AVTORJI

Bojan Bugaričuniverzitetni diplomirani pravnik, doktor pravnih znanosti, izredni profesor na Pravni fakulteti Univerze v Ljubljani

Matija Damjanuniverzitetni diplomirani pravnik, doktor pravnih znanosti, raziskovalec na Inštitutu za primerjalno pravo pri Pravni fakulteti Univerze v Ljubljani

Špelca Mežnaruniverzitetna diplomirana pravnica, doktorica pravnih znanosti, docentka na Mednarodni fakulteti za družbene in poslovne študije v Celju, odvetnica pri Odvetniški družbi Čeferin, o. p., d. o. o.

Peter Grilcuniverzitetni diplomirani pravnik, doktor pravnih znanosti, redni profesor na Pravni fakulteti Univerze v Ljubljani, dekan Pravne fakultete Univerze v Ljubljani

Maja Brkanuniverzitetna diplomirana pravnica, doktorica pravnih znanosti, docentka na Pravni fakulteti Univerze v Maastrichtu

Maja Bogataj Jančičuniverzitetna diplomirana pravnica, doktorica pravnih znanosti, LLM (Harvard), LLM (Torino), direktorica in raziskovalka na Inštitutu za intelektualno lastnino

Jernej Pusseruniverzitetni diplomirani pravnik, LLM (Dunaj), raziskovalec na Inštitutu za intelektualno lastnino

Miha Juhartuniverzitetni diplomirani pravnik, doktor pravnih znanosti, redni profesor na Pravni fakulteti Univerze v Ljubljani

Jure Levovnikuniverzitetni diplomirani pravnik, magister pravnih znanosti, partner v Odvetniški pisarni Jadek&Pensa, d. n. o. - o. p.

Aleš Galičuniverzitetni diplomirani pravnik, doktor pravnih znanosti, izredni profesor na Pravni fakulteti Univerze v Ljubljani

5

AVTORJI

Jerca Kramberger Škerluniverzitetna diplomirana pravnica, doktorica pravnih znanosti, docentka na Pravni fakulteti Univerze v Ljubljani

Neža Pogorelčnikuniverzitetna diplomirana pravnica, mlada raziskovalka na Pravni fakulteti Univerze v Ljubljani

Katarina Zajcuniverzitetna diplomirana pravnica, doktorica ekonomskih znanosti (George Mason), LLM (Yale), izredna profesorica na Pravni fakulteti Univerze v Ljubljani

Neža Muhičuniverzitetna diplomirana pravnica, sodniška pripravnica na Višjem sodišču v Ljubljani

Luka Markeljuniverzitetni diplomirani pravnik, odvetniški kandidat pri odvetniku Antonu Preglju v Ljubljani

Meta Ahtikuniverzitetna diplomirana pravnica, doktorica ekonomskih znanosti, docentka na Pravni fakulteti Univerze v Ljubljani, ekonomistka pri Evropski centralni banki

Sabina Zgagauniverzitetna diplomirana pravnica, doktorica pravnih znanosti, docentka za kazensko pravo na Fakulteti za varnostne vede Univerze v Mariboru

Blaž Markeljuniverzitetni diplomirani organizator-informatik, predavatelj za informacijsko varnost na Fakulteti za varnostne vede Univerze v Mariboru

Lojze Udeuniverzitetni diplomirani pravnik, doktor pravnih znanosti, zaslužni profesor na Pravni fakulteti Univerze v Ljubljani, direktor Inštituta za primerjalno pravo pri Pravni fakulteti v Ljubljani

Andrej Grah Whatmoughuniverzitetni diplomirani pravnik, specialist davčnega prava, študent znanstvenega magistrskega študija podjetništva na Ekonomski fakulteti Univerze v Ljubljani, direktor podjetij Londinium, d.o.o., in Grah in partnerji, d. o. o.

Boštjan Koritnikuniverzitetni diplomirani pravnik, študent znanstvenega magistrskega študija gospodarskega prava na Pravni fakulteti Univerze v Mariboru, direktor in odgovorni urednik IUS Software, d.o.o., Ljubljana, strokovni urednik revije Pravnik

6

KAZALO

Uvod

Položaj prava v informacijski družbi / 9 Bojan Bugarič

I. Zasebnopravna vprašanja interneta

O dškodninska odgovornost internetnih posrednikov / 15 Matija Damjan

Civilna odgovornost za anonim ne kom entarje na internetu / 33 Špelca Mežnar

Nekateri pravni vidiki spletnega oglaševanja (posebej zavajajočega) / 53 Peter Grilc

Varstvo osebnih podatkov v spletnem okolju / 67 Maja Brkan

II. Intelektualna lastnina v informacijski družbi

Digitalizacija in osirotela dela / 91 Maja Bogataj Jančič, Jernej Pusser

Nekateri avtorskopravni problemi vzpostavitve digitalnega repozitorija na Univerzi v Ljubljani / 103 Miha Juhart

Pravno varstvo podatkovnih baz - izbrani pravni vidiki / 1 1 5 Jure Levovnik

Tridim enzionalno tiskanje in pravice intelektualne lastnine / 145 Matija Damjan

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III. Procesna vprašanja v internetnem okolju

Elektronsko poslovanje in m ednarodna pristojnost za potrošniške spore / 177 Aleš Galič

M ednarodna pristojnost in kolizijsko pravo EU za internetne kršitve zasebnosti in osebnostnih pravic / 191 Jerca Kramberger Škerl

Elektronsko vročanje / 2 1 7 Neža Pogorelčnik

IV. Informacijske tehnologije na področju javnega prava

Dom et pravne ureditve spletnih iger na srečo / 241 Katarina Zajc, Luka Markelj, Neža M uhič

Nekateri pravnoekonom ski vidiki navideznih valut / 273 Meta Ahtik

Uporabnik m obilne naprave - žrtev ali storilec kaznivega dejanja? / 297 Sabina Zgaga, Blaž Markelj

V. Vpliv informacijskih tehnologij na pravni sistem

Dostop do interneta kot temeljna pravica / 321 Matija Damjan

Objavljanje sodnih odločb v internetnih podatkovnih bazah in vpliv na sodno prakso / 333 Lojze Ude

