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Ex Situ ConservationSam Hopkins
Biodiversity and Conservation Biology
Involves taking an animal or plant out of its habitat and placing it in human care
This term covers old methods such as zoos, as well as new methods such as seed banks and gene banks
Ex-situ conservation may not be the ideal method but often the only answer
Introduction to ex-situ conservationIntroduction to ex-situ conservation
1992- a meeting of world leaders took place at the UN conference on environment and development
The convention on biological diversity was signed by over 150 countries
In this convention a whole article was set aside for ex-situ conservation (article 9)
This was supposed to complement the in-situ strategies already discussed in the convention
The convention on biological diversity The convention on biological diversity 11
Adopt measures for the ex-situ conservation of components of biological diversity, preferably in the country of origin of such components
Establish and maintain facilities of ex-situ conservation and research on plants, animals and micro-organisms, preferably in the country of origin of genetic resources
Adopt measures for the recovery and rehabilitation of threatened species and for their re-introduction into the natural habitats under appropriate conditions
Regulate and manage collection of biological resources from natural habitats for ex-situ conservation purposes so as not to threaten ecosystems and in-situ populations of species, except where special temporary ex-situ measures are required
Co-operate in providing financial and other support for ex-situ conservation facilities in developing countries
Article nine of the convention of biological diversity Article nine of the convention of biological diversity 11
Zoos, parks and botanical gardens
Seed banks
Gene banks
The three sides to ex-situ conservationThe three sides to ex-situ conservation
The emperor Wen- Wang constructed a 600 hectare ‘Garden of intelligence’ in the 12th Century BC 2
Animal collections are known from Saqqarah in Egypt in 4500bp
Alexander the great kept tigers and parrots in his court 2
The Romans took many animals out of the wild for their amphitheater antics 2
The history of zoosThe history of zoos
London zoo in Regents Park was opened on 27th of April 1828 2
The history of zoosThe history of zoos
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These zoos were pleasure gardens for the rich
The history of zoosThe history of zoos
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Little changed until the 1960s when the public started to become aware
There are now over 1000 organised zoo houses in the world with around 1 million animals housed 4
The history of zoosThe history of zoos
Started life as an animal collector for other zoos
He established Jersey zoo which opened in 1959 and introduced the idea that zoos should be used to conserve, he believed that zoos had a responsibility to save animals from extinction
He pioneered inter-zoo exchange swapping information and animals
“There are only two ways to find out about how an animal lives, and what its habits are: one is to study it in the wilds and the other is to keep it in captivity. As the greater proportion of zoologists cannot go to outlandish parts of the world to study their specimens in the field, the specimens must be brought them.” Gerald Durrell (1953) The Overloaded Ark.
Gerald DurrellGerald Durrell
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The main aim of a zoo is to house whole animals for breeding and re-introduction
A secondary aim is to educate the public
The world zoos conservation strategy estimates that there are 1100 zoos in the world and they receive over 600 million visitors annually 4
The aims of zoosThe aims of zoos
A paper was written by a collaboration between the IUDZG, CBSC, IUCN and SSC
It was meant to set out the future for zoos
The ultimate goal is that in the future zoo collections will be co-coordinated globally
But for now they look to base zoo collections on conservation objectives
Suggesting that ex-situ zoo populations should be managed so as to support the survival of species in the wild
The world zoo conservation The world zoo conservation strategystrategy; the role of the ; the role of the zoos and aquaria of the world in global zoos and aquaria of the world in global
conservation conservation 44
This paper suggests that genetic degeneration and domestication can be minimised by co-operatively managing zoo populations
Guidelines are set out to try to maintain as much genetic variability as possible and when this is carried out properly these populations can serve as genetic reservoirs for species survival in the wild
There are a few ways of maintaining genetic diversity. Many zoos keep stud books or use population management software and animal record databases e.g. ARKS or ISIS
