60th Conference February 19-22, 2020

St. Louis, Missouri

BACKGROUND MATERIALS

Economic and Social Council Prepared by: Stephanie Liechty, Lindsey Tyson, Chase Mitchell, and Teague Broquard

Contributions from: Jazmin Burch

All materials ©2019 Midwest Model United Nations. For any questions regarding preparation for committee, contact Under-Secretary-General of Operations Kyle Callen at usgo@mmun.org or

Assistant Secretary-General of Operations Lydia Magalhaes at asgo.mmun.org@gmail.com

Economic and Social Council

Committee Mandate

The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) was established in 1945 by Chapter X of the Charter of the United Nations as one of the six main organs of the United Nations (UN).1 ECOSOC plays a facilitative role as a forum for dialogue regarding sustainable development; focusing on economic, social, and environmental matters.2 To ensure inclusive discussion and promote best practices throughout the UN system as well as outside entities, ECOSOC coordinates the activities of UN specialized agencies and non-governmental organizations (NGOs). ECOSOC also works diligently to foster partnerships with parliamentarians, civil society groups, businesses, youth organizations, and academia.3 In addition to facilitating dialogue, ECOSOC may also make recommendations to the UN General Assembly, UN Member States, or any relevant specialized agency regarding international economic, social, cultural, health, or educational matters.4 These recommendations may also include subject areas pertinent to the respect of human rights and fundamental freedoms.5 Since its inception, the mandate of ECOSOC has been strengthened by the UN General Assembly (UNGA), particularly in 2013 through UNGA Resolution 68/1. After this resolution passed, ECOSOC was mandated to provide overall guidance to the UN development system and to coordinate follow-ups for the outcomes of major international conferences and summits in the economic, social, environmental and related fields.6 Additionally, ECOSOC now plays a lead role in identifying and addressing new and emerging international issues and does so by selecting a yearly theme to promote this agenda throughout the UN system.7 Currently, ECOSOC manages several subsidiary bodies including functional and regional commissions, standing committees, expert bodies, and others.8 Additionally, ECOSOC holds several substantive sessions to discuss emerging global trends, including ECOSOC’s High-Level Segments which hosts a diverse group of high-level representatives from government, the private sector, civil society, and academia each year.9 The theme of the 2019 session was “Empowering people and ensuring inclusiveness and equality” which was hailed by the Secretary-General of the UN as a topic that opens a discussion on eliminating all forms of discrimination, reducing economic inequalities, and promoting the empowerment of those who are most vulnerable, as stated in ECOSOC Resolution 2019/65.10

Membership

1 United Nations Conference on International Organization, Charter of the United Nations, 1945. 2 United Nations Economic and Social Council, “About ECOSOC,” n.d. 3 Ibid. 4 United Nations Conference on International Organization, Charter of the United Nations, 1945. 5 Ibid. 6 United Nations General Assembly, Review of the implementation of General Assembly resolution 61/16 on the strengthening of the Economic and Social Council, A/RES/68/1, 2013. 7 Ibid. 8 United Nations, "Subsidiary Bodies of ECOSOC," n.d. 9 United Nations, “ECOSOC High-level Segment,” n.d. 10 United Nations Economic and Social Council, Empowering people and ensuring inclusiveness and equality, report of the Secretary-General, E/RES/2019/65, 2019.

There are 54 Member States in ECOSOC, each elected by the UN General Assembly to three-year overlapping terms.11 These seats are balanced evenly between each geographical region: 14 seats for African States, 11 seats for Asian States, 6 seats for Eastern European States, 10 seats for Latin American and Caribbean States, and 13 seats for States in the Western Europe and other States.12 This is to ensure all regions are represented to provide a worldwide perspective for discussions. ECOSOC operates under sovereign equality; thus, no State has special veto powers and all States have only one vote.

Reporting

ECOSOC works with a multitude of different partners both within and outside of the UN system. Several of these entities report directly to ECOSOC including UN Specialized Agencies, which are largely independent entities that operate within the UN framework. These agencies include the International Labour Organization, the United Nations Industrial Development Organization, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, among others.13 Additionally, the Council has established several commissions, committees, and expert bodies that also report to ECOSOC.14 These entities often deal with specific areas of ECOSOC’s mandate or assist the Council in day-to-day functioning. Some of these entities include the Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice, the Commission on the Status of Women, the Committee for Programme and Coordination, the Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues.15 ECOSOC functions much like the UN General Assembly in that Member States debate a topic, write working papers, and submit those papers to become draft resolutions on which all Member States are allowed one vote. If adopted by a majority of Member States, the draft resolutions will then be reviewed and voted on once more by the body. All draft resolutions that are passed by a majority will then be adopted as resolutions of ECOSOC.

11 United Nations Economic and Social Council, “Members,” n.d. 12 United Nations, Economic and Social Council, “FAQ,” n.d. 13 United Nations Economic and Social Council, “ECOSOC System,” n.d. 14 Ibid. 15 United Nations Economic and Social Council, "Reports," n.d.

Bibliography

United Nations. Economic and Social Council. “About ECOSOC.” N.d. Accessed on June 01, 2019. http://www.un.org/en/ecosoc/about/. United Nations. Economic and Social Council. "ECOSOC High-level Segment." N.d. Accessed June 03, 2019. https://www.un.org/ecosoc/en/events/2019-6. United Nations. Economic and Social Council. “ECOSOC System.” N.d. Accessed August 09, 2019. https://www.un.org/en/ecosoc/about/pdf/ecosoc_chart.pdf. United Nations. Economic and Social Council. “FAQ.” N.d. Accessed on September 1, 2019. https://www.un.org/ecosoc/en/FAQ#currentmember. United Nations Economic and Social Council. “Members.” N.d. Accessed August 09, 2019. https://www.un.org/ecosoc/en/content/members. United Nations. Economic and Social Council. "Reports." N.d. Accessed June 03, 2019. https://www.un.org/ecosoc/en/documents/reports. United Nations. Economic and Social Council. "Subsidiary Bodies of ECOSOC." N.d. Accessed June 03, 2019. https://www.un.org/ecosoc/en/content/subsidiary-bodies-ecosoc. United Nations Conference on International Organization. Charter of the United Nations. 1945. https://www.un.org/en/sections/un-charter/un-charter-full-text/. United Nations General Assembly. Review of the implementation of General Assembly resolution 61/16 on the strengthening of the Economic and Social Council. A/RES/68/1. 2013. https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N13/439/51/PDF/N1343951.pdf?OpenElement.

