Australia as a Holiday Destination

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Australia as a HolidayDestinationJane Summers MBA a b & Janet R. McColl-KennedyPhD b ca University of Southern Queensland , Australiab University of Queensland , USAc Graduate School of Management , University ofQueensland , AustraliaPublished online: 20 Oct 2008.

To cite this article: Jane Summers MBA & Janet R. McColl-Kennedy PhD (1998)Australia as a Holiday Destination, Journal of Hospitality & Leisure Marketing, 5:4,33-55, DOI: 10.1300/J150v05n04_04

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Australia as a Holiday Destination: Young Americans'

vs. Young Chinese Malaysians' Decision Making

Jane Summers Janet R. McCol l -Kennedy

ABSTRACT. Interna~ional holiday travel represents a significant investment to both the tourist, in terms of time and money expended in the decision, and to thc dcstinations, in terms of marketing and infrastructure investments requircd for a successful international holiday reputation. Deciding on a particular destination is often a very involv- ing and complicated proccss. Traditional models of tourist decision making have previously only rnade cursory acknowledgment of the role of culture. Howcver, there is considerable evidence from the literature that different cultures place different values on criteria important to such a decision.

This paper therefore considers: (a) whether traditional tourist decision models pcr se are appropriate for describing and predicting thc decision processes involved; and (b) whether there are any significant diffcrcnces between the cultural groups in terms of the dccision criteria used by international holiday travellers when choosing a holiday des-

Jane Summers is a lecturer at The University of Southern Queensland, Australia. She holds an MBA from The University of Queensla~~d where she is currently undertaking her PhD studies. She has spoken at several internalional conferences and had a number of papers published i n the conference proceedings, including Elrro- pearl Ad~~unces it1 Cottsrrrner Research. Janet R. McColl-Kennedy, PhD, is a senior lecturer at the Graduate School of Management, The University of Queensland, Australia. She holds a PhD from The University of Queensland. She has published in distinguished journals such as the Jourrral orservices Markeli~~g, Advarlces i~z Cotz- s~r~ner Research, and Murkefirzg I~~fell ige~~ce or~d Plarr~tirrg.

Address correspondence to: Dr. Janet R. McColl-Kennedy, Graduate School of Man- agement, The University of Queensland, Australia 4072. (E-mail: Janet@gsn~.uq.edu.au)

Journal of Hospitality & Leisure Marketing, Vol. 5(4) 1998 O 1998 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved. 33

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JOURNAL OF HOSPITALITY& LEISUIE MARKETING

tination. Specifically, this study compares the decision processes, as well as the influence of motivations, perceivcd risk and cultural values on destination choice used by a convenience saniplc of young Ameri- can and Chinese-Malaysian business major students in terms of Austra- lia as a holiday destination. A thrce staged process was employed in this study, consisting of tbur focus groups, a mailed out survey sent to 150 students in America and in Malaysia, and four in-depth interviews.

The results of this study suggest that, in general, the young people experienced a desire to travcl, they searched for informati011 to assist in the decision about a destination and type of holiday, they then chose a destination and travelled. As such, i t appears that whilst a generic model of tourist destination decision process may bc used with the two cultural groups to givc an overview of the decision steps, a numbcr of factors influences this proccss. Indeed, considerable cultural variation was shown to exist in terms of: (a) thc value systems of each group; (b) the factors influencing the process (specifically in relation to motivation for travel and perceived risk); and (c) the specific dcstination choice criteria used to make the destination decision. [Article copies available for a fee fronz The Hawort11 ~ocrrme~rt 1)elivery Service: 1-500-342-9678. E-twail address: gelitlfo@/~awortl~pressi,rc.co~~~/

KEYWORDS. Holiday destination, consumer decision making, cultural differences

THEORETICAL FRAME WORK

The question of cultural appropriateness of consumer decision- making models in general w a s first raised in the late 1980s and early 1990s. These researchers questioned the logic of applying the traditional consumer decision-making models developed by Western researchers from investigation~ of western consumers, to non-Western consumers (Durvasula et al. 1993; Roth & Moorman 1988).