A population of 250 to 500 individuals is required to maintain genetic variability for at least 100 years
Ex-situ conservation will not work for all species so subjects must be carefully chosen. Zoos must be able to maintain and breed the species and species must raise public awareness
The world zoo conservation The world zoo conservation strategystrategy; the role of the zoos and ; the role of the zoos and aquaria of the world in global conservation aquaria of the world in global conservation 44
On top of keeping endangered species alive and genetically diverse zoos also have an important role to play in research
This research is relevant to in-situ conservation
Zoo knowledge on the biology of small populations will become increasingly relevant to conservation of wild species when natural habitats are reduced and species ranges are fragmented
The world zoo conservation The world zoo conservation strategystrategy; the role of the ; the role of the zoos and aquaria of the world in global zoos and aquaria of the world in global
conservation conservation 44
The first deliberate use of a zoo was to prevent extinction of the Arabian Oryx
These animals were hunted by the Bedouin as a test of manhood
When spears were swapped for machine guns the numbers declined
Zoo successes – The Arabian OryxZoo successes – The Arabian Oryx
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The last wild animals were shot in 1972
15 individuals were in a zoo in Phoenix, Arizona
The first six calves were male but in 1966 a female was born
By 1977 there were 60 individuals in the herd
Now they are found in zoos around the world and are being re-introduced in Oman
Zoo successes – The Arabian OryxZoo successes – The Arabian Oryx
The Californian Condor fed on carrion of bison
When bison numbers declined (killed to starve the Native Americans) so did the condor numbers
In the mid 1980s there were 5 birds in the wild and 24 in zoos
In 1992 the zoo population had increased to over 60 individuals
Now the birds are being re-introduced
Some of the introductions have been successful, others not so. If the animals get into urban areas they tend to hit power lines and drink anti-freeze
Zoo successes- The Californian Condor Zoo successes- The Californian Condor 22
Peter Davids Deer
Przewalskis wild horse
Mauritius kestrel
Hawaiian goose
European bison
Other zoo successes Other zoo successes 22
As has been discussed before, it is important to keep genetic variation in these small zoo populations
In the cases of the Arabian Oryx and the Californian Condor the last remaining animals were taken from the wild to preserve genetic diversity
Keeping genetic diversityKeeping genetic diversity
An oddity is the Cheetah Acinonyx jubatus. This cat lacks retractable claws, fertility is low, infant mortality is high and keepers find it less intelligent than other big cats
Tests looked at variation of 52 enzymes and found none
DNA analysis suggests that 10000 ybp the cheetah population was down to one female and one cub
Keeping genetic diversity- the CheetahKeeping genetic diversity- the Cheetah
The Quagga inhabited the Karoo and the Free State and became extinct in 1883. It was hunted to extinction, not for meat but because it competed with livestock
Suggested that it is a sub-species of the plains Zebra
Looking at the most resent genetic work it diverged from the plains zebra 120,000- 290,000ybp 6
Quagga project established in 1987.
Attempting to breed a Quagga through selecting plains Zebras with Quagga traits
Suggest that these animals could be called Quaggas as they are determined though coat characteristics
The Quagga The Quagga 55
There are estimated to be around 1600 botanical gardens throughout the world and these receive over 150 million visitors a year 2
The Botanic Gardens Conservation Institute (BGCI) was set up in 1987 and its role is to collect and make available information on plant conservation 2
These botanical gardens are important as it is estimated that 60,000 plant species could be lost in the next 50 years 2
Botanical GardensBotanical Gardens
Botanical gardens tend to look after plants in one of the five categories below 2
Rare and endangered
Economically important
Species that are needed for the restoration of an ecosystem
Keystone species
Taxonomically isolated species
Botanical GardensBotanical Gardens
Selecting these species is hard and a number of factors must be taken into consideration 2
Extinction risk
Suitability of plant for ex-situ conservation
Value of plant
Ease of collection
Funds available
Chances of success
Botanical GardensBotanical Gardens
In some ways plant re-introductions are easier than animal e.g. easy to monitor as plants don’t move
In others, it is harder because if the wrong site is selected then the plant cant get up and move
When re-introducing it must be decided on whether seeds, seedlings or adults are going to be replaced, each has their pros and cons