Economic and Social Council

Topic A: Sustainable Education Infrastructure for the Achievement of Sustainable Development Goal 4

Introduction

Meeting the targets and indicators of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) as outlined in Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development remains a priority for the international community, and is at the forefront of the work of the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC).16 SDG 4 was created to promote high-quality inclusive and equitable education and lifelong learning for all.17 Infrastructure plays an important role in achieving this goal and its targets and comes in a variety of forms. Infrastructure can be thought of as the system of tools and resources to achieve an impact, and education infrastructure refers to the systems in place that provide access to education. Education infrastructure could refer to the roads necessary for transportation to school, the physical school building itself, teaching supplies such as books and pens, and even the teachers providing the education.18

Background

Though the creation of SDG 4 and international efforts to focus modern education development strategy around the targets therein, it is important to note that education has been a topic of discussion for the United Nations since its inception. In 1946, the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) was created, which is a body that became a significant contributor to education access worldwide.19 UNESCO provides financial, logistical, and technical assistance through a diverse roster of programs, initiatives, and partnerships. Other significant milestones in education access include The Convention on the Rights of the Child, the Education for All (EFA) initiative, and its subsequent reports that have been released since 1990, and recently the Global Education Monitoring (GEM) reports.20 Article 28 of The Convention of the Rights of the Child reaffirms that all children should have equal opportunities and rights in education and that primary education should be available and free for all, a goal set in 1989 that has yet to have been universally achieved.21 Although education may begin with the child, lifelong learning has become an increasingly significant topic in the international community and an important aspect to consider in in educational development strategies.22 When EFA began in 1990, it had clear objectives that applied to all stages of human development and growth.23 The outcome of the first World Conference on Education for All was the World Declaration on Education for All: Meeting Basic Learning 16 United Nations General Assembly, Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, A/RES/70/1, 2015. 17 Ibid. 18 The World Education Form, Incheon Declaration and Framework for Action for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 4, 2016. 19 Japan Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, “History of UNESCO,” 2019. 20 United Nations General Assembly, Convention on the Rights of the Child, A/RES/44/25, 1989; The World Bank, “Education for All,” 2014; United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, “Global Education Monitoring Report,” 2019. 21United Nations General Assembly, Convention on the Rights of the Child, A/RES/44/25, 1989. 22 Education Cannot Wait, “International Day of Education Message from the UN Secretary-General,” 2019. 23 The World Bank, “Education for All,” August 4, 2014.

Needs, which addressed current problems and understandings of educational shortcomings including that education must be achieved to bolster development.24 Other major points of the report were financing for education, achieving primary education for all young persons, improving school conditions including facilities, well-trained teachers, safe transport, the need for more post-literacy schools for adults, and sustainable development.25

Current Situation

As of 2015, 58 million children remained out of school and 100 million children would not complete primary education.26 Conflict zones remain a barrier to universal access to education and education remains underfinanced, with few governments prioritizing education in their national budget plans.27 Adult education has achieved less than that of children from 2000-2015 where the rate of illiteracy dropped from 18% to 14%.28 The completion of secondary education increased during that time period, but with great disparity between developed and developing nations, as well as between socioeconomic classes within Member States.29 Despite these setbacks, the number of children and adolescents with access to inclusive and equitable education improved by almost half from what they had been in 2000.30 While gender disparity still remains a problem and a key focus for the international community, gender disparity in access to education has decreased significantly since the adoption of the SDGs.31 The most recent published GEM report from 2019, Migration, displacement, and education: building bridges, not walls and its summary indicated additional pressing issues. Many governments have taken steps to include migrants and displaced persons into their education systems by moving away from previous assimilation strategies and adopting multiculturalism within their curriculums.32 Sometimes immigration laws can deny education to someone who is undocumented, regardless of why they have left of their country of origin.33 In addition to systemic barriers, teachers of migrants and displaced peoples often lack the proper tools, language skills, training, or resources to educate students of diverse cultures, backgrounds, and languages.34 Adults migrants and refugees face increased barriers to education, as their inclusion is often seen as less important than children. This often creates isolationism as well as much higher barriers to entering into the workforce of their new society.35

Vocational Training

Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) programs and initiatives are a clear bridge that connects education to working class populations from all geographic regions, both urban and rural.36 TVET is a means to address economic, social and environmental demands 24 World Conference on Education for All Inter-Agency Commission, Final Report: World Conference on Education for All: Meeting Basic Learning Needs, 1990. 25 Ibid. 26 United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Education for All 2000-2015: Achievements and Challenges, Summary, 2015. 27 Ibid. 28 Ibid. 29 Ibid. 30 Ibid. 31 Ibid. 32 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Executive Summary, Global Education Monitoring Report 2019, Migration, Displacement, and education, 2019. 33 Ibid. 34 Ibid. 35 Ibid. 36 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, “Skills for work and Life,” 2019.

by helping both youth and adults develop skills needed for employment, decent work and entrepreneurship.37 In this way, TVET promotes equitable, inclusive, and sustainable economic growth and assists transitions to green and digital economies.38 TVET is a significant priority for education development because of the multifaceted way in which it benefits communities. When people have access to TVET, they are more prepared for the workforce, which is directly linked to declining unemployment rates and promoting economic development. An expansion of the national workforce also bolsters the economy, which significantly improves the lives of national populations and therefore increases the capacity of Member State governments for development of all kinds.39 Ways to address the some of the problems aforementioned can come from partnerships such as the UNESCO-UNEVOC, a partnership between UNESCO and the International Centre for Technical and Vocational Education and Training.40 TVET is an integral part of a Member State’s ability to participate in the fourth industrial revolution.41 In the past, TVET programs may have been looked at as a method to provide only for skill development in the labor market, the programs must now be able to support engaging stakeholders, employers, and individuals in creating livelihoods that support a sustainable economy.42 The self-guided assessment workshops being created with the UNESCO-UNEVOC project aim to find best practices and launch successful TVET-style programs that can be implemented in an country and mapping the type of innovation that works best to help support such programs.43 The Youth Employment in the Mediterranean (YEM) project is a UNESCO-UNEVOC initiative in collaboration with the European Union.44 YEM aligns with the UNESCO Strategy for TVET (2016-2021) and aims to help countries in the South Mediterranean Region provide TVET programs with work-based learning to prepare both men and women to enter the modern and digital workforce.45 Many TVET programs are not fully funded and require some financial contributions from the student, which makes them less accessible.

Education in National Budget Planning

Though education has seen higher financial commitments since 2000, many nations still don’t have education prioritized in their national budget planning. The Incheon Declaration and Framework for Action for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 4 released by UNESCO in coordination with several other agencies suggests a need for increased public funding to education by “widening the tax base (in particular, by ending harmful tax incentives), preventing tax evasion and increasing the share of the national budget allocated to education.”46 The report also calls for prevention of discrimination, funding of risk-assessments, increased funding to teacher training, and ideas for bilateral and multilateral initiatives for such funding.

37 Ibid. 38 Ibid. 39 Ibid. 40 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, “Promoting learning for the world of work,” 2019. 41 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, UNEVOCTVET Leadership Programme 2019, 2019. 42 Ibid. 43 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, “Promoting learning for the world of work, UNESCO-UNEVOC organizes Guided Self-Assessment Workshop in 20 Countries” 2019. 44 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, “Youth Employment in the Mediterranean,” 2019. 45 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, “Skills for work and Life,” 2019; United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, “Youth Employment in the Mediterranean,” 2019. 46 The World Education Form, Incheon Declaration and Framework for Action for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 4, 2016.

