AUTHORITARIAN POPULISM IN MALAYSIA

Authoritarian Populism in Malaysia

Anne Munro-Kua

First published in Great Britain 1996 by

MACMILLAN PRESS LTD Houndmills. Basingstoke. Hampshire RG21 6XS and London Companies and representatives throughout the world

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

First published in the United States of America 1996 by

ST. MARTIN'S PRESS, INC., Scholarly and Reference Division. 175 Fifth Avenue. New York. N.Y. 10010

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Munro-Kua. Anne. 1948-Authoritarian populism in Malaysia 1 Anne Munro-Kua. p. em. Includes bibliographical references and index.

1. Malaysia-Politics and government. 2. Democracy-Malaysia. 3. Authoritarianism--Malaysia. 4. Populism-Malaysia. 5. Malaysia­-Economic conditions. 6. Capitalism-Malaysia. I. Title. JQ1062.A91M85 1996 320.9595-dc20 96--15990

©Anne Munro-Kua 1996 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1996 978-0-333-64491-1 All rights reserved. No reproduction. copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission.

No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced. copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright. Designs and Patents Act 1988. or under the terms of any licence pennitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency. 90 Tottenham Coun Road. London WI P 9HE.

Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages.

10 9 8 7 6 05 04 03 02 OJ

5 4 3 2 I 00 99 9S 97 96

CIP

ISBN 978-1-349-39578-1 ISBN 978-0-230-37991-6 (eBook)DOI 10.1057/9780230379916

ISBN 978-0-312-15826-2

ISBN 978-0-312-15826-2

Dedicated to all victims of detention without trial

Contents

List of Tables Acknowledgements List of Abbreviations Glossary Maps of Malaysia

1 Introduction: Capitalist Economic Success and Democracy The Semblance of Political Stability Weaknesses of Traditional Academic Analyses The Authoritarian Populist State Can Malaysia be Described as Democratic? Class and Communalism The Limits of Malaysian Democracy

2 The Colonial Roots of Authoritarian Populism Communal Strategy of British Colonialism Capitalist Development and Ethnic Divisions The Radical Nationalist Movement The Emergency: Precedent for Authoritarianism The Alliance Formula and Populism

3. The Post-Colonial State The Post-Colonial Economy Preventive Detention The Ideology of 'National Security'

4 Suppression of Political Opposition Disaffection with the Alliance Coalition The Opposition Challenge Raising the Communist Bogey Opposition to the Creation of Malaysia Crisis of the Power Bloc, 1969

5 Restructuring the State and Society The 1969 Crisis and the National Operations Council The New Economic Policy as Populist Reform

vii

ix X

XI

XVI

XVIII

1 2 4 5 6 7 8

10 11 13 16 18 22

26 27 31 36

40 40 42 45 50 54

58 59 62

V111 Contents

The State Communalizes the Poverty Issue 66 The Costs and Effects of Bumiputra Trusteeship 71 Bumiputraism and Cultural Policies 76

6 State Repression in the Seventies 81 Crackdown on Students and Academics 81 Executive Interference in the Judicial Process 84 The Death Penalty under ESCAR 85 Criminalizing Political Dissent 88 The Campaign against ESCAR 95 Suppression of Trade Union Activists 100

7 Charismatic Leadership and Authoritarian Populism 105 Capitalist Restructuring in the Eighties 106 Authoritarian Populism under Dr Mahathir Mohamad 112 Nationalism and the National Question 115 Islam, Populism and the Malay Masses 118 The Media and Ideological Mediation 121

8 Class Contradictions and Popular Protest 126 Protest against the ISA 126 Tensions and Crises 130 State Repression as a Resolution of Crisis 133 United Against the ISA 137 Executive Manipulation of Power 138

9 Conclusion and Postscript 143

Appendix: Theoretical Considerations 154 Notes 167 Bibliography 183 Index 194

List of Tables

1.1 Gross domestic product by industry of origin 2 1.2 Parliamentary elections, 1974-90 4 2.1 Number of strikes and days lost, 1947-85 20 2.2 Population growth by ethnic group, 1911-84 23 3.1 Public development spending 1956-70 31 3.2 Armed forces personnel killed and injured in security

operations: selected years, 1948-82 34 4.1 General election results, Peninsular Malaysia, 1959-69 54 5.1 Public development allocation and expenditure, 1971-95 64 5.2 Outstanding loans of government agencies, 1991, above