For many consumer researchers, cultural values are, to a large extent, shared by people within a particular culture, and are different from people of other cultures (Carman 1979; Durvasula et a1. 1993; Grunert et al. 1989; Lynn et al. 1993; Munson & McQuarrie 1988; Tan & McCullough 198.5). This issue of cultural variation has also been extensively explored across a range of disciplines (Durvasula et al. 1993; Grunert et al. 1991; Lynn et al. 1993; McIntyre et al. 1991; Tansuhaj et al. 1991).

In order to better understand and define the cultural perspective used

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in this study, the sub-disciplines of anthropology (most notably the works of Berry (1980); D'Andrade (1984); LeVine (1984); and Sherry (1986)), sociology (most notably Bell (3 980) and Featherstone (1989)) and consumcr behavior research (most notably Durvasula et al. (1991); Engel, Blackwell & Kolett (1993); Grunert et al. (1989); Howard & Sheth (1 969); and Munson & McQuarrie (1 988)) were considered.

Cultural Values

Values are categorized as psychological variables that are used to characterize people in a certain group with regard to similarities in their psychological make-up (Grunert, Grunert and Beatty 1989). It is commonly assumed that values are, to some extent, shared by people within a culture, and can hence be used to characterize the psychological similarities within and differences across cultures (Carman 1978). It is also widely accepted that cross-cultural differences in values do exist (Durvasula, Andrews and Kahle 1991; Lyonski and Netemeyer 1993; Mclntyre, Meloche and Lang 1992). Thus values research is most useful in studies motivated by international marketing activity.

Cultural values is a highly abstract construct. ow ever, when examined with attitudes as an intervening variable, cultural values can be quite useful in discussions about consumer choice and behavior (Grunert et al. 1989). Kahle and Timmer (1983) suggest that although individuals generally perceive values as end states, they are instru- mental in mirroring life circumstances. Thus, they are particularly useful for cross-cultural research aimed at marketing applications of segmentation and positioning. Certainly the tourism suppliers and marketers relate the destination choice decision to the positioning of that destination.

Consumer behaviorists generally attempt to make assumptions about how a consumer's cultural values can shape the choice of what is, or is not, valued in the consumption behaviors associated with certain product categories (Henry 1976). Henry (3976), in his study examining the correlation of cultural values to consumer behavior, even goes so far as to suggest that ". . . an important application (of cul t~~ra l values) could be used to develop specific leading indicators to predict long-term changes in aggregate consumption of selected product."

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36 JOURNAL OF HOSPlTALINcF LEISURE MARKETING

DESTINATION CHOICE DECISION MAKING

The traditional models of consumer decision making suggest that decisions are made on the basis of five distinct stages: (1) need or problem recognition; (2) search for information; (3) alternative evaluation; (4) choice; and (5) post-purchase processes (Engel et al. 1993). The tourist buying decision is unique in that it is usually an investment with no tangible rate of return, and the purchase is often prepared and planned through savings made over a considerable period of time. That is, the vacation tourist will invest with no expectation of material and economic return on their purchase of an intangible satisfaction (Moutinho 1987).

In spite of these unique characteristics, the specific stages of the decision process followed by tourists when making a holiday destination decision are not expected to differ from the traditional model. Consumer researchers generally agree that this basic process is influenced and shaped at all stages by a complex set of external, individual and psychological factoriand the traditional model has been well proven and tested over time (Engel et al. 1993; Loudon and Della Bitta 1994; Mowen 1993; Solomon 1994). However, it is expected that the decision process will be influenced in different ways for different cultures.

Motivation to Travel

The tourist's decision process involves the tourist's motives and intentions as well as the stimuli that turn attention into choice of product or destination (Moutinho 1987). These motives and intentions are known to be culturally affected (Engel et al. 1993; Loudon and Della Bitta 1994; Mowen 1993; Solomon 1994). There have been many studies suggesting that consumer motives are an important key to truly understanding why and how consumers make their consumption decisions (Engel et al. 1993; Solomon 1994; Howard & Sheth 1969; Loudon & Della Bitta 1994; McCracken 1986). The emergence of a need to identify motives in order to explain the decisions made by holiday travellers has important implications for consumer behavior research. Specifically, this implies a change in the approach used to identify decision criteria, as well as having implications for the inter- pretation of research findings.

