimately, by a concern for the effect of one's actions on the commo n good o fone's community and by the desire to pro mote or maintain the conditions inwhich the com mon good consists. Attach ment to the c ommo n good of politicalsociety can ther efore, Aquinas thinks, be central to one's structure o f motives.The person for whom the common good is a dominant or, in Aquinas's termi-

~ST II- II, 58, 6.5, III Sentences . 3 3 , q . 3 3 , a . l , q . 5 .5, Ibid., ad 5-53 n Libros Ethicorum, Book V, lect. s.S T II- II, 58, 6.


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AUGUS TINE AND AQUINAS ON ORIGI NAL SIN 371n o l o g y , a " g e n e r a l " m o t i v e, s 5 a c t s o n t h e v i r t u e o f le g a l j u s t i c e . T h i s s h i f t i n t h ec h a r a c t e r i z a t io n o f le g a l j u s t i c e is a c c o m p a n i e d b y a m o r e n u a n c e d d e s c r i p t i o no f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n e p /t ,/ ke /a a n d l e g a l j u s t i c e . I n t h e Summa, A q u i n a ss a y s th a t e p/e /k e/a i s a p a r t o f l e g a l j u s t i c e , b e c a u s e t h e v i r t u e o f l e g a l j u s t i c e c a nb e u n d e r s t o o d t o c o m m a n d o b e d i e n c e " e i th e r t o t h e le t te r o f t h e la w o r t h ei n t en t i on o f t he l eg i s la t o r ."56

C o m p a r i s o n o f A q u i n a s 's e a r l i e r a n d l a t e r tr e a t m e n t s o f t h e v i rt u e o f l e g a lj u s t i c e s u g g e s t s t h a t a s h is p o l it ic a l t h o u g h t d e v e l o p e d , h e c a m e i n c r e a s in g l y t oa p p r e c i a t e t h e v a l u e o f t h e c o m m o n g o o d a s a m o t i v e c e n t r a l t o o n e ' s c h a r -a c t e r. I t f u r t h e r s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e v i rt u e o f a t t a c h m e n t t o t h e c o m m o n g o o dm a n i f e s t s i t s e l f i n a c t iv i t y w h i c h t h e l a w e n j o i n s . F i n a ll y , t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h et w o a c c o u n t s o f l eg a l j u s t i c e w h i c h s u c h a c o m p a r i s o n r e v e a l s s u g g e s ts a ni m p o r t a n t d e v e l o p m e n t i n A q u i n a s ' s a n a l y si s o f p o l it ic a l a u t h o r i t y . I t s u g g e s t st h a t t h e Summa g o e s b e y o n d t h e Sentence c o m m e n t a r y in n u m b e r i n g a m o n gt h e f u n c t i o n s o f p o li ti c a l a u t h o r i t y t h e f r a m i n g o f l e g is l at io n w h i c h p e r m i t sc i ti z e ns to c u l ti v a t e a n d a c t o n t h e m o t i v e o f a t t a c h m e n t t o t h e c o m m o n g o o d .

T h i s a c c o u n t o f A q u in a s 's d e v e l o p m e n t e x p l a in s t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e nA q u i n a s ' s d i s c u s s io n o f p r e l a p s a r i a n r u l e i n th e Summa a n d i n t h e c o m m e n t a r yo n t h e Sentences. A c c o r d i n g t o b o t h a c c o u n t s , a r u l e r o f i n n o c e n t s e x e r c i s e so n l y o n e o f t h e f u n c t i o n s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f p o l it i c a l a u t h o r i t y . A q u i n a s ' s v i e w so n t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f l e ga l j u s ti c e a n d t h e c o m m o n g o o d w e r e n o t , h o w e v e r ,f ul ly d e v e l o p e d a t t h e ti m e h e c o m m e n t e d o n t h e Sentences. T h e r e f o r e o n l ya c c o r d i n g t o t h e l a t e r a c c o u n t o f t h e Summa is t h e g o v e r n m e n t a l f u n c t i o ne x e r c i s e d i n a s ta t e o f i n n o c e n c e d e s c r i b e d a s t h a t o f g u i d i n g i n n o c e n t s t o t h e i rc o m m o n g o o d .

T h e a c c o u n t a l s o h i g h l ig h t s o n e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t i s su e s a t s ta k e i n th ed i s c u s s io n o f p r e l a p s a r i a n p o li ti c a l a u t h o r i t y . A c c o r d i n g t o A u g u s t i n e , t h ee a r t h l y p e a c e w h i c h i s t h e c o m m o n g o o d o f p o l it ic a l s o c i et

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Augustine and Aquinas on Political Authority