Botanical Gardens – plant re-Botanical Gardens – plant re-introductions introductions 22
Another type of botanical gardens are like plantations
They provide a safe place for plants that do not take well to seed banks
Problems include;
The risk of disease like any mono-culture
Take up space
Less genetic diversity than normal seed banks
Vulnerable to environmental disaster
Botanical Gardens Botanical Gardens 22
In the 1970s there were about 750 individuals of the Malheur wire lettuce (Stephanomeria malheurensis) in the wild
Thankfully, Dr L Gottlieb collected seeds from all portions of the population in the 1970s
After a fire in 1972 an exotic called cheat grass (Bromus tectorum) took over
By 1985 the wire lettuce was extinct in the wild
Botanical Gardens successes – Botanical Gardens successes – Malheur wire lettuce Malheur wire lettuce 77
The collected stock was maintained
Re-introductions took place
In some plots where the lettuce was re-introduced the cheat grass was removed
In the first year 40,000 seeds were produced
Plots with cheat grass remaining yielded smaller and less quick to flower plants
Now numbers fluctuate due to cheat grass, mammals, rainfall etc
Botanical Gardens successes – Botanical Gardens successes – Malheur wire lettuce Malheur wire lettuce 77
In 1988 there were only 400 to 500 individuals of the Torrey pine (Pinus torreyana) in the wild
Botanical Gardens successes – Botanical Gardens successes – Torrey pine Torrey pine 77
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The Torrey pine
In 1989 there was an outbreak of Ips beetles (Ips paraconfusus)
By 1991, 840 trees had died due to the Ips beetle
30,000 seeds from 149 trees were collected
Before the trees could be re-introduced the Ips beetles had to be exterminated
Botanical Gardens successes – Botanical Gardens successes – Torrey pine Torrey pine 77
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Ips paraconfususIps paraconfusus
In the first 6 months of 1991, 280,000 Ips beetles were caught in funnel traps and the Ips were eliminated by 1992
In 1992 trees were returned
Returning progeny to correct area genetically
Seeds only had a 2% germination rate
Container grown seedlings did well
Now there are 6000 individuals in the wild
Botanical Gardens successes – Botanical Gardens successes – Torrey pine Torrey pine 77
The last wild individual died in 1960
There have been 13 unsuccessful re-introductions between 1965 and 1994
Trees are kept in botanical gardens in New Zealand, Australia, Chile and Europe but they are probably all from the same parent
Botanical Gardens failures – Botanical Gardens failures – Sophoro Sophoro toromiro toromiro 77
Seed banks allow the storage of genetic diversity of whole plant populations
Preserving the seeds for use later is a long process, it involves;
Cleaning
X-ray analysis
Drying, packaging and storage
Germination monitoring
Seed Banks Seed Banks 88
Occasionally clean seed is collected in the field
More often seed is collected still in its fruit
Seed must be taken from the fruit undamaged
This reduces bulk and disease risk
Seeds are often liberated by hand
Seed Banks – cleaning Seed Banks – cleaning 88
A few seeds are taken and X-rayed
This is done to see how many of the sample are empty seeds and find any insect larvae hiding in the seeds
The X-rayed seeds are often thrown away afterwards as they may be genetically damaged
Seed Banks – X-ray analysis Seed Banks – X-ray analysis 88
Drying and freezing the seed increases the time that the seed will last
Seeds are dried in cool conditions (15-18°C) with the relative humidity at 11-15%
This takes about a month
The seed is then put into an airtight container and kept at -20 °C
Seed Banks – Drying, Packaging and Seed Banks – Drying, Packaging and Storage Storage 88
A few seeds are tested for viability once they have been frozen
If they do not germinate they are either dead or dormant, to distinguish between the two states the vital stain Tetrazolium is used
A few seeds are tested every ten years to check germination
Seed Banks – Germination Monitoring Seed Banks – Germination Monitoring 88
Global conservation program
Linked to Kew gardens
Aims of the project are; Conserve 10% (24,000 spp) of the worlds seed baring flora by
2010
Conserve all the seed baring flora in the UK by 2000
Research into seed conservation
Allow seeds to be used in research elsewhere
Make seeds available for re-introduction
Assist in plant conservation globally
Public education
Seed Banks – Seed Banks – The Millennium Seed Bank Project The Millennium Seed Bank Project 88
So far the project has managed to secure most of the UKs native flowering plants
Collaborations have been formed with 16 other countries
As well as conserving seeds these collaborations are helping to prioritise species to conserve, research into local plants and train local people