Um etna inteligenca v pravu / 341 Andrej Grah Whatmough, Boštjan Koritnik

Law in Information Society

Sum m ary / 361

KAZALO

8

Uvod

Položaj prava v informacijski družbi

dr. Bojan Bugarič

Na prelomu dvajsetega in enaindvajsetega stoletja se je uporaba inform acij­skih tehnologij uveljavila na vseh področjih življenja. Računalniki so omogočili digitalni zapis in hitro obdelavo najrazličnejših podatkov, internet in m obil­na telefonija pa njihov takojšnji prenos in izmenjavo na velike razdalje. Skoraj vsaka kompleksnejša naprava že vsebuje m ikroprocesor in se lahko povezuje z internetom , vsaj za posodobitev programske opreme. Ta temeljni tehnološki preboj je vplival na fizično proizvodnjo in poslovne storitve, osebno in poslovno komunikacijo, medije, trgovino, glasbeno in filmsko industrijo. Spremenil je vse od načina, kako shranjujem o zasebne fotografije, do tega, kako dostopam o do storitev javne uprave. Govorimo lahko o nastanku informacijske družbe, tj. d ruž­be, v kateri je informacijska tehnologija pom em bna za gospodarstvo, kulturo in zasebno življenje ter v kateri so ustvarjanje, posredovanje in upravljanje informacij vse pom em bnejša kulturna in gospodarska dejavnost.

Preprostejše kom uniciranje na daljavo, takojšnja dostopnost najrazličnejših informacij in interaktivni vm esniki uporabniških storitev so odpravili nekatere tehnološke ovire, ki so stoletja narekovale značilnosti družbenih razmerij, ki jih ureja pravo. Internet je na prim er zrelativiziral vsa teritorialna pravila o določitvi pristojnosti ali veljavnega prava ter zabrisal mejo m ed komunikacijam i in mediji. Novim okoliščinam porajajoče se informacijske družbe se m ora zato prilagoditi tudi pravna ureditev. Prva faza prilagajanja prava novemu informacijskemu okolju je obsegala predvsem reševanje problem ov in paradoksov, ki so se pojavili ob soočenju starih pravnih norm z novimi tehnološkim i okoliščinami. Prevladujoči norm ativni pristop je zajemal uporabo vsebinske analogije in širitev obstoje­čih pravnih konceptov na nove tehnologije. Elektronska oblika dokum entov in komunikacij v pravnem prom etu je bila tako pod določenim i pogoji izenačena s tradicionalno pisno obliko, elektronski podpis s klasičnim podpisom , elektronska reprodukcija avtorskega dela z njegovo mehansko reprodukcijo, pravila o klasič­nih knjižnih registrih so se prilagodila elektronskim registrom, klasična pravila o teritorialni pristojnosti se smiselno uporabljajo tudi pri regulaciji interneta, izdajatelj elektronskega medija je za njegovo vsebino odgovoren enako kot izda­jatelj klasičnega medija ipd.

9

UVOD

Proces prilagajanja prava novim okoliščinam informacijske družbe pa ni končan. Doslej sprejete pravne rešitve so pogosto izhajale iz (delno) napačnih predpostavk o nadaljnjem tehnološkem in ekonomskem razvoju ter o načinih poslovanja, ki naj bi se na tej podlagi razvili. Urejanje po analogiji s tradicional­nim i rešitvami tako ni več prim erno, kadar je zaradi novih tehnologij odpadel ratio stare ureditve. Pogosto je bilo na prim er prezrto, da je bistvena značilnost novega tehnološkega okolja težnja po prostem in nenadzorovanem pretoku vseh dobrin, ki jih je mogoče zapisati v obliki digitalne informacije. Internet omogoča neposreden stik vsakega z vsakim, brez posrednikov, zato informacijsko d ruž­bo zaznamuje proces disintermediacije. Tradicionalni modeli centraliziranega ustvarjanja in distribucije znanja niso več sam oum evni, saj jih lahko uspešno nadomeščajo nove skupne oblike ustvarjanja in izmenjave dosežkov. To dokazu­jejo uspešni projekti odprtokodnega program ja in prenosa podatkov s protokoli P2P, na katere pravo očitno ni bilo pripravljeno, a so iz ozkega kroga entuziastov prešli v pom em bno poslovno rabo. Pravno varstvo tehnoloških ukrepov za zaščito avtorskih del pa je prim er zgrešene zakonodajne rešitve, ki je namesto prilaga­janja tehnološkim sprem em bam (neuspešno) skušala zgolj zaščititi tradicionalne poslovne modele centralizirane distribucije.

M ožnosti uporabe informacijskih tehnologij v pravu še niso v celoti izkori­ščene. Elektronske komunikacije lahko poenostavijo uporabo številnih uradnih postopkov v javni upravi in pravosodju ter strankam olajšajo izvedbo opravil na daljavo. Internet lahko omogoči širši in preprostejši dostop do elektronskih regi­strov pravic in pravnih dejstev ter do različnih uradnih in program skih gradiv, ki nastajajo v javnem sektorju, ter tako poveča preglednost delovanja državnih organov. Pri tem pa ne gre zanem ariti, da razširjena uporaba informacijskih tehnologij poleg priložnosti prinaša tudi nova tveganja. Internetna dostopnost javnih podatkovnih baz na prim er povečuje m ožnost zlonam ernih vdorov vanje in zlorabe zbranih osebnih podatkov. Pretirano zanašanje na uporabo inform acij­skih tehnologij v uradnih postopkih, na prim er tako, da je nekatere vloge mogoče podati samo v elektronski obliki, pa lahko vzpostavlja nesmiselne ovire za tiste, ki teh tehnologij ne obvladujejo ali jim ne zaupajo. Uvajanje elektronskih postopkov v nobenem prim eru ne bi smelo biti samo sebi nam en, am pak m ora prinesti jasne prednosti, hkrati pa je treba vnaprej predvideti in ustrezno urediti potencialne slabosti. Nekatere težave niti niso strogo tehnološke ali pravne narave, ampak gre predvsem za problem zaupanja, ki pa ga tudi ne gre zanemariti. To je zlasti razvidno pri elektronskih ali internetnih volitvah, kjer so tehnične m ožnosti za zlorabe in prilagajanje rezultata sicer bolj om ejene kot pri klasičnih postopkih, vendar jih lahko zaznajo samo računalniški strokovnjaki, m edtem ko bi klasične volilne lističe načeloma lahko vsak državljan ročno preštel in preveril pravilnost objavljenega volilnega izida. Za dem okratično legitim nost elektronskih ali in ter­

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Položaj prava v informacijski družbi

netnih volitev je zato treba najprej doseči ustrezno stopnjo zaupanja javnosti v tovrstne postopke.