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Problem Recognition

Recognizing a need to travel will trigger the first step in the decision process. Problem recognition occurs when a significant gap between the current situation and desired situation of a holiday is recognized (see, for instance, Engel, Blackwell and Kollat 1993). Having a need recognized does not automatically result in the next step of search. In the case of holiday travel, the problem that is recognized may be something like the need to relax and escape the daily grind of working life. Of course, it is possible to satisfy this need by having a quiet day in bed reading a good book,. going to a movie or going to a sporting event or, equally, by taking a holiday (Summers and McColl- Kennedy 1995).

Search

Searching for information tends to be the next step in the process. This process is generally confined by the limits of budget and time commitments. Consideiable variety exists in the terms of the search behavior of tourists particularly wiih regards to planning horizons and preparations differing markedly between tourists (Goodall 1988). For - ~

instance, impulse buyers may-be attracted to special deals requiring immediate decisions to travel, whilst the "meticulous planner" considers a large amount of information from a variety of sources. Often the planning for this begins as soon as the last holiday ends (Goodall 1988).

Alternative Evaluation

Next in the process is the evaluation of alternatives. Here, the tourist uses two major categories of information, one dealing with the range of products/destinations available in the evoked set and two, the criteria for the selection. At this stage the tourist weighs up the various alternatives available assessing such things as cost/value, attractions and amenities, travel opportunity and arrangements (Goodall 1988).

Choice and Post-Purchase Processes (Outcomes)

Choice deals with the transformation of desires into purchasing actions (Solomon 1994). The type of holiday chosen is actually a

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38 JOURNAL OF HOSPITALITYcC LEISURE MARKETING

sub-decision made by the intending traveller. In this study it is expected that the type of holiday actually chosen will differ between the two cultural groups under study. Once the choice has been made the tourist undergoes a period of post-purchase evaluation. Here tourists weigh up the actual experience with the expected, with the outcome generally being satisfaction or dissatisfaction (Engel et al. 1993).

We have pointed out the importance of taking into account cultural values and motivation as influences on the decision making process. But the level and type of perceived risk is also thought to be important with tourist destination choice decision making.

Perceived Risk

The tourist decision process, particularly as it relates to international travel, is generally classified as a high-risk decision (Goodall 1988). The degree and type of risk perceived will vary with the degree of certainty that the decision will lead to satisfaction (Moutinho 1987). This is in part due to the fact that the tourist can neither directly observe what is being bought, nor can sihe try it out before the purchase. International holiday travel also generally represents a significant investment for the tourist in terms of time and money and this tends to further increase the levels of risk perceived by potential travellers. There are generally five types of perceived risk: (I) performance; (2) physical; (3) social-psychological; (4) financial; and (5) time (Solomon 1994) and all of these will be considered in this study.

This study therefore firstly seeks to confirm that the traditional tourist decision making models (encompassing problem recognition, information search, alternative criteria evaluation, choice and post- purchase processes) are appropriate for describing and predicting the processes and decision criteria used by international holiday travellers. Secondly, the study seeks to determine whether there are significant differences in the importance placed on motivation, perceived risk and the role of cultural values in the decision process between two cultural groups. Specifically, the paper comparcs the cultural values, rnotiva- tions, perceived risk, decision processes and destination choice criteria used by young Americans and Chinese-Malaysians when considering Australia as a holiday destination.

Thus, whilst it is not anticipated that there will be variation in the decision process itself, we do expect variation in the factors that i n f l ~ ~ -

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eizce this process. Specifically, we anticipate that there will be cultural vaiiation in the areas of motivation to travel, perceived risk, decision criteria and cultural values. These considerations lead to the development of hypotheses about consumer decision making in two different cultures, specifically, Americans and Chinese-Malaysians visiting Australia. The hypotheses are as follows:

H1 There will be a difference in the cultural values among international travellers going to Australia

H2 There will be a difference in the motivation to travel to Austra-. lia based on culture for international travellers.

H3 There will be differences in the levels and types of perceived risk in the decision to choose Australia as a holiday destination for international travellers.

H4 There will be a difference in the evaluative criteria used by international travellers to Australia, based on their cultural differences.

H5 Reference groups will have a differing influence for different cultural groups in their holiday decisions.

METHOD

To test these hypotheses, data was collected for this study using a three staged process. First, a series of four focus groups (two with representatives from each of the cultural groups under study) was conducted. Second, a quantitative study collected data by way of a mailed questionnaire to representatives from the two groups under study (young Americans and young Chinese Malaysians) who had previously been preselected based on a desire to travel to Australia. Third, four in-depth interviews with representatives of both the Chi- nese-Malaysian and American cultural groups (two interviews with representatives from each group) were carried out.