The resources listed in the Incheon Declaration and Framework for Action for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 4 provide valuable best practices and other tools for Member States that can assist in the development of a national budget that provides adequate funding for sustainable education infrastructure development.47 An effective national budget not only provides funding for necessary infrastructure, but also provides for solutions to the barriers that inhibit access to high-quality, inclusive, and equitable education for all peoples. Developing these solutions within a national budget is a best practice for addressing inadequate access to education.48

Transportation

Children of conflict areas are less likely to receive primary education, partially due to the lack of access to safe transportation to and from education institutions. The United Nations Secretary-General’s High-Level Advisory Group on Sustainable Transport has created recommendations in relation to this concern.49 Understanding that transportation in it of itself is not the goal, but rather the means of getting persons safely to and from a destination, such as an educational facility, that allows them to function in society is the objective.50 The United Nations Secretary-General’s High-Level Advisory Group on Sustainable Transport has called for builders and experts to provide modes of transportation for education and other needs in developing countries through public-private partnerships. Transportation is different in every situation, but the need for safe and accessible transportation remains universal.51

Future Outlook

There is still a decade left to achieve SDG 4 and the rest of the SDGs but, as the Millennium Development Goals proved, the international community cannot achieve these goals without continuing to develop, modify, and share best practices to make a significant and lasting impact on the state of access to education. Going forward, there is a renewed interest in the international community regarding the more tangible aspects of sustainable education infrastructure, schools, teaching supplies, and transportation, as well as soft infrastructure such as TVET training programs, teacher-training, adult literacy schooling, and the commitment of Member States to provide smart funding to educational practices. As with most complex problems that the international community has been trying to improve upon since its inception, there isn’t one universal solution that will work in every region and situation, and there has been significant progress in developing and adapting strategies with a regional and cultural focus in order to deliver specialized and effective solutions.

Focus Questions

• What are the main barriers for children, youth, and adults in your nation to accessing educational opportunities?

• How far has your Member State come in meeting the goals of SDG 4? It’s specific targets?

• Does your country have a specific plan for achieving SDG 4?

47 Ibid. 48 Ibid. 49 United Nations Secretary-General’s High-Level Advisory Group on Sustainable Transport, “Mobilizing Sustainable Transport for Development,” 2016. 50 Ibid. 51 Ibid.

• How is education planned for in your country? How is it funded? Who creates educational programs?

• Does your Member State lack any type of educational opportunities such as TVET and adult literacy programs?

Bibliography

Education Cannot Wait. “International Day of Education Message from the UN Secretary-General.” 2019. Accessed on August 25, 2019. https://www.educationcannotwait.org/international-day-of-education-message-from-the-un-secretary-general/. Japan Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. “History of UNESCO.” 2019. Accessed on August 25, 2019. http://www.mext.go.jp/en/unesco/title03/detail03/1373237.htm. The World Bank. “Education for All.” August 4, 2014. Accessed on August 25, 2019. https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/education/brief/education-for-all. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Education for All 2000-2015: Achievements and Challenges, Summary. 2015. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000232565. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Global Education Monitoring Report 2019. 2019. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000266092. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. “Promoting learning for the world of work.” 2019. Accessed on August 25, 2019. https://unevoc.unesco.org/go.php. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. “Promoting learning for the world of work, UNESCO-UNEVOC organizes Guided Self-Assessment Workshop in 20 Countries.” 2019. Accessed on August 25, 2019. https://unevoc.unesco.org/go.php?q=ihubs_GSA_2019. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. “Skills for work and Life.” 2019. Accessed on August 25, 2019. https://en.unesco.org/themes/skills-work-and-life. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization et al. “Youth Employment in the Mediterranean.” 2019. Accessed on August 25, 2019. https://unevoc.unesco.org/yem/YEM+Home. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization et al. UNEVOCTVET Leadership Programme 2019. 2019. https://unevoc.unesco.org/pub/unevoctlp_2019.pdf. United Nations General Assembly. Convention on the Rights of the Child. A/RES/44/25. 1989. https://undocs.org/A/RES/44/25. United Nations General Assembly. Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. A/RES/70/1. 2015. http://undocs.org/a/res/70/1. United Nations Secretary-General’s High-Level Advisory Group on Sustainable Transport. “Mobilizing Sustainable Transport for Development.” 2016. https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/2375Mobilizing%20Sustainable%20Transport.pdf.

World Conference on Education for All Inter-Agency Commission. Final Report: World Conference on Education for All: Meeting Basic Learning Needs. 1990. http://www.unesco.org/education/pdf/11_93.pdf. The World Education Form. Incheon Declaration and Framework for Action for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 4. 2016. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000245656.

Economic and Social Council

Topic B: Empowering Vulnerable Groups through Access to Information and Communications Technology

“Inclusiveness, especially digital inclusiveness is one of the most important enablers to achieving this noble aspiration for equality and strengthening the implementation of the

SDGs.”52 —Ban Ki Moon, Former Secretary-General of the United Nations

Introduction

Information and communication technologies (ICTs) include mobile telephone and communication systems; Internet networks and broadband; and other technologies that provide access to information. There is widespread international recognition that access to ICTs is critical to achieve the economic, social, and cultural pillars of sustainable development, including those in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, the global framework that established the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).53 While none of the SDGs are solely focused on ICTs, many of the goals include ICT targets and indicators. The 2030 Agenda states that “the spread of information and communication technology and global interconnectedness has great potential to accelerate human progress, to bridge the digital divide and to develop knowledge societies.”54 Although there have been many international efforts to improve access to information, only 50 percent of the global population is expected to be connected to the Internet by the end of 2019.55 This relative lack of access, which extends to telephones services and other technology, is often referred to as the “digital divide.”56 Due to a lack of resources, a traditional lack of targeting for services, and other barriers, socioeconomically disadvantaged populations are the most likely to lack basic access to ICTs.57 Women, the impoverished, the elderly, and rural populations have disproportionately limited access, which can exacerbate their vulnerable situation by limiting their access to information and ability to interact with their government.58 Vulnerable groups can have decreased access to global networks and markets and limited communication with their families, limiting their ability to contribute to local and national development.59 Increasing access to ICTs for vulnerable groups can have transformative developmental effects, but providing ICTs can be costly and difficult, especially for populations that may already lack basic infrastructure such as electricity.60 These realities have led to a widening of the digital divide in some countries and plans to