V informacijski družbi pa se pojavljajo tudi povsem nova pravna vprašanja, ki so značilnost novega tehnološkega okolja in so pravno samo delno urejena ali prepuščena samoregulaciji ponudnikov storitev informacijske družbe. Najprej sem spada pravna ureditev interneta in elektronskih komunikacij kot inform a­cijske infrastrukture, pravice do in ternetnih dom en, vprašanja določanja in ter­netnih standardov in izkoriščanja patentov na protokolih in tehnologijah, ki so del teh standardov. Nadalje gre za pravna vprašanja v zvezi z novimi pojavi in storitvami, ki pred nastankom interneta niso obstajali, kot so na prim er spletno iskanje, računalništvo v oblaku in ponujanje program ov kot storitev, družbena omrežja, spletni forumi, virtualne valute, hekerski napadi zaprtih sistemov in napadi porazdeljene omejitve storitve (DDoS). Pom em bno vprašanje so tudi pravice uporabnikov internetnih storitev v razm erju do ponudnikov internetnega dostopa na eni strani in do države na drugi strani. Zaradi naraščajočega vpliva informacijske tehnologije na življenje vsakega posam eznika pravna regulacija tega področja vse bolj zadeva tudi vprašanja človekovih pravic in dem okratične ureditve celotne družbe.

Da bi učinkovito izkoristili vse priložnosti, ki jih ponuja informacijska doba, je potrebno nenehno preverjanje ustreznosti obstoječe pravne ureditve. Vendar za njeno prilagajanje novim tehnološkim okoliščinam niso vedno potrebne zako­nodajne spremembe, saj se ustrezne rešitve pogosto razvijejo že v pravni praksi. Zaradi tega je tem bolj pom em bno, da pravna teorija nova vprašanja pravočasno zazna in skuša ponuditi odgovore nanje s širšega sistemskega stališča, ki se vsak­danji pravni praksi včasih izmika. Pravniki smo sicer že zaradi narave poklica nekoliko konservativni in se obravnavanju novih vprašanj, ki jih ne razum em o povsem, raje izognemo. Pogost je predsodek, da gre pri pravnih vprašanjih infor­macijske družbe predvsem za regulacijo uporabe novih tehnologij, zlasti za pravo elektronskih komunikacij. Vendar, kot je bilo v obrisih prikazano, to nikakor ne izčrpa pravnih problem ov informacijske družbe, saj uporaba informacijskih teh­nologij načenja vedno nova vprašanja tudi na povsem klasičnih pravnih področ­jih. Ta monografija prinaša pregled in poglobljeno obravnavo nekaterih izbranih pravnih problem ov informacijske družbe, ki so bili doslej v slovenski pravni teoriji pomanjkljivo obravnavani. Jasno pa je, da sm o s tem predvsem odstrli pogled na široko polje pravnih izzivov, ki jih še zastavlja sodobna informacijska družba.

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Law in Information SocietySummary

Forevvord: The Position of Law in Information Society Bojan Bugarič

Since the tu rn of the twenty-first century, the use of inform ation technology has gradually spread to ali areas of life. Com puters have enabled digital recording and high-speed processing of a wide range o f data while the Internet and mobile telecom m unications perm it rapid transfer and exchange of inform ation over long distances. Almost every complex device now contains a m icroprocessor and con- nects to the Internet, at least to dow nload software updates. This fundam ental technological hreakthrough has affected physical m anufacturing, business serv- ices, personal and business Communications, media, commerce, mušic and film industry. It has changed everything from the way people store family photos to the way they access services o f the public adm inistration. Inform ation Society has emerged: a society in which inform ation technology is essential for the economy, for the culture and for the private sphere, and in vvhich the creation, transm ission and m anagem ent o f inform ation are becom ing increasingly im portant cultural and economic activities.

Simplified rem ote com m unication, im m ediate availability of a wide range o f inform ation and interactive user interfaces have removed the technological obstacles to the exchange of inform ation, vvhich have dictated for centuries certain characteristics o f social relations regulated by the law. The Internet, for example, has complicated the application o f territorial rules of jurisdiction and blurred the line between telecom m unications and media. Consequently, the law itself m ust adapt to the new realities of the em erging inform ation society. The first phase of the lavvs adaptation to the new IT environm ent consisted mainly o f solving problems and paradoxes that em erged when traditional legal norm s first encountered the new technological circumstances. The prevailing normative approach vvas to apply the existing legal concepts to the new technology by anal­og)'. Thus electronic form o f docum ents, o f Communications and o f signatures

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PRAVO V INFORMACIJSKI DRUŽBI

has been accorded the same level o f legal effectiveness as traditional w ritten form; electronic reproduction of a copyrighted vvork has been equalised in legal consequences to its m echanical reproduction; the rules o f classical registers of rights have been adapted for use with electronic registers; traditional rules of ter- ritorial jurisdiction have been applied m utatis m utandis to the regulation o f the Internet; issuers of electronic m edia have been held responsible for their content in the same way as issuers o f classic media, etc.

The process o f adapting the law to new realities o f the inform ation society is not yet complete. The legal solutions adopted so far have often been based on (partiallv) incorrect assum ptions about the further technological and economic development, and about the business m ethods to be developed on this basis. Establishing new regulation by analogy with traditional solutions is not appropri- ate when the ratio of the old norm ative regime is no longer relevant due to the new technologies. An essential feature o f the new technological environm ent, which was initially often overlooked, is the tendency tovvards free and uncon- trolled flow o f ali digital data, regardless of the type of inform ation contained. By allowing direct peer-to-peer contact between any users, the Internet heralds a w ide-reaching process of disinterm ediation. Traditional models o f centralised creation and distribution o f knowledge through publishers and media operators should no longer be taken for granted as they can be effectively replaced vvith new forms o f collaborative creation and sharing. This is evident from the successful projects o f open-source software developm ent and by the spread o f data transfer with P2P protocols. The decentralised nature o f these phenom ena goes against certain premises of the existing (monopoly-based) legal regulation; nevertheless, their use has quickly spread from a narrow circle of enthusiasts to m ajor business and consum er users. An example o f m isguided legislative solutions is the enact- m ent o f legal protection o f technological measures o f protection of copyrighted works, as it only served to protect traditional business models of centralised dis­tribution instead of encouraging the business to adapt to technological changes.