In order to meet the objectives of this study the sample used needed to consist of people who were considering Australia as a holiday

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40 JOURNAL OF HOSPITALITY & LEISURE MARKETING

destination before they have arrived in the country. This would re- move bias from the responses that may occur due to post-purchase dissonance. That is, because the international holiday decision involves considerable risk and is considered to be a high involvement decision, once the traveller has actually committed to the holiday and has arrived in the destination, they may tend to distort thc importance of information used in the decision process and even ignore situations that could result in them having to admit they made an error in their decision to travel. Thus, if they are sampled before they have committed to the travel and before they have left the country, then this should result in a more accurate reporting of perceptions and beliefs.

In order to test for the presence of any cross-cultural variability it was decided to choose typically diverse groups such as a Confucian- based culture and a western based culture. These were Chinese-Ma- laysians and North American citizens. The rationale for these two groups being selected was as follows:

these groups represent a significant proportion of international travellers to Australia (Malaysians-7% and American-11% (ABS, 1993)); the travel time from Los Angeles to Sydney and Kuala Lumpur to Sydney are relatively similar (13 hrs flying vs. 10 hrs flying); Australia was seen as an attractive destination for young people from these countries; and these groups represented a Confucian and a Western based culture, respectively.

Thus, the sampling frame consisted of young Chinese Malaysian and North American business students studyiilg in Malaysia and the United States, respectively. Business major students were selected in both cases as it was hypothesized that these groups of young people would have relatively homogeneous demographic characteristics and experiences and this would minimize the influence of other extraneous variables that could impact on the decision making. The sample characteristics are provided in Table I . Although there is a larger proportion of females in the Chinese-Malaysian group than in the American group, the issue of gender variation has been tested and controlled for with no significant differences found between responses based on gender alone.

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Jurre S~unnters u r ~ d .lor~el R. McColl-Kenrtedy 4 1

TABLE 1. Characteristics of the Respondents

Part-time

111 study one, four focus groups with representatives from each of the two groups were conducted. Equal numbers of males and females were recruited to allow the issue of gender to be explored. The purpose of these focus groups was three-fold.

The first objective was to attempt to clarify the factors to be in- cluded in the study and to assist in operationalizing some of the factors already identified from the review of the literature (Stewart and Sham- dasani 1990). The second objective of study one was to attempt to develop an appropriate theoretical model of the tourist's destination choice process, which could then be empirically tested in the next stage of the research. The third objective of study one was to attempt to gain an insight into the subject of cultural impacts on the tourist's destination choice process (Churchill 1979). That is, did individuals differ in their rating of destination choice criteria based on their cultur-

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al values and did they make these decisions using the same sequence of steps or the same process?

Study Two

In stage two of the study, one hundred and fifty questionnaires were mailed to America and Malaysia (300 questionnaires in total) to be completed by business major students in each country. Only those business major students who had an interest in travelling to Australia for a holiday were invited to participate in the study. A total of 124 useable questionnaires were returned. The response rate of 41% (60 from Malaysia and 64 from America) was far better than the average anticipated for mail questionnaires of 25% (Zikmund 1991; Aaker and Day 1990). The characteristics of the respondents are shown in Table 1.

In this study a self-completion mail questionnaire was used in an attempt to gain an appropriate amount of information with an acceptable level of accuracy, given the study's time and finance constraints (Yau 1994). A self-administered design for this survey was required due to the nature of the information sought (personal opinions and beliefs) (Zikmund 1991). Where possible published scales were used in the survey instrument, however, some scales needed to be developed. (See Summers and McColl-Kennedy 1995 for a full account of the scale development process.)

Due to the inherently low response rate of mail surveys (Aaker and Day 1990; Churchill 1979; Zikmund 1991) an attempt was made to increase the return rate by gaining the cooperation of a contact person in each of the centers sampled. This person received the original surveys, administered them, collected the completed surveys and returned them.

S~udy Three

Study three consisted of a series of four in-depth interviews with two Chinese-Malaysian and two American students. The objective of study three was to confirm the empirical findings of study two, and to specifically follow up on any differences in cultural values, and to examine the extent of any differences in importance placed on selection criteria used by the two groups of tourists.