52 Moon, United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, “Side Event: Expanding Internet Access for Inclusive Development – Opening Remarks,” 2019. 53 “Ensuring access to and security of ICTs,” United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 2014. 54 United Nations General Assembly, Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, A/RES/70/1, 2015. 55 “Ensuring access to and security of ICTs,” United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 2014. 56 “Information and Communications Technologies Integrally Tied to Sustainable Development, Speakers Say at Second Committee Debate,” United Nations Department of Public Information, 2016. 57 Chen, The Global Digital Divide – Within and Between Countries, IT & Society, 2004, page 42. 58 Ibid. 59 Ibid. 60 United Nations General Assembly, Information and communications technologies for sustainable development, A/RES/73/218, 2018.

improve ICT access, build up infrastructure, and empower vulnerable groups have yet to be realized globally.61

Background

Access to information has been repeatedly affirmed as a right by the United Nations (UN), starting with General Assembly resolution 59 in 1956, which states that “freedom of information is a fundamental human right and is the touchstone of all the freedoms to which the United Nations is consecrated.”62 This right was is also outlined within the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) and the 1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR).63 The UDHR and ICCPR also enumerate several rights that address the root causes of lack of access to ICTs, including the right to an adequate standard of living and the right to work.64 As the use of ICTs grew, international frameworks that addressed them became more specific and increasingly sought to ensure that their benefits were more equitably distributed. In 1993, the Vienna Declaration not only reaffirmed the right to access to information but went on to state that “everyone has the right to enjoy the benefits of scientific progress and its applications,” including information technology.65 By the end of the 1990s many industrialized countries had undergone massive digital transformations and the international community began to recognize the intrinsic link between ICTs and the realization of human rights. The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) was the first major international body to call for international action to improve access to ICTs. In its 2000 Ministerial Declaration, titled Development and international cooperation in the twenty-first century: the role of information technology in the context of a knowledge-based global economy, ECOSOC recognized that the majority of the world population still lived in poverty and remained untouched by the “ICT revolution” creating a critical need for improved access.66 This ECOSOC document was referenced directly by the Millennium Declaration, which inspired the creation of the Millennium Development Goals and was the predecessor to the 2030 Agenda.67 These calls led then UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan to launch the UN ICT Task Force, which brought together the private sector, governments, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), foundations, and UN bodies in an effort to improve access to ICTs and leverage them globally.68 The Task Force undertook many initiatives, including launching a global volunteer network to improve access to ICTs and working with technology companies to bring down costs so that vulnerable populations could more readily access ICTs. Before the Task Force ceased operations in 2005, it was instrumental in the establishment and operation of the World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS).

61 “UN Broadband Commission sets global broadband targets to bring online the world’s 3.8 billion not connected to the Internet,” International Telecommunications Union, 2018. 62 United Nations General Assembly, Calling of an International Conference on Freedom of Information, A/RES/59(I), 1946. 63 United Nations General Assembly, Universal Declaration of Human Rights, A/RES/217(III), 1948; United Nations General Assembly, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, A/RES/2200A(XXI), 1966. 64 Ibid. 65 World Conference on Human Rights, Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, 1993. 66 Economic and Social Council, Ministerial declaration of the high-level segment submitted by the President of the Council – Development and international cooperation in the twenty-first century: the role of information technology in the context of a knowledge-based global economy, 2000. 67 United Nations General Assembly, United Nations Millennium Declaration, A/RES/55/2, 2000. 68 “UN Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) Task Force Launched Today at Headquarters,” United Nations Department of Public Information, 2001.

The WSIS is the largest international forum for discussing issues related to ICTs. The summit was created for the purpose of achieving “a common vision, desire, and commitment to build a people-centric, inclusive and development-oriented Information Society where everyone can create, access, utilize and share information.”69 The first WSIS was held in Geneva, Switzerland in 2003 and resulted in the adoption of the Geneva Declaration of Principles, a broad statement that established the basis for future work on ICTs.70 The Geneva Declaration recognizes that the international community should ensure that the needs of vulnerable groups are addressed with regards to ICTs.71 In 2005, at the next meeting of the WSIS, the Tunis Commitment was adopted by consensus and established an international imperative to “pay particular attention to the special needs of marginalized and vulnerable groups of society including migrants, internally displaced persons and refugees, unemployed and underprivileged people, minorities and nomadic people, older persons and persons with disabilities.”72 In order to realize this goal, and the other goals established in the Geneva Declaration and Tunis Commitment, a framework was also created – the Tunis Agenda for the Information Society. The Tunis Agenda calls for governments and other stakeholders to develop strategies, mechanisms, and processes that improve access to and utilization of ICTs in marginalized populations.73 The Agenda remains the preeminent framework on ICTs and is regularly followed up on by ECOSOC and its subsidiary commissions. In 2014, the United Nations held another international summit to follow up on implementation of the WSIS, WSIS+10. The WSIS+10 outcome documents highlight the progress in promoting digital inclusion for vulnerable and marginalized groups, but also recognized that many marginalized groups, especially those in remote areas, remained on the other side of the digital divide.74 The vision statement from WSIS+10 called for further international action to improve access to ICTs, citing well-established human rights frameworks, including the 1990 Convention on the Rights of the Child, the 1995 Beijing Declaration, and the 2006 Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities.75 One year after WSIS+10, the General Assembly adopted the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, further cementing international recognition of the need for renewed action on improving access to ICTs.76 Use of ICTs was considered cross-cutting in terms of achieving the SDGs, but some goals include specific references to ICTs, including SDG 4, which aims to increase the proportion of schools with access to electricity, the Internet, computers, and adapted infrastructure and materials for students with disabilities; and SDG 9, which seeks to significantly increase access to ICTs and provide universal and affordable access to the Internet in least developed countries by 2020.77 Recognizing that implementing the WSIS outcomes and achieving SDGs would require increased action on ICTs, the UN bolstered the annual WSIS Forum in 2016. Having previously been a relatively small annual event to discuss follow-up to the WSIS, the WSIS Forum is now

69 Sustainable Development Goals Knowledge Platform, “World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS),” n.d. 70 World Summit on the Information Society, Geneva Declaration of Principles, 2003. 71 Ibid. 72 World Summit on the Information Society, Tunis Commitment, 2005. 73 Ibid. 74 International Telecommunications Union, WSIS+10 Outcome Documents, 2014. 75 Ibid. 76 United Nations General Assembly, Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, A/RES/70/1, 2015. 77 Ibid.

the principle forum for discussion on ICTs as a means of implementation for the SDGs.78 The 2019 forum, held in April in Geneva, Switzerland, included many discussions addressing the digital divide and the importance of ensuring that vulnerable groups, especially persons with disabilities, have access to ICTs.79 Discussions at the Forum also addressed longstanding issues, including social biases and gender stereotypes that may inhibit access to ICTs, underdeveloped communications infrastructure, skills training, and emerging issues such as language sensitivities, cyber safety, and data protection.80