RM$50 million 73 5.3 Public sector financing and expenditure, 1966-90 74 5.4 Distribution of scholarships and loans by ethnicity,

1980-90 79 5.5 Bumiputra student intake at residential schools and

MARA junior colleges, 1981-90 79 6.1 Number of persons condemned to the death penalty,

1980-93 104 7.1 Top foreign investors in Malaysia, 1983 and 1990 Ill 8.1 Incidence of poverty, 1976 and I 990 142 9.1 Data on ISA detentions (certain years) 146 9.2 Statistics on arrests and detentions 152 A. I Employment by sector and ethnic group, 1957 156 A.2 Employment by sector and ethnic group, 1990 157 A.3 Employment restructuring, 1970 and 1990 158 A.4 Ownership restructuring, 1970 and 1990 164 A.5 Ownership of pioneer companies, 1962 and 1969 165 A.6 Ethnic breakdown of enrolment in tertiary institutions,

1970 and 1985 166

ix

Acknowledgements

This work is drawn from my doctoral thesis, submitted to Manchester University in 1993.

First of all I owe a debt of gratitude to those who supported me when my own husband was detained under the ISA in 1987: my colleagues at work, my students, my neighbours and most importantly, the concerned group of lawyers and human rights activists who extended practical and moral help to all the families affected. Their com"mitment and support were an inspiration to embark on more formal research of the issues involved and for which I shall always be grateful.

Other Malaysians who provided inspiration and encouragement include the ex-detainees themselves and their families, many of whom kindly gave of their time to share their experiences with me. In particular I would like to thank Koh Swe Yong for making available his newspaper cutting col­lection as well as Kah Leng for her meticulous translation of the vernacu­lar press. The Huazi Research and Resource Centre also provided invaluable assistance in my search for documentation.

In the completion of the thesis I am especially grateful to Dr Paul Kelemen of Manchester University for his supervision and advice, and for his patience and fortitude in the face of my numerous drafts and rewriting.

At the centre of this drama was my husband. It was through his stead­fast commitment to truth and justice and his ability to endure, to retain his humour, to emerge after 445 days of incarceration - without bitterness -that in itself was an inspiration. He has continued to be a major source of encouragement despite my moments of doubt at the size of the task I had undertaken.

Last but not least I owe a debt to the other members of my immediate family: my parents, who carried out a campaign for my husband's release from Scotland, my late father-in-law for his constant trust in my judge­ment and our two wonderful children, Hua Ying and Bi Hua, for making me laugh in times of despair.

ANNE MUNRO-KUA

X

List of Abbreviations

ABIM

AI ALI RAN

APU

A SEAN ASN

AWSJ BERJASA

BERJAYA

BMA BMF BN BT CAP CHOGM CIC CLC co CPM CRC CT CUEPACS

DAP DTC EPF EPSM EPU ESCAR

Angkatan Belia Islam Malaysia (Islamic Youth Movement of Malaysia) Amnesty International Aliran Kesedaran Negara (National Consciousness Movement) Angkatan Perpaduan Ummah (Organization for the Unity of the Muslim Community, made up of PAS, Semangat 46, Hamim, Berjasa) Association of Southeast Asian Nations Amanah Saham Nasional (National Trust Fund for Bumiputras) Asian Wall Street Journal Barisan Jemaah Islamiah Se-Malaysia (Malaysian Islamic Assembly Front) Bersatu Rakyat Jelata Sabah (Sabah United Peoples Party) British Military Administration Bumiputra Malaysia Finance Barisan Nasional (National Front) Business Times Consumers' Association of Penang Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting Capital Issues Committee Communities Liaison Committee Colonial Office Communist Party of Malaya (also MCP) Civil Rights Committee of the Chinese Associations Communist Terrorist Congress of Unions of Employees in the Public and Civil Service Democratic Action Party Deposit Taking Co-operative Employees Provident Fund Environment Protection Society of Malaysia Economic Planning Unit Essential (Security Cases) (Amendment) Regulations 1975