The possibilities for use of inform ation technologies in the field o f law have not yet been exhausted. A num ber o f formal procedures in public adm inistration and before courts could be simplified using electronic Communications, which could enable the clients to perform various tasks remotely. The Internet can facili- tate a wider and easier access to electronic registers o f rights and legal facts, and to various official texts generated in the public sector, thereby increasing transpar- ency in the functioning of State bodies. It should not be overlooked, however, that in addition to opportunities, the widespread use o f inform ation technologies also opens up new risks. Internet access to public databases, for example, increases the possibility o f malicious intrusions and abuse of the collected personal data.

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Summary

Over-reliance on the use o f inform ation technologies in official proceedings, e.g. by requiring that particular applications may only be subm itted in electronic form, can raise pointless barriers to persons who lack technological knowledge or simply m istrust electronic form. In any case, the introduction o f electronic procedures should not serve its own purpose, but should bring clear advantages, taking into account the potential risks and drawbacks. Apart from purely technical o r legal challenges, the lack of trust into new technologies is also a relevant factor that should not be overlooked. This is particularly im portant in relation to electronic or Internet elections, where the technical possibilities for abuse and distortion of results are in fact more lim ited than with classical methods; hovvever, they can only be detected by Computer experts, while the traditional paper ballots could in principle be m anuallv counted by any Citizen, thus verifying the election result. To ensure dem ocratic legitimacy o f electronic or Internet election, an adequate level of public trust into such procedures and technologies needs to be reached first.

Completely new legal issues inherent to the new technological environm ent also arise in inform ation society and are often covered only by self-regulation of inform ation Service providers. These include the regulation o f the Internet and electronic Communications as the basic inform ation infrastructure, Internet dom ain nam e rights, the setting of Internet standards and protocols, and the exploitation of patents and technologies encom passed by such standards. Further legal issues relate to new phenom ena and services that did not exist before the advent of the Internet, such as web search, cloud com puting and softvvare as Serv­ice, social netvvorks, Online forums, Virtual currencies, hacker attacks on closed systems and distributed denial-of-service attacks. An im portant issue concerns the rights o f users in relation to Internet access providers on the one hand and the State on the other. Due to the grovving im pact of inform ation technology on individuals’ lives, the legal regulation in this area increasingly touches upon issues o f hum an rights and the dem ocratic structure of the society as a whole.

In order to exploit effectively ali the opportunities of the inform ation age, it is necessary to review constantly the adequacy o f the existing regulation. However, legislative changes are not always necessary for the legal systems adaptation to new technological circumstances, since adequate solutions are often developed in the legal practice. For this reason, it is of param ount im portance for the legal theory to detect the outstanding issues in time and to provide answers to them adopting a broader systemic view, which often eludes the everyday legal practice. Legal professionals, due to the nature o f their profession, are usually somevvhat conservative in their approach to new issues and try solving them by applying established legal solutions or avoiding altogether the issues they do not fully understand. A com m on preconception am ong legal scholars is that legal issues of

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PRAVO V INFORMACIJSKI DRUŽBI

the inform ation society encompass particularly the regulation of new technolo- gies, especially the electronic Communications and IT. However, as shown above, outstanding legal issues go beyond that, since the use o f inform ation technologies also raises new questions in the traditional fields of law. The present m onograph provides an overview and an in-depth discussion o f selected legal issues of the inform ation society that have previously not yet been adequately studied in the Slovenian legal theory. Nevertheless, it is clear that we have only started unveiling the view of a broad field of legal challenges raised by the m odern inform ation society.

I. Private Law Issues of the Internet

The Liability of Internet IntermediariesMatija Damjan

The content available on the Internet may violate various legal norm s (e.g. intellectual property rights and personal rights) and thereby cause damage. Internet Service providers and other Internet interm ediaries, due to their tech- nical role in the transm ission and storage o f inform ation, have a certain degree o f control over th ird parties’ content. The key question is when and to what extent such interm ediaries should bear the responsibility for the damage, and to what extent the liability should lie w ith the original content providers. The article discusses the main reasons for and against Internet interm ediary liability. The general rules of European and Slovenian law on interm ediary liability are presented, which distinguish betvveen three types of inform ation society services: mere conduit, caching and hosting. Certain open issues are discussed concerning the required speed o f action, the validation of a takedovvn notice, the hyperlink liability and the nevv challenges posed by the Web 2.0.

Civil Liability for Anonymous Internet Comments in SloveniaŠpelca Mežnar

Recently, anonym ous com m ents on the Internet have become a widespread and problem atic phenom enon, requiring a clear and stricter legal regulation. Unfortunately, com m enting on different Internet portals, blogs, forums and social networks is often misused to express frustration, hatred, prejudice, insult and accusations, as well as to spread hate speech. This raises the question who - in addition to anonym ous Internet users themselves - should be held legally liable for the damage caused by anonym ous com m entators. The starting hypothesis is

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Summary

that the legal responsibility for the Internet com m ents may be com pared sub- stantively to the responsibility for prin t media readers’ letters. It is undisputed that the prim ary responsibility for the unlawful content is borne by the authors (web users) themselves. However, as it is currently almost impossible to identify anonym ous writers o f Internet com m ents, it is even m ore im portant, for the protection of the victims, to establish the potential liability of other persons who enable, prom ote or benefit from Internet com m ents: web editors, publishers and web site owners. The aim o f this article is therefore to establish vvho, according to the Slovenian civil law, may be held jointly and severally liable for damage caused by unlawful com m enting. To achieve this, the lavv and practice of Slovenian legal system is analysed. In addition, case lavv of the C ourt of Justice o f the EU and the European C ourt o f Hum an Rights is studied, with a special reference to 2013 Delfi judgm ent confirm ing the civil liability of nevvs website publishers for anonym ous user comments.

Certain Legal Aspects of (Misleading) Online AdvertisingPeter Grilc

The web has brought about a series o f new advertising practices, especially through expanded possibilities for interaction with the addressees of the ads. Apart from advertising, the web tackles a range of o ther areas of law, e.g.: private international lavv, copyright, antitrust, contract law, consum er lavv, the lavv of personal rights, crim inal lavv, administrativne lavv, regulation o f various regulated markets and regulated products. The article is mainly focused on the issue vvhether Online advertising should be treated differently than advertising in o ther media. Legislative models and m ethodologies in comparative lavv (an exhaustive list, a general clause, tort, passing-off), used separately or combined, are flexible enough to successfully enforce protection against misleading or other unfair advertising. Several types of online advertising increase the possibilities for unfair practices. Special legislation partly or wholly focused on vveb problem s has already arisen in certain countries and it is likely to be upgraded in the future in order to regulate thus far unregulated areas of advertising, especially in relation to consum er protection. The article also stresses the im portance o f self- regulation.