Each of these collaborations are different depending on the country e.g. Kenyan seed for life, USA seeds for success
Seed Banks – Seed Banks – The Millennium Seed Bank Project The Millennium Seed Bank Project 88
Collaboration with National Botanical Institute started 2000
Aim to conserve SAs flora by creating seed collections that are well documented concentrating on threatened and endemic spp
exciting discoveries;
Brachystegia spiciformis has been found in a Miombo woodland in Soutpansberg, 20m tree that has been undetected until now
Rediscovery of Dioscorea elephantipes (Elephants foot yam)
Rediscovery of the last remaining population of Cylindrophyllum hallii
2 MSC projects investigating germplasm storage of the medicinal plants of the family Amaryllidaceae
Seed Banks – The Millennium Seed Bank Project In Seed Banks – The Millennium Seed Bank Project In South Africa South Africa 88
Gene banks are rather like seed banks
Eggs, sperm and embryos are cryogenically frozen to protect the genetic variation of a species
The zoological society of San Diego has developed a frozen zoo
Gene BanksGene Banks
It is housed by the Zoological Society of San Diego and is one of the worlds largest collections
The frozen zoo is meant to provide materials to aid species recovery and population viability they also bank cells from species that are close to extinction
Holds frozen skin cells, DNA, RNA , semen, embryos, oocytes, ova, blood and frozen tissue
They hold the genetic material from 500 Przewalskis horses, 150 western lowland gorillas, 80 black rhinos, 22 Queensland Koalas and 19 Bornean bearded pigs
These are all available for scientific study
Gene Banks – the frozen zoo Gene Banks – the frozen zoo 99
Most recently cells from a Hawaiian honeycreeper called a po’ouli
The species is now extinct in the wild
Cell harvesting is not a way that the bird can be “brought back to life” but more a way that research can be carried out on their DNA
"Even though the genetic program of the po'ouli may be preserved through cell cultures, the DNA will not tell us what it's song was or allow but a most primitive view of the living organism in its environment, yet, we save all that we can, trust that those in the future will be glad for our efforts, and hope that efforts for other species can be undertaken to forestall the necessity to save a few precious cells as the legacy of a unique species." Oliver Ryder Ph.D., geneticist for the San Diego Zoo's department of Conservation and Research for Endangered Species
Gene Banks – the frozen zoo Gene Banks – the frozen zoo 99
Captive and wild populations diverge genetically 2
Interbreeding 2
Hybridisation 2
In the case of gene banks, living populations are necessary to pass on non-genetic learned behaviours 9
Ex-situ tends to only save particular species whereas in situ saves whole ecosystems 10
Impossible to conserve whales! 11
The problems with ex-situ The problems with ex-situ conservationconservation
With only 3% of land in nature reserves world wide often the only answer 10
“No large wild terrestrial animal will persist long into the future unless cared for in some way by man. There will be insufficient habitat for most large species and protected habitats will be in pieces too small or too unstable to sustain viable populations of the plants and animals they seek to protect. For these and other reasons conservation biologists will be forced to depend more and more on ex-situ care and biotechnology to help protect diversity at both species and genetic levels” William Conway, New York Zoological Society taken from In Ecology, Change brings stability (1986) Science 234:1071-1073
Botanical gardens can help in ethno biology strengthening collections that have traditional and cultural implications 2
Re-introductions have occurred for at least 120 animal species and 15 of these are definitely established in the wild and are now self sufficient populations 4
The benefits of ex-situ conservationThe benefits of ex-situ conservation
References 1. Convention on biological diversity http://www.biodiv.org/convention 2. Worley, D., (1996) Ex situ conservation. Chapter in Conservation biology
ed Spellerberg, I. Pp 186-201 3. www.wta.org.za/info/history/zoos.htm 4. World Zoo conservation strategy. IUDZG/ CBSC/ IUCN/ SSC (1993).
Executive summary, the world zoological conservation strategy; the role of the zoo and aquaria of the world in global conservation
5. www.quaggaproject.org 6. Leonard et al. (2005). A repid loss of stripes: the evolutionary history of
the extinct Quagga. Biological Letters 1: 291-295 7. Conservation Biology for the coming decade (2ed) (1998). Eds Fielder, P.
L. and Kareiva, P. M. 8. http://www.kew.org/msbp 9. www.cres.sandiegozoo.org/projects/grfrozenzoo.html 10. Soule, M. E. (1991). Conservation tactics for a constant crisis. Science
253:744- 750. 11. (1986)In Ecology, Change brings stability. Science 234: 1071- 1073.