Current Situation

ECOSOC regularly discusses policy related to ICTs and access, most recently adopting E/RES/2017/21 on Assessment of the progress made in the implementation of and follow-up to the outcomes of the World Summit on the Information Society.81 ECOSOC has designated the Commission on Science and Technology for Development (CSTD) as the focal point for WSIS follow-up.82 The CSTD typically discusses and adopts a resolution on the topic each year.83 ECOSOC’s regional commissions also regularly discuss methods and policies that can improve ICT access. In May 2019, the UN Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific held a side event on expanding Internet access for inclusive development.84 Attendees discussed the importance of including vulnerable groups in development processes, including through a regional initiative to increase the availability and affordability of broadband Internet.85 The Economic Commissions for Europe, Africa, and Latin America and the Caribbean have also held events on access to ICTs. Outside of ECOSOC, the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) is the UN specialized agency tasked with developing standards, collecting and publishing information, and providing direct support in the field of ICTs.86 While much of the ITU’s work is in policy and standard-setting, it provides training on ICTs and works with governments and businesses to decrease the cost of ICTs and improve access.87 The UN Development Programme, by contrast, almost exclusively carries out on-the-ground projects, especially infrastructure projects, and regularly implements projects that seek to empower local communities through ICTs.88 There have been multiple international efforts specifically aimed at improving digital inclusion. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development launched the Technology Facilitation Mechanism (TFM), a robust international body with three core components.89 The first is a United Nations Interagency Task Team on Science, Technology and Innovation for the SDGs (IATT), including the 10-Member Group of representatives from civil society, the private sector

78 International Telecommunications Union, WSIS Forum 2019, “About,” n.d. 79 International Telecommunications Union, WSIS Forum 2019: High-Level Track Outcomes and Executive Brief, 2019. 80 Ibid. 81 Economic and Social Council, Assessment of the progress made in the implementation of and follow-up to the outcomes of the World Summit on the Information Society, E/RES/2017/21, 2017. 82 Ibid. 83 Ibid. 84 “75th Commission session Side Event on Expanding Internet Access for Inclusive Development,” United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, 2019. 85 Ibid. 86 International Telecommunications Union, “Our Vision,” n.d. 87 Ibid. 88 United Nations Development Programme, “Harnessing the power and potential of ICTs for local development,” 2012. 89 Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform, “Technology Facilitation Mechanism,” n.d.

and the scientific community.90 The second component is a collaborative Multi-stakeholder Forum on Science, Technology, and Innovation for the SDGs (STI Forum) The third component of the TFM is an online platform as a gateway for information on existing STI initiatives, mechanisms and programs.91 The TFM hosts a multitude of events and workshops aimed at eliminating the digital divide, harnessing ICTs for development, and promoting positive policy change in Member States. Often, private companies also play a major role in the TFM, and some have worked to address the affordability problem by examining new methods of rolling out ICT infrastructure. One example of this is Google’s Loon project, which seeks to provide Internet access to remote areas through high altitude balloons.92 Among the largest private-sector initiatives for access to ICTs is the One Laptop Per Child (OLPC) initiative, which was supported and funded by many private companies and sought to increase access to ICTs and education globally.93 While the UN cannot direct external organizations or companies to act, it often seeks to partner with them and assist in coordination between other entities via the TFM. Similarly, civil society and non-governmental organizations are outside of the UN system, but can be heavily involved not only in promoting such policies but also in directly improving access to ICTs for vulnerable populations.94 Although the UN has created these entities, international resources for improving access to ICTs are limited and many Member States struggle to fully implement ICT frameworks, especially providing access to vulnerable populations. Lack of affordability remains a challenge to digital inclusion across the developing world, and beyond the purchase of the technology itself, new power generation equipment and other infrastructure is often required before ICT access can be provided.95 In addition to infrastructure challenges, vulnerable groups that lack access to technology often need training on how to use it and, especially in the case of persons with disabilities and the elderly, often require modification of or specifically designed adaptive technologies to be able to effectively use ICTs.96 Even when the provision of necessary infrastructure and basic ICT devices is possible, the adoption of ICTs can be hindered by existing inequalities and pervasive cultural norms.97 Women in developing regions are likely to be less aware of mobile Internet, are provided less access, and can suffer from a higher level of illiteracy, limiting their use of technology to only the most basic functions.98 Although overcoming these barriers can require significant resources, some Member States have taken steps to do so.

The Case of Uruguay: Plan Ceibal

Inspired by work done in the private sector and by NGOs, including OLPC, Uruguay launched Plan Ceibal in 2007 with the goal of increasing social inclusion and opportunities by supporting education with technology.99 The government’s goal was to provide every student in a public school with a laptop and access to no-cost Internet service over the course of three years.100 By

90 Ibid. 91 Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform, “Technology Facilitation Mechanism,” n.d. 92 Broeders, “ICT and Inclusion: What about those who are left behind?,” Hexacta, 2017. 93 Ibid. 94 Ibid. 95 Sorgner, G20 Insights, “Bridging the Gender Digital Gap,” 2018; International Telecommunications Union, ICT for Energy – Telecom and Energy Working Together for Sustainable Development, 2017. 96 Kayira, Challenges in Promotion of Universal ICT Access and Services in Rural Malawi, CPRsouth8/CPRafrica2013 conference, 2013, page 7. 97 Sorgner, G20 Insights, “Bridging the Gender Digital Gap,” 2018. 98 Ibid. 99 Plan Ceibal, “What is Plan Ceibal,” n.d. 100 Ibid.

September of 2009, every student was provided a laptop, with 380,000 laptops distributed overall, and by 2010, Internet access was available in 89% of schools for 99% of students.101 The students owned their laptops and were able to bring them home, which extended digital access to their families, social groups, and communities that had never experienced the Internet before.102 After 2010, Plan Ceibal shifted towards other improvements such as providing adaptive technology for students with disabilities and examining new methods of teaching with digital access in mind.103 Additional training was provided for teachers and students, digital libraries were created, and the ICTs were leveraged to increase access to education in science, technology, engineering, and math.104 In 2011, the government set a new goal for Plan Ceibal: to provide basic English education in all schools.105 The government had previously struggled to provide adequate English language instruction due to a lack of qualified teachers in the country and the high cost of bringing in foreign instructors.106 Starting in 2012, the government formed a partnership with United States of America-based technology company Cisco to run a pilot program that used teleconferencing software to allow a single teacher to reach multiple classrooms.107 Over the course of four years, this pilot expanded into a full-fledged project that connected 1,300 schools and provided English language instruction to over 80,000 students.108 While Plan Ceibal has been touted as a massive success by the Uruguayan government, it also required significant resources and time to accomplish its goals. In 2010, Plan Ceibal’s president estimated the four-year cost per laptop to be USD 276, but just one year later revised the estimate to USD 400, meaning that the laptop investment alone was over USD 150 million.109 As a then upper-middle-income country, Uruguay had significantly more financial resources available to implement this project compared to most developing countries and, with an urbanization rate of over 90%, could do so more efficiently.110 Uruguay also benefited from a strong and stable government with high levels of public trust and infrastructure that placed it in the top half of global rankings.111 While many countries have policies in place aimed at improving access to ICTs, most have far fewer advantages.