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June Su~n~ners n~rd J u ~ ~ e l R. McColl-Ke1111edy

RESULTS

Results of Study 1

The Decision Process

The results of the focus groups conducted in study one illustrated that the decision process described by both groups was consistent with that expected from the traditional models. Both groups described stages of problem recognition, information search, evaluative criteria, choice and post-purchase processes. Specifically, each group experienced a desire to travel, they searched for relevant information to assist in the choice of a destination and type of holiday, they then chose a destination and holiday and travelled. Both cultural groups in the study reported the existence of post-purchase processes. There were no significant differences in the responses of the groups based on gender alone. Despite both groups concurring with traditional decision making processes, differences seemed to exist in terms of motivation and culture.

Motivatiotz io navel

Differences in motivations for travel werc highlighted in the focus group sessions. This study clearly points up that individual motivations for travel do appear to be culturally based. For instance, the Americans in the focus groups indicated that their main motivations in considering Australia as a destination would be as an educational and cultural experience as well as looking for fun and adventure. 11 is greal to see new lhirlgs and leartz about olher countries; We love your wildlife atzd rzational parks! and We can't wail to see Ayres Rock and fhe Outback.

In contrast, the Chinese-Malaysians in the focus groups, suggested that they would be motivated to travel to Australia as a reward for hard work either already done or about to be done, and as an escape from their work-focused lifestyle. If Ifinish my studies in 2 years, then my family has promi.sed nze at1 all expetzses paid holiday itz A uslrulia for 2 weeks . . . and My family considers fhal a holiday here in Australia wo~ild be a good reward for me before I have to sturt my working [iji.. IIZ Chinese families the fulker will work ilnfil 9 or 10 every nigh1 und

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most of the day on Sa~urday. Sut~days are the orzly time he will sperzd with his family. I fhe wants to spend some quality time with his family, away from work pressures, then he needs to take them away, prefer- ably overseas where fhey can relax.

Type of Holiday Cltose~z

Once a desire for travel is recognized by a potential visitor, the consumer decision process suggests that s h e would begin to search for information from travel agents, friends and family members. They would then make a decision on the final destination and type of holiday, pay for it and then travel. The type of holiday chosen is, in fact, a sub-decision made by the intending traveller. In this study it was found that the type of holiday chosen differed with the two cultural groups under study.

Specifically, the Americans preferred individual, self-styled holidays where they could experience the outback and "real" people and cultures of the destinations they chose. The Chinese-Malaysians, on the other hand, preferred well-organized tours where they could be assured of other members of their race, as well as being assured that all possible embarrassments due to cultural variability would be avoided. For example, I wolrld prefer an orgarzized tour where I had he least amourzt of fr-ee-time, thaf way I would kaow I wouldn? do or say f ke wrong fhing. . .

Post-Purclzase Processes

As for the type of holiday chosen, the post-purchase processes of the two groups under study also differed. The Chinese-Malaysians suggested that because their families tended to be involved in the decision to travel and choice of destination, that a "de-brief" of sorts was expected on their return. . . . There wo~lld be a family occasion when I returned komq arzd we would look at photos and discuss my 12iews on where I had been and whal I had seen. . . . This process suggests much more reflection and sharing of information than was evident with the Americans in the study. They tended to reflect on their experiences on a more personal basis or possibly to share them with their friends.

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Results of Study 2

Cirltur~al V a l ~ ~ e s

The influence of culture was further explored in Study 2. The cultural values of the two groups under study were measured using the "List of Values" (LOV) scale (Kahle & Timmer 1983). This scale requires respondents to rate, on a five-point Likert scale, how important the nine cultural values listed were to them. The values measured were: ( I ) Warm relationships; (2) Being well-respected; (3) Fun and enjoyment; (4) Self-respect; (5) A sense of belonging; (6 ) Security; (7) Self-fulfillment; (8) A sense of accomplishment; and (9) Excitement.

A manova was conducted on the responses with the result indicat- ing that there was a significant difference in the respondent's ratings of cultural values based on their nationality (F = 3.977, P < 0.001) (Table 2). On closer examination of the univariate F-tests, it appears that this difference is most notable with the values a serlse of acconzplishrneizt, excitement and Jirn and enjoyrnerrf. Being well-respecled, warm rela- tiotzships, self-fulfilfnzenf and self-respect were also significant, but at a higher P value.