Data Protection in the Online EnvironmentMaja Brkan

O ne o f the biggest challenges o f m odern society is an effective protection of privacy and personal data of Internet users. Protection o f personal data is one of the areas that has not only attracted the attention of lawyers, but also the gen­eral public, notably after Snovvdens revelations of NSA activities as vvell as after

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the reported spying on G erm an Chancellors mobile phone. A phrase “Google knows everything” is often used to express the om nipresence and the influence o f this search engine on our everyday lives and o f its knovvledge about its users. For example, the search engine can create a profile of each consum er by virtue o f the collection o f personal data, vvhich is then used for selective and targeted advertising. Hence, what is the priče that we are paying for being constantly connected in an Online world?

The article examines the legal bases for data protection currently in force in the EU and addresses the issues of necessity and the adequacy of the recently proposed reform o f this legislation. The early case law of the C ourt of Justice o f the EU in this regard (C -101/01, Lindqvist; C-524/06, Huber; C-553/07, Rijkeboer; C-73/07, Satakunnan M arkkinaporssi and Satamedia) as well as the m ore recent case law of this court is analysed. Hence, the controversies around the legality o f the Data Retention Directive as well as the m uch-debated cases C-293/12, Digital Rights Ireland, and C-594/12, Seitlinger et al. are discussed. The article also assesses the issues of privacy and data protection through the perspective o f the currently pending case C -131/12, Google Spain and Google and puts this case into a broader perspective of fundam ental rights protection.

II. Intellectual Property in Information Society

Digitalization and Orphan WorksMaja Bogataj Jančič, Jernej Pusser

Digitization enables easier access to vvorld knovvledge, vvhich is available in libraries, m useums, galleries, archives and other cultural heritage institutions. Not only is digitization an im portant means o f ensuring access to vvorld knovvledge and its use, it can also, in some cases, be the only way to preserve vvorld knovvl­edge for future generations, and is thus o f great im portance. O ne of the main problem s in digitization is the issue o f copvright. Copyrights m ust be cleared, before a digitized work is published. This can be a great hurdle, if the copyright ovvners o f a work cannot be found or identified; such vs'orks are called orphaned vvorks. The European Com m ission, in its effort to encourage digitization and enable mass access to European cultural heritage, has enacted the Directive 2012/28/EU on certain perm itted uses o f orphan vvorks, vvhich not only does not solve the problem o f orphan vvorks, it also increases it. It sets conditions for the use o f orphan vvorks, vvhich vvill cause enorm ous costs for institutions involved in their digitization as vvell as cause legal insecurity. The Directive does not

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meet expectations and presents merely a bad compromise, which causes more problem s then it solves.

Certain Copyright Issues Concerning the Establishment of a Digital

Repository at the University of Ljubljana

Miha Juhart

University is an environm ent where new knowledge is being created continu- ously. The intellectual creations produced comply vvith ali criteria o f copyrighted work. The universitys mission is to distribute knowledge and thus enhance the conditions for new creation. Online publication enables fast, easy and efficient access to scientific texts and thereby significantly alters the relationships previ- ously based 011 printed publications, which have created a special position of publishers as economic operators vvith a m onopoly on knowledge distribution. The principle o f open access helps spread knowledge by providing scientific and research publications 011 the Internet vvithout subscription or copyright restric- tions. In the academic world, open access is im plem ented in the form of open scientific and professional journals as well as digital repositories that publish works of university lecturers and students. Such repositories are an excellent benchm ark for quality of a university, since they reveal its entire scientific and research vvork. This is especially im portant for a public university, which fulfils its mission and justifies its social role through such presentation.

Two main m ethods o f open access can be identified. The so-called green open access (or self-archiving) means that authors upload their contributions to the digital repository o f their hom e institution prior to or simultaneously with its publication in a scientific journal, but the text becomes openly accessible only after an embargo period. A nother m ethod is the gold open access, under vvhich the first publication o f a scientific works already complies with the conditions o f open access. For publication in open access mode, the copyright and related rights on the vvork in question have to be cleared first. The article discusses the problem s o f obtaining appropriate rights for open access publication in the system o f University of Ljubljana and its digital repository (RUL). The copyright issues of RUL are closely linked to certain specific characteristics o f the universitys operation. A special legislative regulation o f this area might be in plače in order to find an appropriate balance betvveen the interests o f authors and the public, both in term s of access to knovvledge as vvell as quality assurance in higher education. The purpose of university repositories to take on graduallv the task o f university libraries should be taken into account.

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Legal Protection of Databases - Selected Legal AspectsJure Levovnik

In the European Union, legal protection of investments in the creation of databases is based on one o f the most curious institutions of intellectual property law, the so-called sui generis right vvhich comes into existence if the creation o f a database has resulted from a substantial investment and vvhich, to a certain extent and vvith certain lim itations, prohibits th ird parties from taking actions that could unreasonably prejudice the database m akers legitimate interests related to such investment. Directive 96/9/EC of the European Parliam ent and of the Council of 11 March 1996 on the legal protection of databases introduced this exclusive right vvith the aim to foster investments in the production of databases as advanced inform ation storage and processing systems. This article discusses, to a lim ited extent, some of the fundam ental aspects o f legal protection based on the sui generis right, namely: legal definition of a database, conditions for the emergence and ovvnership o f the sui generis right and content and infringem ent of the sui generis right. As vvill be dem onstrated, the regulation o f the sui generis right is very vague in several respects and leaves a lot o f room for different interpreta- tions. For instance, the broad definition o f the term ‘database’ could potentiallv allovv for the protection of compilations, vvhich are not understood as databases in com m on language. Furtherm ore, the condition for the right to become existent (substantial investment) is designed in a vvay that gives the courts a broad range o f options to justify either existence of non-existence of the right and to take into account specific characteristics of a database at hand. A similar finding applies to the infringem ent test, as the existence of an infringem ent depends on vvhether or not the conduct of a third party causes detrim ent to the substantial investm ent of the rightholder. The article concludes vvith a short overvievv of certain practical aspects o f the sui generis right enforcem ent in the context of vvhich it also presents hovv diligence (and also ingenuity) o f the database maker already in the phase o f creation of a database can significantly affect the subsequent successfulness o f proving the existence, ovvnership and infringem ent o f the sui generis right.