The Case of South Africa: The Community Model

With significantly more territory and an urbanization rate almost a third lower than Uruguay’s, South Africa sought to improve ICT access for vulnerable populations using a different model. In 2002, South Africa’s Department of Science and Technology (DST) and Department of Rural Development and Land Reform (DRDLR) initialized the Digital Doorway project.112 Digital Doorway refers to standalone technology centers that are small rooms with 1 to 4 computer terminals.113 These terminals are available for public use 24 hours a day and include basic office 101 United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, “Plan CEIBAL is an initiative of the Uruguayan government intended to Grant universal access to laptop Computers and Internet,” 2010. 102 Ibid. 103 Plan Ceibal, “What is Plan Ceibal,” n.d. 104 Ibid. 105 Cisco, “Plan Ceibal: Uruguay’s Way to Digitization Based on Education and Social Inclusion,” 2016. 106 Ibid. 107 Ibid. 108 Ibid. 109 Derndorfer, “Plan Ceibal's 4-Year Cost Increases From $276 to $400,” OLPC News, 2012. 110 World Bank, “The World Bank in Uruguay: Overview,” n.d. 111 World Bank, “The World Bank in Uruguay: Overview,” n.d.; World Bank, “International LPI: Global Rankings 2018,” 2018. 112 CSIR Meraka Institute, The Digital Doorway: Computer literacy through unassisted learning, n.d. 113 Ibid.

software, a snapshot of Wikipedia, and thousands of books.114 The South African government’s goal was to improve digital literacy in communities where there was none, especially since only 20% of South African schools had at least one computer.115 The pods were designed to produce “minimally invasive education” and require little resources after deployed.116 In the first year, only a single pod was produced and placed into a community.117 By 2013, over 240 Digital Doorways were available for use throughout South Africa.118 As with Uruguay, South Africa’s Digital Doorways evolved over time. New versions were created that were logistically easier to deploy by fitting on a flatbed truck. Solar panels were affixed to the roof so that they could be used in communities without access to electricity.119 Additional software was added, specific workstations designed for disabled users were introduced, and a wireless hotspot was installed so that other devices could also connect to the Internet via the Digital Doorway.120 These systems often reach hundreds of users and, because they are community-oriented, have faced little vandalism or destruction.121 Outside of South Africa, community ICT solutions are not uncommon. In many developing countries, a single cell phone is often used by an entire community for external communication.122 The Digital Doorway project has seen little duplication, however, as it also requires significant resource investment. South Africa is also a middle-income country that, while not having the same advantages as Uruguay, had available resources and expertise to implement the initiative.123 South Africa has also not reached the same level of success as Uruguay, with less than 60% of South Africans having access to the Internet.124 This number is even lower for vulnerable groups.125 Community-based solutions may be more cost-effective but are still difficult to implement in many developing countries.

Future Outlook

The SDGs set ambitious global targets not only for development but also for improving social justice, human rights, and access to technology. In many countries, vulnerable populations are not able to effectively contribute to the achievement of the SDGs because they have limited access to the required resources. ICTs and access to them can effect progress on almost every SDG, and several SDG targets are specifically centered around increasing ICT access.126 The UN Broadband Commission has set ambitious targets for ICT access, including every country having a funded national broadband plan by 2025 and that entry-level broadband services should be available globally for less than 2% of monthly gross national income per capita.127 Achieving the SDGs and other targets would require significant national and international investments not only in ICTs, but also in reducing the systemic cost of their dissemination.

114 Brand South Africa, “Opening SA’s digital doorway,” 2007. 115 Ibid. 116 Ibid. 117 Ibid. 118 CSIR Meraka Institute, The Digital Doorway: Computer literacy through unassisted learning, n.d. 119 Ibid. 120 Ibid. 121 Ibid. 122 United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, United Nations E-Government Survey 2012, 2012. 123 World Bank, “World Bank in South Africa: Overview,” n.d. 124 Matangira, “Nearly 60% of South Africans now have access to the Internet,” EyeWitness News, 2018. 125 Ibid. 126 International Telecommunications Union, “ICT4SDG Videos,” n.d. 127 United Nations Broadband Commission, 2025 Targets: Connecting the Other Half, 2015.

Focus Questions

• What UN bodies can support Member States in developing effective ICT policy? • How can the cost of ICTs and related infrastructure be reduced? • How can the UN and Member States partner with the private sector to increase access

to ICTS? • How can Member States ensure that vulnerable populations are getting access to ICTs

that they can use? • What digital solutions might empower vulnerable populations to be more connected?

Bibliography

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Economic and Social Council

Topic C: Strengthening the Coordination of Humanitarian Assistance

Introduction

Among the purposes of the United Nations (UN) stated in the Charter of the United Nations is “to achieve international co-operation in solving international problems of an economic, social, cultural, or humanitarian character.”128 The UN often provides humanitarian assistance and acts as a central coordinator in the aftermath of man-made and natural disasters. Due to the often unpredictable nature of crises, the UN and its organizations, including the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) and the Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC), are constantly working to strengthen their response to and coordination of humanitarian assistance. Without humanitarian assistance, the effects of natural disasters, armed conflicts, and other devastating events are longer lasting and more severe.129 Humanitarian assistance, as defined by the UN, starts with providing immediate assistance to victims of emergencies and is usually followed by long-term rehabilitation and development.130 In 2018, there were 135.3 million people in need of humanitarian assistance, necessitating USD 25.2 billion in funding for OCHA alone.131 The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) has regularly addressed these issues, most notably through creating the IASC and by adopting resolutions addressing the issue of humanitarian assistance each year. OCHA is currently addressing humanitarian crises in countries including Syria, Iraq, South Sudan, and Yemen, each of which require rapid, strategic, and efficient humanitarian assistance.132 Man-made disasters can include fires and explosions, water and air disasters, and terrorism whereas natural disasters can include floods, droughts, storms, earthquakes, extreme temperatures, landslides, wildfires, and volcanic activity.133 Man-made disasters can have a devastating impact on communities in many ways, including financially, politically, and on the access to human rights observed by communities.134 ECOSOC therefore endeavors to provide a multifaceted approach to humanitarian assistance, particularly through its humanitarian affairs segments.135

Background

In 1943, two years prior to the formal creation of the UN, the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA) was created to provide humanitarian assistance to Europe after the destruction of the Second World War.136 The UN, then coalition of 44 countries, developed the UNRRA to promote economic development and repatriate and assist refugees, with the ultimate goal of preventing relapse into another conflict.137 This goal was reiterated in

128 United Nations Conference on International Organization, Charter of the United Nations, 1945. 129 United Nations Department of Public Information, “Humanitarian Assistance,” n.d. 130 Ibid. 131 United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, “Global Humanitarian Overview 2018,” n.d. 132 General Assembly, Strengthening of the coordination of emergency humanitarian assistance of the United Nations, A/73/78-E/2018/54, 2018. 133 United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction, “Home,” n.d.; “Facts + Statistics: Man-made disasters,” Insurance Information Institute, 2019. 134 Ibid. 135 United Nations Economic and Social Council, “About Us,” n.d. 136 United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, “United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration,” n.d. 137 Ibid.