The two values that were not significant were a sense of belongiirg and security, and in both cases, th; mean scores for each country were similar. In particular, the Americans were found to value sel/-/i&'fl-

TABLE 2. Summary of the List of Values (LOV) Used in the Study

Note: the higher the mean score the less important this variable was a- P c 0.001 b- P < 0.005 c- P < 0.10

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46 JOURNAL O F HOSPITALITYd LEISURE MARKETING

ment, a sense of accomplishment, the need for excitement, self-respect, warm relationships, beirzg well-respected and furl and enjoyment more highly than did the Chinese-Malaysians in the study. These results suggest that the Americans had different cultural values from the Chinese-Malaysians with a high degree of internal consistency in the cultural values within the groups.

Perceived Risk

As expected, the nature and degree of perceived risk varied significantly between the two sample groups. Three main types of risk seem to be relevant in the decision to choose Australia as a holiday destination for Chinese-Malaysians and Americans. These are performance risk, social risk and financial risk (Table 3).

A Manova was used to test whether the nine perceived risk variables (and their dimensions) used in this study differed in the degree of importance placed on them, based on the respondent's cultural values (F = 5.536, p < 0.000). Respondents were asked to indicate how important these variables would be in their decision to choose Austra- lia as a holiday destination. The ratings were made using a five-point Likert scale where a rating of 1 represented a very important criterion and a rating of 5 represented a very unilnporta~t one.

The Manova result indicated that there was significant difference in how the respondents rated the various dimensions of risk, based on

TABLE 3. Perceived Risk

FACTOR 1 Performance Risk (alpha = 0.7722)

Australia is a safe place for a holiday - My family would be confident that I would be safe in Australia

I am confident that I would be satisfied with a holiday in Australia

I would have a good holiday in Australia

FACTOR 2 Social Risk

(alpha = 0.6625)

Australia is a popular place for a holiday

Many of my friends are interested in Australia as a holiday destination

Australia is a great place for young people to holiday

FACTOR 3 Financialflime Risk

(alpha = 0.5961)

It would take a long time to plan a holiday to Australia

Travel to Australia would take a great deal of pre- paration

Australia is an expensive place for a holiday

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their cultural values. On closer examination of the univariate F tests, the difference in perceptions of risk is most significant for the performance risk and financialttime risk dimensions.

Americans perceived more risk in the performance risk category than did Chinese-Malaysians, while in contrast, Chinese-Malaysians perceived.more risk in the financial/time risk dimension than did the Americans. Even though the social risk dimension did not appear to be significant in its entirety, one dimension of this type of risk was more important to the Chinese-Malaysians than to the Americans. This was that A~istralia would be a popular place fbr a holiday (see Table 4). To Chinese-Malaysians who place considerable value on the perceptions of others, this was an important influence on their holiday destination decision.

Choice Criteria

To test whether decision criteria used by the two groups differed according to their cultural value system, a Manova was conducted on the twenty-four destination choice criteria used in this study (Sum- mers and McColl-Kennedy 1995). Specifically, respondents were asked to rate how important each would be in their decision to choose Australia as a holiday destination (see Table 5). The ratings were made

TABLE 4. Cultural Variation in Perceived Risk

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49 JOURNAL OF HOSPITALITY LC LEISURE MARKETING

TABLE 5 . Destination Choice Criteria

revlous experience fro

using a five-point Likert scale where a rating of 1 represented a very important criterion and a rating of 5 represented a very unimportant criterion.

The Manova analysis indicated that there was a significant difference in the two cultural group's overall ratings of destination choice criteria (F = 1.448, P < 0.008). On closer examination of the results, the most significant differences occurred in relation to the existence of a stable legal environment, the provision of a wide variety of food choices and levels of service (see Table 6).

Specifically, a stable legal environment, availability of a wide variety of food options and the number of tourist attractions (more being seen as better) were all more important to the Americans than to the Chinese-Malaysians. The concern about a stable legal and political

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Jatre Sirn1nler.s a~rd Ja~rel R. McColl-Ketznedy 49

TABLE 6. Results of MANOVA Examining Nationality and Destination Choice Criteria Dimensions

a. The higher the mean score the less important this variable is to this group.

environment by Americans is not surprising, given the general concern of American travellers with recent incidents of hijackings, kid- nappings and other terrorist activities.