XI

xii

FAMA FEER FELDA FFYP FIC FIDA FIMA FifthMP/5MP FirstMPIIMP FMM FMS

FO FoMP/4MP FTZ GDP GERAKAN

GLU GSP HAMIM HI COM HYV IADP ICA ICU IMP ISA I SEAS JCA JMBRAS KL KLSE KMM KRIS

KSM LPN LUTH

List of Abbreviations

Federal Agricultural Marketing Authority Far Eastern Economic Review Federal Land Development Authority First Five-Year Plan ( 1956-60) Foreign Investment Committee Federal Industrial Development Authority, now MIDA Food Industries of Malaysia Fifth Malaysia Plan First Malaysia Plan Federation of Malaysia Manufacturers Federated Malay States (Perak, Pahang, Negeri Sembilan and Selangor) Foreign Office Fourth Malaysia Plan Free Trade Zone Gross Domestic Product Gerakan Rakyat Malaysia (Malaysian Peoples Movement, a party in the ruling BN coalition) General Labour Union Generalized System of Preferences Hisbul Muslimin, member of APU Heavy Industries Corporation of Malaysia High Yielding Variety (re-crops) Integrated Agricultural Development Programme Industrial Coordination Act Implementation and Coordinating Unit Industrial Master Plan Internal Security Act Institute of Southeast Asian Studies Journal of Contemporary Asia Journal of Malayan Branch of Royal Asiatic Society Kuala Lumpur Kuala Lumpur Stock Exchange Kesatuan Melayu Muda (Union of Malay Youth) Kesatuan Rakyat Indonesia Semenanjung-Union of Indonesia & Malayar People (Kris =Malay dagger) Malaysian Multi-Purpose Cooperative Society Lembaga Padi Negara (National Rice Authority) Lembaga Urusan Tabung Haji (Islamic Pilgrims Fund Management Board)

MARA

MARDI

MB MB MCA

MDU MIC

MIDA MIDF MISC MNC MNLA MNP MPAJA MPAJU MPHB MTR MTUC OPP I & 2

NASMA NCC NECC NEP NFPE NGO NIC NLR NOC NST NUJ NUPW OPP PAP PARC PAS

List of Abbreviations

Majlis Amanah Rakyat (Council of Trust for the People, in reality only for Bumiputras) Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute Mentri Besar (Chief Minister of state) Malaysian Business (Periodical) Malaysian Chinese Association, the 'Chinese' component of the ruling BN coalition Malayan Democratic Union

Xlll

Malaysian Indian Congress, 'Indian' component of the ruling BN coalition Malaysian Industrial Development Authority Malaysian Industrial Development Finance Malaysian International Shipping Corporation Multinational Corporation Malayan National Liberation Army Malay Nationalist Party Malayan Peoples Anti-Japanese Army Malayan Peoples Anti-Japanese Union Multi-Purpose Holdings Berhad Mid-Term Review Malaysian Trades Union Congress Outline Perspective Plan I (1971-90) Outline Perspective Plan 2 (1991-2000) Parti Nasionalis Malaysia National Consultative Council National Economic Consultative Council New Economic Policy, 1971-90 Non-Financial Public Enterprise Non-Governmental Organization Newly Industrializing Country New Left Review National Operations Council New Straits Times National Union of Journalists National Union of Plantation Workers Outline Perspective Plan Peoples Action Party (Singapore) Perak Anti-Radioactive Committee Parti Islam Se-Malaysia (formerly PMIP)

xiv

PBB PBDS

PBS PEKE MAS

PERNAS

PES AKA

List of Abbreviations

Partai Pesaka Bumiputera Bersatu Parti Bangsa Dayak Sarawak (Sarawak Dayak Peoples Party) Parti Bersatu Sabah (United Sabah Party) Parti Keadilan Masyarakat Malaysia (Social Justice Party of Malaysia) Perbadanan Nasional Berhad (National Trading Corporation) Parti Pesaka Anak Sarawak