the 1945 Charter of the United Nations, which included in its preamble that the peoples of the United Nations were determined “to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war.”138 Member States pledged, in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), to “achieve, in co-operation with the United Nations, the promotion of universal respect for and observance of human rights and fundamental freedoms.”139 The UDHR enumerated several rights, including the right to life, liberty, and security of person, rights which are often at risk during humanitarian crises.140 The UDHR also established the right to an adequate standard of living, health and well-being, food, housing, and medical care.141 International humanitarian assistance efforts are often spurred when human rights have been violated, abused, or ignored. These rights, and others, would be reinforced by other human rights documents, including the 1966 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the 1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and the 1974 Universal Declaration on the Eradication of Hunger and Malnutrition, which was the first document to explicitly recognize the right of all people to be “free form hunger and malnutrition.142 In 1992, the IASC was formed to strengthen humanitarian assistance, spurring the development of new frameworks. The first was the Yokohama Strategy and Plan of Action for a Safer World: guidelines for natural disaster prevention, preparedness and mitigation, which was adopted at the World Conference on Natural Disaster Reduction held in Yokohama, Japan in May 1994.143 It came in response to General Assembly resolutions A/RES/44/236 and A/RES/46/182, both of which called for the adoption of global practices to prevent natural disasters.144 Its main purpose was to provide guidelines for natural disaster prevention, preparedness, and mitigation.145 The Yokohama Strategy placed primary responsibility for protection from disasters on each country, but also recognized that developing and least-developed countries required particular attention.146 The strategy also sought to develop and strengthen national capabilities and capacities for disaster prevention and to strengthen cooperation between regions, emphasizing the need for human and institutional capacity building, technology and information sharing, and the mobilization of resources.147 The Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015: Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters (HFA) was the successor to the Yokohama Strategy and was adopted at the 2005 World Conference on Disaster Reduction.148 Where Yokohama laid out high-level goals, the HFA was the first comprehensive plan to detail the work that is necessary from different stakeholders in order to reduce the number of disasters and disaster losses.149 The HFA had five distinct priority actions on which it called for action: ensuring that disaster risk reduction was a national and local priority with basis for implementation; identifying, assessing, and monitoring disaster risks; using knowledge, innovation, and education to create a culture of

138 United Nations Conference on International Organization, Charter of the United Nations, 1945. 139 United Nations General Assembly, Universal Declaration of Human Rights, A/RES/217(III), 1948. 140 Ibid. 141 Ibid. 142 United Nations General Assembly, Universal Declaration on the Eradication of Hunger and Malnutrition, A/RES/3180(XXVIII), 1974. 143 World Conference on Natural Disaster Reduction, Yokohama Strategy and Plan of Action for a Safer World: Guidelines for Natural Disaster Prevention, Preparedness and Mitigation, 1994. 144 Ibid. 145 Ibid. 146 Ibid. 147 Ibid. 148 United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction, “Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA),” n.d. 149 Ibid.

resilience in nations and communities; reducing risk factors; strengthening disaster preparedness in order to have effective responses at each bureaucratic level.150 As part of the post-2015 development agenda, the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction was adopted as the successor to the HFA in 2015. This 15-year, voluntary, non-binding agreement recognizes that Member States have the primary role of reducing risks of disaster. However, it also recognizes that responsibility should be shared with other stakeholders including local government, the private sector and others.151 Within the Sendai Framework are seven global targets aimed at reducing emergency-caused deaths so that humanitarian assistance is not needed in the same volume as it is now. Additionally, the Sendai Framework has four priorities for action including “understanding disaster risk, strengthening disaster risk governance to manage disaster risk, investing in disaster risk for resilience, [and] enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response and to ‘Build Back Better’ in recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction.”152 The Sendai Framework was designed to promote efficient and successful policy that should “support implementation, ensure engagement and ownership of action by all stakeholders, and strengthen accountability in disaster risk reduction.”153

Current Situation

In ECOSOC’s 2018 session, UN Secretary-General António Guterres reported, pursuant to A/RES/46/182, on emergency humanitarian assistance and how the UN is working to improve and sustain its current functions in many operations around the world.154 His report described humanitarian trends, challenges, and measures taken and made recommendations on how to continue the UN’s work on these issues. Such issues include the topics of respect for international humanitarian law and human rights law, severe food insecurity and the threat of famine, forced displacement, disasters and climate-related impacts, and anticipatory financing in the age of the 2030 Agenda and the commitment to leave no one behind. The report highlighted current efforts by the UN to provide food, drinking water, shelter, and other humanitarian services to peoples displaced by famine, war, and natural disasters.155 Additionally, the report addresses financial concerns that humanitarian projects will have to address so that their important work can continue. The UN has had success in its humanitarian assistance projects, such as its work to combat Ebola in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, droughts and food insecurity in Zimbabwe, and human rights abuses in the midst of the Syrian civil war.156 The Secretary-General’s report found that the global humanitarian assistance response network is strong and saving more lives than ever before, but also noted that many institutions still lack proper funding, with humanitarian aid reaching less than sixty percent of what the UN projects is needed.157

Cluster Approach

150 Ibid. 151 United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction, “Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction,” n.d. 152 Ibid. 153 Ibid. 154 United Nations General Assembly, Strengthening of the coordination of humanitarian emergency assistance of the United Nations, A/RES/46/182, 1991. 155 Briney, ThoughtCo., “History and Principles of the United Nations,” 2019. 156 United Nations Department of Public Information, Deliver Humanitarian Aid, n.d. 157 United Nations General Assembly, Strengthening of the coordination of emergency humanitarian assistance of the United Nations, A/73-78-E/2018/54, 2018.