By contrast, the Chinese-Malaysians rated the tourism supply and marketing influence factors more highly than did the Americans. Spe- cifically, they valued the levels of service available and the range of cultural attractions as more important to them.

These results are consistent with the information gained from the focus groups. For instance, I wotild prefer a pre-arranged tour that was recommended to me, as it would mean thaf I would know that I would gel a1 least oize 'good' Asian meal a day . . . and I wo~ild know that I would be well looked after. . . I would be more comfortable i f I blew that I would see a few other Asian faces.

Results of Study 3

In formatiotz Sources Used

The findings suggest that reference group influence was important for both groups in relation to their holiday decisions. However, the

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50 JOUIWAL O F IIOSPITALITY & LEISUllE MARKETING

relative influence of this appeared to differ for the two groups. The Chinese-Malaysians placed a great deal of importance on the recommendations and advice of their peers, friends and family, while the Americans seemed to be more influenced by how impressed their peers would be with their holiday choices.

Further, the Chinese-Malaysian group placed considerable empha- sis on the marketing literature available when selecting a destination. They were also more likely to accept that the images shown in the brochures and other visual mediums were "true-to-life." Specifically, they were very attracted by the images of beaches, attractions (particularly the fauna), shopping and wide-open spaces, with most referring to this as an "ideal lifestyle." In contrast, the American group was more skeptical in their acceptance of marketer-generated information and they preferred to rely on word-of-mouth, from trusted sources and information gathered from neutral sources, such as travel documentaries and nature programs. Thus, the implications for marketing to Americans is that this group prefers as much factual and practical information as possible to aid the decision process and they are less reliant on the fantasy images of beaches and idyllic lifestyles. This was highlighted in focus group discussions, where one American said, for example, I am saving for a 'backpacking' style of holiday whew I chn really experience [he local ci11tur.e arzd get to know the people . . . (rather ~harz a pre-ar.rangedpackage tour); I have seen documentaries ofAiistralia on he Nalllre Channel at home. . . it looks grea~!

DISCUSSION

The results of this study have shown that in general, individuals from different nationalities (specifically, Americans and Chinese-Ma- laysians) with different cultural values do not differ in terms of the process or sequencing of the decision stages they use when considering Australia as a holiday destination. Thus, traditional models of decision making seem to apply at a very general level (that is, in terms of the general nature and sequencing of the process-problem recognition, search, evaluative criteria, choice and post-purchase processes).

However, the motivations, nature of perceived risk and the cultural values did differ between the two groups studied and these factors were shown to influence the decision outcomes. As such, this is an important finding as these variables impact significantly on the final

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de'stination choice and expectations of the holidaynlakers in relation to that choice. Thus, it could be said that while the process may be common, the factors that influence the process are not.

Many studies that have previously compared Asian and Western cultures have concluded that oriental or Confucian cultures favor a more external locus of control than western cultures (Tansuhaj et al. 1991; Lynn et al. 1993; Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck 1961). This results in their believing more in luck, chance and fate than western cultures (Tansuhaj et al. 1991). Certainly, the values of sey-Julj'illmenl, accom- plishmerzt and, to a lesser extent, filn and enjoyment, are values that reflect a belief in control over one's destiny. One would expect then, as was found in this study, that these values would be favored Inore by the Western culture of the Americans than by the Confucian culture of the Chinese-Malaysians.

More importantly, accepting that the different national groups have different cultural values adds support to the notion of nationality being a valid substitute for cultural groups, if it can be shown there is a difference in the cultural values of the national groups being studied.

The existence of this variation in cultural value systems is consistent with the rationale used by cross-cultural researchers (Berry 1980; Grunert et al. 1989; Durvasula et al. 1993; and Lysonski & Netemeyer 1993), who espouse the value of such research for international marketing applications. Certainly, the different travel motivations, different cultural values and different evaluative criteria identified for the two groups in this study will have significant implications for Austra- lian destination marketers. The existence of cultural variation in this manner supports Howard and Sheth's (1969) findings, where they suggest that values implicit in a culture will be likely to affect an individual's consumption motives and thus their choice criteria.

As international holiday decisions are considered to be high-risk decisions, it was expected that some elements of perceived risk (specifically in relation to performance, social and timeifinancia1 risk) would be identified in this study. Whether or not these would be culturally defined was not known. Significantly, it was found in this study that the types of perceived risk felt by the travellers when considering Australia as a holiday destination do appear to be culturally based.