PETRONAS National Petroleum Corporation PM Prime Minister PMCJA Pan-Malayan Council of Joint Action PMFTU Pan-Malayan Federation of Trade Unions PMIP Pan-Malayan Islamic Party (precursor of PAS) PNB Permodalan Nasional Berhad, a State Agency PPP Peoples Progressive Party PRM Parti Rakyat Malaysia (formerly PSRM) PROTON Perusahaan Otomobil Nasional (National Automobile

Industry) PSRM Parti Sosialis Rakyat Malaysia (now PRM) PUTERA Pusat Tenaga Rakyat (Centre of Peoples Action) RIDA Rural and Industrial Development Authority RISDA Rubber Industry Smallholders Development Authority SAM Sahabat Alam Malaysia (Friends of the Earth) SCCP Sabah Chinese Consolidated Party SDP Social Democratic Party SEDC State Economic Development Corporation SEMANGA T 46 Spirit of 46, the breakaway party from UMNO SERU Social and Economic Research Unit SFYP Second Five-Year Plan ( 1961-65) Sixth MP/6MP Sixth Malaysia Plan SGS Selangor Graduates Society SMP/2MP Second Malaysia Plan SNAP Sarawak National Party SS Straits Settlements (Penang, Malacca and Singapore) ST Straits Times (Singapore) SUPP Sarawak United Peoples Party TMP/3MP Third Malaysia Plan UCSCAM United Chinese School Committees Association UCSTAM UDA

United Chinese School Teachers Association Urban Development Authority

UDP UEM UMBC UMEWU UMNO UMS

UMSU USNO wee ZOPFAN

List of Abbreviations

United Democratic Party United Engineers (Malaysia) United Malayan Banking Corporation United Malayan Estate Workers Union United Malays National Organization Unfederated Malay States (Kelantan, Trengganu, Johore, Kedah & Perlis) University of Malaya Students Union United Sabah National Organization World Council of Churches Zone of Peace, Freedom and Neutrality (principle declared by the ASEAN countries)

XV

Glossary

A gong

AI Arqam

Baba Barisan Bumiputra Ceramah

Chettiar Coolie Dakwah Daerah Fa twa Haji Halal Hartal Hokkien Hoi Guan Imam Jihad Kadi Kafir Kampong Kangany

Kangchu Kapitan Masjid Mentri Besar Merdeka Mukim Nanyang Orang Asli Pendatang Penghulu Parang

Yang di-Pertuan Agong, Sovereign King of the Federation elected from among the Malay Rulers Muslim organization banned by the Malaysian government as deviationist in 1994 Straits-born Chinese Front Indigenous person (literally 'prince of the soil') Political meeting in a non-public place: the only permit­ted form of electioneering, as rallies are banned Indian moneylender Derogatory term for labourer Islamic revivalist movement District A ruling by an Islamic authority Status accorded pilgrims who have been to Mecca Legitimate, permissible for Muslims Economic boycott Chinese/dialect from the Fukien province of China Chinese association Islamic religious teacher Holy war Judge in Muslim matters Infidel Village System of lahour recruitment from India by company foreman who was paid his passage and a commission Contract system to employ Chinese migrant labour Overseers in the Chinese community Mosque Chief Minister of state Freedom or Independence Islamic parish The South Seas or Southeast Asia The aborigines Immigrant/foreigner Village headman A machete

XVI

Pikul Pondok Pribumi Rakyat Ringgit Rukunegara Semenanjung Surat layang

Surau Teochew Tow kay Tun

Ulama Ummah Zakat

Glossary

Weight measure equal to 133 1/3 pounds Hut, usually refers to village school Indigenous The people The Malaysian dollar The National Ideology promulgated during the NOC Peninsula Malaysia 'Flying letter', photocopied leaflets often containing allegations against political leaders Islamic prayer house

xvii

Another Chinese dialect in the Guangdong province Tycoon, usually refers to Chinese business man Honorific title conferred by the Yang di-Pertuan Agung, equivalent to 'Sir' Muslim scholar and theologian The Islamic community of believers Islamic tithe

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