The UN has found success in using a “cluster approach” to disasters. There are 11 different clusters including protection, emergency shelter, and nutrition, and each is led by a different UN agency.158 For example, the Health cluster is led by the World Health Organization; the Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene cluster is led by the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF); the Early Recovery cluster is led by the United Nations Development Program (UNDP); and the Food Security cluster is jointly led by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), and the World Food Programme (WFP).159 Each agency detailed here has its own area of expertise and is used to strengthen the coordination of humanitarian assistance in that area. While the current implementation of the cluster approach has drawn criticism as it can leave some stakeholders out while coordinating response, it has generally proven to be a fitting and relatively efficient way to organize humanitarian assistance.160 UN OCHA is responsible for coordinating responses to emergencies around the world and its head, the Under-Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs and Emergency Relief Coordinator, leads the IASC and oversees the implementation of the cluster approach.161 Known as the humanitarian arm of the UN Secretariat, OCHA is currently guided by its Strategic Plan 2018-2021, which includes organizational goals for better transformed coordination, situational awareness, humanitarian financing, international humanitarian and human rights law, access, protection, and leadership.162 OCHA’s work is complemented by the Central Emergency Response Fund (CERF), a fiscal resource for humanitarian assistance projects. CERF collects voluntary contributions into a single fund which is then distributed to humanitarians on the ground working in disaster-affected areas.163 If the needs are urgent and the use of CERF funds will save lives, per CERF standards, funds are immediately given to humanitarian organizations so they can carry out their work.164 Other UN entities are directly involved in service delivery during humanitarian emergencies. When disasters render surface transportation inefficient and/or impossible, the WFP’s UN Humanitarian Air Service provides light cargo transport that makes it safe, effective, and cost-efficient for humanitarians to get supplies to affected areas, which are often rural areas. In 2018 alone, this assistance served 16 countries with 323 destinations for 386,330 passengers.165 The UNDP specializes in disaster risk reduction and recovery and has worked to combat disaster risks that pose critical threats to achieving the SDGs.166 The UNDP is currently working in many countries in order to better predict and respond to a plethora of disasters requiring humanitarian assistance that is best suited for the area and type of disaster.167 There are also several UN bodies that address specific groups affected by disasters. The UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) leads and co-ordinates international action to protect refugees and resolve refugee problems worldwide for the nearly 71 million refugees around the world.168 As of May 2019, the UNHCR operates in 134 counties with over 16,800 personnel. UNHCR specializes in protecting the rights of people who are forced to flee their

158 Bajoria, “Improving UN Reponses to Humanitarian Crises,” UN Chronicle, 2011. 159 United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, “What is the Cluster Approach?” n.d. 160 Bajoria, “Improving UN Reponses to Humanitarian Crises,” UN Chronicle, 2011. 161 United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, “OCHA Leadership,” n.d. 162 United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, Strategic Plan 2018-2021, n.d. 163 United Nations Department of Public Information, “Deliver Humanitarian Aid,” n.d. 164 United Nations Central Emergency Response Fund, “Who We Are,” n.d. 165 World Food Programme, “UN Humanitarian Air Service,” n.d. 166 United Nations Development Programme, “Planet,” n.d. 167 United Nations Development Programme, “Planet,” n.d. 168 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, “Figures at a Glance,” n.d.

homes or home countries.169 UNICEF specializes in creating and promoting child protection, inclusion, and survival policies in disaster areas around the world.170 UNICEF also works with governments and at-war groups to encourage them to act in ways that protect children.171

Roadblocks to Humanitarian Assistance

There are often complications and roadblocks that stop or slow humanitarian assistance from getting to its intended place and having its intended effect. Excessive bureaucratic restrictions imposed by both state and non-state actors can impede assistance, humanitarian supplies and personnel are often subject to restrictions, and the realities of working in disaster-affected areas make logistics and coordination exceedingly difficult.172 In some conflict zones, humanitarian assistance is completely cut off from being able to bring in supplies or is unable to do so due to the security risks that would be faced by personnel.173 OCHA and other response agencies also often struggle to garner appropriate financial resources to adequately respond to disasters.174 In recent years, OCHA has faced a funding shortfall and, as it is primarily funded by voluntary contributions from Member States, there has been little improvement in the situation.175 These financial difficulties can be exacerbated by local realities. In Yemen, the local currency, the Yemeni Rial, rapidly depreciated along with the humanitarian situation.176 This not only led the UN to have difficulties in leveraging local resources to respond to the crisis, but also increased the need for assistance, as more of the population lacked adequate income as civil unrest and violence increased.177 OCHA has repeatedly called for increased contributions so that it can better support humanitarian response, and it has also sought to improve efficiencies and maximize the effect of its operating budget.178 In 2012, OCHA developed the Access Monitoring and Reporting Framework, “based on a typology of access constraints, in order to facilitate better data collection and analysis, and to inform policy and field operations access.”179 OCHA has also increasingly tried to leverage actors outside of the UN system through its Humanitarian Country Teams, which seek to bring together local governments, other Member States, the private sector, and non-governmental organizations, particularly local and regional chapters of the International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies.180

Addressing and Responding to Different Types of Humanitarian Disasters

Humanitarian assistance takes many forms depending on the nature of disaster being addressed; in many cases the same agencies will respond to both natural and man-made disasters. Member States work individually and regionally to develop protocols and emergency

169 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, “Who We Help,” n.d. 170 United Nations Children’s Fund, “What We Do,” n.d. 171 Ibid. 172 United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, “Humanitarian Aid,” n.d. 173 Ibid. 174 United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, “Global Humanitarian Overview 2018,” n.d. 175 Ibid. 176 Algabal, “Yemen: amid major roadblocks, an ‘unprecedented’ response to an unprecedented tragedy,” UN News, 2018. 177 Ibid. 178 United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, “Global Humanitarian Overview 2018,” n.d. 179 United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, “Humanitarian Aid,” n.d. 180 Ibid.

plans before disaster strikes and to ensure the best and most efficient response.181 While OCHA considers disaster preparedness a best practice and is recognized as such in the Sendai Framework, many Member States lack the capacity to develop and implement such plans. Some past international responses that lacked adequate planning or operational support have led to an exacerbation of crisis situations. In 2010, the UN responded to a large-scale earthquake in Haiti, but a lack of operational resources in the form of latrines led to UN personnel defecating in local water sources, which led to a massive cholera outbreak.182 In 2016, the UN admitted it played a role in the outbreak that led to thousands of additional deaths.183 When responding to natural disasters, the UN now works to provide humanitarian workers with help and adequate facilities in order to not become affected by or exacerbate the natural disaster, but financial resources to do so remain limited.184

Future Outlook

Humanitarian assistance regularly faces lapses in funding for critical efforts and many Member States struggle to implement the Sendai Framework and establish effective disaster plans.185 In some regions, man-made threats to human rights caused by a lack of recognition of these rights are on the rise, as are climate-change driven disasters, such as famine, drought, and hurricanes.186 As the international community seeks to improve humanitarian response, recognition and funding will continue to play an important role.

Focus Questions

• Are there ways to combat excessive bureaucracy in disasters areas? • How should specific kinds of disasters be addressed to best serve humanitarian

interests? • How would your country respond to a natural disaster such as flooding in an urban area? • How would a country in your geographical region with your economic capabilities

respond to a man-made disaster such as a civil war? • How can the cluster approach be reformed or improved?

181 Algabal, “Yemen: amid major roadblocks, an ‘unprecedented’ response to an unprecedented tragedy,” UN News, 2018. 182 Domonoske, NPR, “U.N. Admits Role In Haiti Cholera Outbreak That Has Killed Thousands,” 2016. 183 Ibid. 184 World Health Organization, Occupational health, “Health workers,” n.d. 185 General Assembly Economic and Social Council, Strengthening of the coordination of emergency humanitarian assistance of the United Nations, A/73/78-E/2018/54, 2018 186 United Nations and the Rule of Law, “Transnational Threats,” n.d.

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