Three-Dimensional Printing and Intellectual Property RightsMatija Damjan

Three-dim ensional (3D) printing is a m anufacturing technology that signifi- cantly simplifies the production o f v'arious three-dim ensional physical objects, including complex products vvith movable internal parts. The spread of lovv-cost 3D printers will enable the consum ers to produce on their ovvn many useful or artistic objects. The article discusses hovv the possibility of reproducing exist- ing artvvorks or commercial products vvith 3D printing is compatible vvith the

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protection of such objects under intellectual property (IP) law. None of IP rights (copyright, patent, design or tradem ark) applies to ali types of three-dim ensional objects, so we cannot speak of a general system o f their legal protection. This differs from the situation vvith purely digital goods, such as e-books, mušic, films or Computer program m es, which are ali prim arily subject to copyright (and may additionally be covered by o ther IP rights). Consequently, it has to be ascertained separately for each three-dim ensional object vvhether it is legally protected at ali and by which type of IP rights.

The exact scope o f perm itted reproduction o f protected objects vvith 3D printing depends on the type o f IP right in question. Nevertheless, a general conclusion is that a private individual may reproduce any object vvith 3D p rin t­ing vvithout breaching any IP rights, as long as its use is lim ited to private non- commercial purposes. U nder copyright law, an individual may even engage a commercial provider of 3D printing to produce for him a private reproduction of a copyrighted object. Com panies and other legal entities, on the o ther hand, face more restrictions in 3D reproduction o f protected objects, even for their own purposes. Generally, the 3D reproduction of protected objects for commercial use, such as the sale of reproductions to consum ers, is not permissible. Hovvever, the production o f špare parts for commercial products is allovved under patent and industrial design law, subject to certain conditions. These exceptions set out a clear outline o f legitimate use of the new technology, thus releasing the producers o f 3D scanners and 3D printers o f any liability for contributory infringem ent of IP rights in the reproduced objects.

A specific issue is the permissibility of digital dissem ination of Virtual GAD models that can be used for 3D printing o f protected objects. In copvrighted objects, a CAD model can be considered a reproduction o f the protected object and its dissem ination may violate the au thors m aking available right. In relation to patents, tradem arks and industrial design, hovvever, an infringem ent occurs only if the protected object is physically produced, while merely producing and dissem inating CAD files does not violate the original m anufacturers’ exclusive rights. In case any right holders’ claims are directed against the operator of a file- sharing website where CAD files are available, the operator can rely on the safe haven provision of Article 14 of the Electronic Com m erce Directive. To establish the operator’s liability based on the actual knovvledge and active inducem ent of the infringem ent, the claimant would have to prove both that the violation of his rights by 3D printing has actually occurred and that the operator’s intent vvas to bring about such an infringem ent. Due to the relatively wide scope o f legitimate use o f CAD models, the success o f such claims seems unlikely.

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III. Procedural Issues in the Internet Environment

E-commerce and International Jurisdiction over Consumer DisputesAleš Galič

The Brussels I Regulation protects the consumer, vvho is regarded as econom i- cally vveaker and less experienced in legal matters than the o ther party to the contract, by rules of jurisdiction more favourable to his interests than the general rules o f jurisdiction. The special jurisdictional protective regime, however, does not extend to ali types of consum er contracts. In addition to contracts for sale on instalm ent credit term s or com bined with a consum er credit, it applies only in cases where the trader pursues commercial or professional activities in the State o f the consum ers domicile or directs such activities to that State by any means and the contract falls within the scope of such activities. This requirem ent gives rise to the question whether (and if, to what extent and under vvhat conditions) it can be established that the trader who is (either directly or through interm e­diaries) present on the Internet “directs commercial or professional activities” to the country of the consum ers domicile.

In 2010, the C ourt o f Justice of the European Union delivered a landm ark decision in jo in t cases o f Pam m er and Hotel Alpenhof, in which it clarified this dilem m a to a certain extent, but not fully. Inter alia, it clarified that the mere accessibility o f the traders or o f the in term ediarys website in the M em ber State where the consum er is dom iciled is insufficient in order to establish that the trader directed commercial activities to the country of the consum ers domicile. It m ust be apparent from his (or the interm ediarys) website and the traders overall activity that the trader was envisaging doing business with consum ers domiciled abroad. In order to enable such a conclusion, the CJEU provided a non-exclusive list o f circumstances, which can be relied upon in order to establish such intent o f the trader. The question however is vvhether this list is not so broad that at least one of the circum stances will inevitably be fulfilled in m ost cases of traders presence in Internet.

Follovving the aforem entioned CJEU judgm ent, num erous new dilem m as appeared. In the M iihlleitner judgm ent, the CJEU clarified that in order to establish that by engaging in m arketing on the Internet the trader directed its activities to the M em ber State o f the consum ers domicile, it is not necessary for the contract between the consum er and the trader to be concluded at a distance. Additionally, in a rather controversial judgm ent in the Em rek case, the CJEU extended the applicability o f the aforem entioned provisions and principles even if no causal link exists between the means used to direct the commercial or

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professional activity to the consum ers’ M em ber State, and the conclusion o f the contract (e.g. cases vvhere the consum er wasn’t even aware of the trader s presence on Internet in the tim e of conclusion of the contract).

By analysing of the aforem entioned judgm ents of the CJEU, the author criti- cally assesses w hether the C ourt has not in fact extended the limits o f consum er protection beyond what the drafters o f the Brussels Regulation vvanted (and perhaps beyond w hat is needed) and w hether this will necessarily apply to the construction of the Rome I Regulation as well. C oncerning the language o f the vvebsite as an indication of the traders intention to direct its commercial activi- ties to the country o f the consum ers domicile, a danger also exists that both the traders as vvell as the consum ers from the M em ber States w ith “small languages” will be discrim inated against.

Defamation and the Violations of Privacy via the Internet Under Eu Private International LawJerca Kramberger Škerl

In the article, defamation and the violations of privacy com m itted via the Internet are studied from the point of view of EU private international law. The author describes the current problems in this field arising from the fact that usuallv a num ber o f courts have jurisdiction to decide such cases and, moreover, from the absence of a unified conflict of laws rule on the matter.