Specifically, this study identified that the Chinese-Malaysians were more inclined to feel social risk (doing the socially acceptable thing

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52 JOURNAL OF HOSPITALITY& LEISURE MARKETING

was very important so that the holiday would be a popular decision) and physical risk (fearing for their personal safety) than the Ameri- cans, who were more likely to feel performance risk (that the holiday would be as expected and "deliver the goods"). Possibly the tendency for Asian or Confucian cultures to be more fatalistic than western cultures, that is, that their beliefs that events are predetermined by fate and thus are unalterable by human intervention, could help explain these decreased perceptions of performance risk.

Further, the increased perception of physical and social risk for the Chinese-Malaysians may also be explained by the value that Asian or Confucian cultures place on tradition and habit. This tends to result in them being less likely to adopt change and less likely to accept new, or high risk, products (such as international travel) without general peer or reference group approval (Tansuhaj et al. 1931).

The characteristics of the sample could also be an influencing factor in this result, that is, that these types of perceived risk may be more likely in younger adults than in older adults1 (see Table 1). It may well be that social risk, particularly, would decrease as one's age increased.

The relative importance of the destination choice criteria used by the Chinese-Malaysians and Americans also varied due to cultural values. The results of this study showed that a stable legal and political environment and the availability of a wide variety of food optio~is were more important to the Americans in the group than to the Chi- nese-Malaysians. Similarly, when the overall destination dimensions were examined, the types and number of tourists and the cultural attractions available in Australia were more important to the American group than to the Chinese-Malaysian group.

The Americans' higher importance ratings for legal and political stability and for tourist and cultural attraction criterion is consistent with their higher perceptions of performance risk and their cultural orientation of preferring an internal locus of control. That is, the tangible elements of the decision process are more relevant to them as they feel more able to control and manage these.

By contrast, the Chinese-Malaysians were more influenced by the marketing literature relating to the destination and whether the destination had efficient tourism supply infrastructure (road systems, ac- commodation options, ancillary services and so on) than were the

1. Note: Table 1 showed that 90% of the sample was under the age of 25 and single.

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knericans. This, too, is consistent with their higher perceived levels of physical and social risk as well as their more fatalistic cultural orientation. Thus, they and their families needed to be assured that the level of tourist infrastructure would be enough to ensure safety, yet they were less interested in the tangible criterion of attractions and political orientation. Therefore, by knowing a potential traveller's types of perceived risk and their nationality, a reasonably accurate prediction may be made regarding the level of importance that will be placed on these choice criteria.

LIMITATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

Given that only two national and cultural groups were examined in this study with respect to their choice of Australia as a destination, further work looking at other cultural groups and other destinations is required to determine the specific criteria considered important to international holiday decision making. Future studies could consider comparing competing destinations. Other age groups could also be studied in order to determine whether perceived risk is less likely to be important with older adults.

CONCL USZON

The question of whether the traditional consumer decision-making model is generally applicable has been answered in this study. It was found that the sequencing of the decision processes described by the two cultural groups was consistent with that suggested by the traditional models. This finding has two significant implications for consumer researchers. The first is that it infers decision making, particularly in relation to high involvement decisions, follows a standard and predict- able sequence. The second is, that i t will allow researchers to apply the traditional decision making models at a very general'level (that is, in terms of the steps and sequence of the decision process), with confi- dence regardless of the cultural values of the groups under study.

The second major co~~clusion of the study is that while the steps in the decision process may be the same between cultural groups, re-

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54 JOURNAL OF HOSPITALITY& LEISURE MARKETING

searchers and marketers alike should not fall into the trap of assuming that the factors which influence the decision process are also the same. Rather, this study clearly demonstrated that there were different factors influencing the young American and the young Chinese-Malay- sians' decision making process. Indeed, cultural values, perceived risk and motivators differed between the two groups studied. These factors need to be understood in order to appreciate why individual choices were reached in the decision process. Specifically, cultural variability was detected in relation to: (1) the motivations triggering problem recognition; (2) the types and levels of perceived and acceptable risk in the decision process; (3) the information sources used in the information search phase; and (4) the actual choice criteria used in the evaluation stage.

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Documents

Australia as a Holiday Destination