More than one court having jurisdiction over ihe same dispute is not unusual or per se problematic; on the contrary, this should enable the m ost appropriate court to decide the case. But in a situation where there is no com m on conflict of laws rule, each of the com petent courts will apply their national conflict o f laws rule to determ ine the applicable substantial law, according to vvhich the dispute vvill be resolved. Plaintiffs are thus m ost likely to choose the court that vvill, under its national conflict o f lavvs rule, apply the lavv under vvhich the plaintiff is m ost likely to, firstly, vvin the case, and secondly, be avvarded the highest damages. Such a situation is also called ‘forum shopping’, or, as regards defam ation, ‘libel tourism ’

Even though the dam aged party usually enjoys special legal protection, a fair balance must be struck betvveen the procedural (and consequentially substantive) rights of both parties. This balance is very hard to find in the field o f defamation and privacy, since it is inseparably connected vvith striking a balance betvveen freedom o f speech, on one hand, and personality rights, on the other, ali of them being fundam ental rights protected by the constitutions of EU M em ber States, as vvell as the European Convention 011 H um an Rights and the EU C harter of Fundam ental Rights.

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The jurisdiction of EU courts (in cases where the defendant is domiciled in the EU) is determ ined by the Brussels I Regulation, specifically by the rule 011 jurisdiction for non-contractual obligations. Over the years, the CJEU has devoted great effort to interpreting this rule in such a way that the particularities of violations com m itted via the Internet (or, before that, o ther ‘mass media’, such as television or the press) sought after. The ultim ate solution would naturally be the unification of substantive rules, but this stili seems to be very far away.

Electronic Service of DocumentsNeža Pogorelčnik

The developm ent of inform ation technology and technical devices and, as a consequence, increased use of the Internet caused a requirem ent for legal regula­tion o f electronic com m erce and of electronic service delivery as a part o f it. The article first presents the developm ent of legal regulation o f electronic com m erce at the international, European and Slovenian level. The author discusses the regula­tion of electronic service delivery according to Slovenian Civil Procedure Act and its com parison to the relevant rules in crim inal and adm inistrative proceedings. Special attention is paid to the legal fiction o f service, when the addressee does not pick up the electronic legal docum ent waiting in the secure electronic system, and the problem of running 15-day period in which he or she has to do so. The introduction o f electronic form of service into court proceedings vvill simplify the adm inistration o f the courts and vvill make the service more transparent, cheaper, faster and m ore reliable. O n the first glance, there are m any advantages of electronic form o f service, but only after it is applied in practice, the disad- vantages vvill be seen as vvell.

IV. Information Technology in the Field of Public Law

The Extent of Online Gambling RegulationKatarina Zajc, Neža Muhič, Luka Markelj

O nline gambling is the fastest grovving service in the EU, vvith an annual grovvth rate of 15% and estim ated 2015 revenues o f 13 billion EUR. W ith the developm ent of nevv technologies, especially the Internet, gambling has acquired a huge market, so that today online gambling is accessible to ordinary consum ers of ali segments of the population. W ith the availability, or better yet intrusion, of gambling into the homes o f consum ers, online gambling has been characterized as norm al, acceptable and morally uncontested. Hovvever, gambling is not only

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fun, but also a source o f various risks, for example addiction, fraud, m oney laun- dering, etc. It is these very risks o f (online) gam bling that cause a need for strict legal regulation of gambling in individual countries. The aim o f this article is to present legal regimes o f online gambling in the EU M ember States through the prism of the judgm ents of the C ourt o f Justice of the European Union and the principles of the internal m arket with the application to the Slovenian regulation of online gaming, with a focus on issues arising from the im plem entation of the national legislation relating to the Internet.

Some Legal and Economic Aspects of Virtual Currencies Meta Ahtik

In the recent period, several Virtual m oney schemes have appeared. It is pos- sible to treat them as a natural part o f the developm ent of digital and Virtual world; however, it rem ains difficult to predict how long they will last. Anyhow, they will probably influence the developm ent of m oney and legal theories o f money. None of the Virtual currencies fits into the prevailing legal theory of money, although thev might, in case a certain scheme expands and its m oney becomes widely used, correspond to the social theory of m oney - a theory that has recently gained im portance am ong legal scholars. Virtual currencies are close to the economic theory of free banking, according to w hich every bank can issue its own private money and the free market determ ines which one survives. Nevertheless, history has proven that free-riders wanting to benefit from the free-banking system of the 19th C entury in the U nited States m anaged to destroy it.

Though gaining im portance, Virtual currency schemes encom pass the am ount of m eans that corresponds to only 0.1% of the euro area M3. Nevertheless, several lavv disciplines are affected by the use o f Virtual currencies, especially bitcoin, that rem ain m ost com m on subject o f Virtual currency regulation. Most countries have decided to tax the incom e from trading or acquiring bitcoins. Similarly, many countries dem and from their com panies to im plem ent m easures for p reven- tion o f m oney laundering and financing o f terrorism , while licensing of bitcoin trade platform s rem ains less com m on. Slovenia has adopted first tvvo solutions, vvhile no a priori regulation of bitcoin exchanges exists so far. W arnings issued at the EU (European Banking Authority) and Slovenian (Bank of Slovenia) level should be preferably supplem ented vvith a certain level o f regulation, especially due to the fact that Virtual currencies, namely bitcoin, exhibit several specula- tive patterns.

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The User of a Mobile Device - A Victim of a Crime or Its Perpetrator?Sabina Zgaga, Blaž Markelj

The use of mobile devices, especially in business environm ent, can also be relevant from the viewpoint o f crim inal law. This has becom e o f even greater im portance lately due to the increased use of mobile devices and thereby access to sensitive data and especially due to the exponent growth o f threats to mobile security. The assessment whether a user of a mobile device should be considered a perpetrator or victim of a crim inal act in a situation when he or she accesses the protected data in the inform ation system of an organisation by not using the mobile in a proper and prescribed manner, and thereby potentially also causes unlavvful access to protected data for others, should be m ade through the appli- cation of the elements of the general definition of a crim inal act. As always in a case o f crim inal responsibility, it should be established w hether in a concrete case the definition of a crim inal act is fulfilled, w hether the act is in fact unlawful and vvhether the perpetrator acted with guilt. To make this assum ption, several questions should be answered, such as w hether the user was aware o f threats to mobile security and of the prescribed m anner of use o f the mobile device and w hether there is any regulation on proper use of mobile devices inside the inform ation system of the organisation at ali.

First part o f the article therefore presents the inform ation security aspect and focuses on the growth o f use o f mobile devices, the different aims of using mobile devices and the avvareness of threats to inform ation security and proper protection. Based upon the first part, the second part o f the article then discusses potential crim inal responsibility and tries to draw a line between the victim and the perpetrator of a crim inal act. In connection vvith this, it defines relevant crim inal acts for vvhich the user o f mobile devices could be held crim inally responsibly, the issue of merger o f offences, the prescribed duty of action or omission of the user of mobile devices and especially the relevant forms of guilt and the relevance o f his potential m istake of lavv.

V. The Influence of Information Technologies on the Legal System

Internet Access as a Fundamental RightMatija Damjan

The Internet is fast becom ing a cornerstone o f the inform ation and com- m unication infrastructure of m odern society; therefore, it is an im portant tool

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for the exercise o f hum an rights and fundam ental freedoms. Any state-m andated lim itation of an individuals Internet access thus interferes severely vvith the per- sons constitutional rights. The article deals vvith the conditions for admissibility o f such measures in the light o f the decisions in the French HADOPI case. The State can also interfere vvith the freedom of the Internet by blocking certain vvebsites or IP-addresses. Blocking does not prejudice only the content provid- ers’ rights, but also limit the users, as they can no longer access any part o f the Internet. Freedom o f expression includes the freedom to receive inform ation, so the censorship of vvebsites affects not only content providers, but also the general puhlic. The author finds that protecting the Internet just as a mere means for the realisation of hum an rights is not sufficient anymore. The freedom o f the Internet itself should be constitutionally guaranteed as vvell.

Online Publication of Judicial Decisions and Its Impact on the Case Law Lojze Ude

Internet databases of case lavv, especially if they contain ali decisions of the Supreme C ourt and of ali higher courts in Slovenia, affect not only the reasoning of judicial decisions, but also the very substance of judicial decision-m aking. The rules on revision as an extraordinary legal remedy in the current Civil Procedure Code list am ong the criteria for the admissibility o f revision such term s as “to ensure legal certainty”, “uniform application of the lavv”, “developm ent o f the lavv through case lavv”, “departure from the case lavv of the Supreme C ourt”, “lack of case lavv” and “lack o f uniform ity in the Supreme C ourts jurisprudence”. This dem onstrates that the case lavv is o f the utm ost im portance for the admissibility of this extraordinary remedy. For this reason, it is also of utm ost im portance that as m any court decisions are published as possible, as this allovvs the determ ina- tion vvhether a revision is admissible in a particular situation.

Before 1978-1980, significant parts o f civil lavv (e.g. obligations lavv, tort lavv, property lavv and even the enforcem ent procedure) vvere not regulated by valid legislation in Slovenia, thus there vvere a num ber of quasi lacunae that had to be filled by the courts. Thus jurisprudence exercised a creativ'e function in the form ation of the lavv and vvas not lim ited to its interpretation. After the adoption of nevv legislation, this role o f jurisprudence vvas reduced. Nevertheless, the nevv regulation o f extraordinary judicial revievv in com bination vvith online databases o f the courts’ decision have once again increased the im portance o f case lavv. Currently, the Supreme C ourt publishes online ali its decisions, vvhile higher court publish only the im portant decisions. Hovvever, the publication o f judicial decisions is not legally compulsory, as for example in Germany. The names of the parties and of the judges are not listed.

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A study of current case law in the field of insolvency has shown that the case law regarding individual institutes or statutory provisions is often inconsistent. It seems that the publication of a small num ber of judicial decisions does not lead to attem pts to unify the case law. It is therefore only possible to speak of coherent case law once the num ber of published decisions representing a certain interpretation of law increases. The Supreme C ourt should adopt a more active role in unifying the jurisprudence, either through extraordinary judicial revievv or by adopting an opinion o f principle. It is clear that Online publication of judicial decisions and following of the case lavv established therein is useful both to ensure the equality o f parties before the lavv and the rule o f lavv itself. Hovvever, some general rules on the m anner of publication of judicial decisions are necessary. Except in cases personal, business or official secrecy, there is no reason to delete the nam es o f natural o r legal persons in judicial decisions prepared for publica­tion. In any case, the names o f ali the judges who participated in the decision should be published.

Artificial Intelligence in LavvAndrej Grah Whatmough, Boštjan Koritnik

At the heart o f every lawyers job lies ‘norm ative concretization o f a general and abstract legal rule that can be discerned from the formal legal source’ - sub- sum ing facts o f the case at hand to the m ost suitable abstract prem ise vvhich is apparent from legislation and other legal sources, vvhich enables the lavvyer to determ ine the legal consequence(s) that result(s) from the facts of the case at hand. In doing this, the lawyer relies on data - data concerning the circum stances o f the case at hand as vvell as the provisions of legal acts or o ther legal sources.

This paper deals vvith the project o f a group of Sloveni an innovators, the purpose o f vvhich is to use knovvledge-based inform ation systems to drastically change the legal system, especially vvith a vievv of providing greater objectivity in (legal) adm inistrative and court procedures, and thus providing a greater degree o f legal certainty.

As presented in the paper, the potential of using artificial intelligence in lavv is considerable. Namely, artificial intelligence could be used to (1) recognise the constituent com ponents o f legal provisions, as (2) an aid in legal decision-making, finally culm inating in (3) autom ated decision-m aking - the boldest (for the time being at least) potential use of artificial intelligence in lavv.

In the near future we may in particular expect broader usage of the first possibility, vvhile in more distant future, attempts, at least, at concretization of the second and th ird possibility. Although the latter two require a large m ental

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(and also ethical) leap, they do not, in term s of required technology, bring about substantial upgrade o f the first possibility.

We believe that greater use of artificial intelligence in law has the potential to reduce the num ber o f legal disputes, mainly due to two factors. First, disputes could be resolved early on by legal advisors and lawyers, who would, before subm itting the dispute to the court, examine the solutions o f the concrete ques- tion in the inform ation system supported by artificial intelligence. Second, when disputes do emerge, mediators would be able to use the inform ation system to search for the m ost suitable solution and suggest it to clients.

The benefits o f artificial intelligence in law will be reaped by everyone, not merely those working in the field of law. Physical docum ents shall be replaced by electronic applications and adm inistrative body decisions will be instant, as the Computer system will reach the decision itself. Only in case o f an appeal shall a lawyer, again using the IT system, revievv the decision.

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