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Médecine et maladies infectieuses 43 (2013) 363–367

General review

Bacteria and vampirism in cinema

Bactéries et vampirisme au cinéma

O. Castel ∗, A. Bourry , S. Thévenot , C. BurucoaLaboratoire de bactériologie et d’hygiène, UBM, CHU de Poitiers, BP 577, 86021 Poitiers cedex, France

Received 11 July 2012; received in revised form 15 May 2013; accepted 18 June 2013Available online 3 August 2013

bstract

A vampire is a non-dead and non-alive chimerical creature, which, according to various folklores and popular superstitions, feeds on blood ofhe living to draw vital force. Vampires do not reproduce by copulation, but by bite. Vampirism is thus similar to a contagious disease contracted byntravascular inoculation with a suspected microbial origin. In several vampire films, two real bacteria were staged, better integrated than others inopular imagination: Yersinia pestis and Treponema pallidum. Bacillus vampiris was created for science-fiction. These films are attempts to betterefine humans through one of their greatest fears: infectious disease.

2013 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.

eywords: Bacteria; Cinema; Film; Treponema pallidum; Vampirism; Yersinia pestis

ésumé

Un vampire est une créature chimérique ni morte et non vivante qui, suivant divers folklores et superstitions populaires, se nourrit du sang desivants afin d’en tirer une force vitale Les vampires ne se reproduisent pas par copulation mais par morsure. Le vampirisme s’apparenterait ainsi àne maladie contagieuse par inoculation intra vasculaire dont on peut soupconner une origine microbienne. Dans les nombreux films de vampire

e cinéma a mis en scène deux bactéries bien réelles, mieux intégrées que d’autres à l’imaginaire collectif : Yersinia pestis et Treponema pallidum.our la science-fiction, il a créé Bacillus vampiris. Tous ces films sont autant de tentatives pour cerner un peu mieux l’individu au travers de l’unee ces plus grandes craintes: la maladie infectieuse.

2013 Elsevier Masson SAS. Tous droits réservés.

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ots clés : Bactéries ; Cinéma ; Film ; Treponema pallidum ; Vampirisme ; Yer

. Introduction

A vampire is a non-dead and non-living chimeric creature,hich, according to various folklores and popular superstitions,

eeds on blood of living beings, feeds on blood to draw vitalorce. The legend of vampires finds its origins in ancient mytho-ogical traditions and vampire-like creatures are found in variousultures throughout the world.

In the XII century, vampires were supposed to be so com-on in England that they were burnt to answer the population’s

pitefulness [1]. Likewise, in the XV century, plague outbreaks

∗ Corresponding author.E-mail addresses: o.castel@chu-poitiers.fr, olivier.castel10@wanadoo.fr

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aused the population’s anti-vampire frenzy (especially in East-rn Europe).

The recent discovery of a XVI-century common grave on Venetian lagoon island, containing the remains of a femalevampire” (or at least considered as such by her contemporaries)upports the theory that in this period “vampires” were believedo be responsible for outbreaks such as the plague. The bodyound on the Lazzaretto Nuovo Island was buried with a brickedged between its jaws, probably to prevent it from sucking thelood of people presenting with plague the outbreak of whichared in the city, in 1576 [2].

The vampire character became particularly common in East-rn Europe, in the early XVIII century, in the Balkans, Greece,

umania, Bulgaria, and especially in Serbia where the wordampire first appeared during Arnold Paole’s trial in 1732 [3].he latter reported having been attacked by a vampire during

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64 O. Castel et al. / Médecine et ma

is military service. Soon after his death, there were reportsf victims with a bite mark on the neck in Paole’s village. Anrmy surgeon decided to open his grave, and traces of bloodere found blood on his body, especially around the mouth. The

orpse was “terminated” with a wood stake and witnesses wereorrified to hear the corpse controls utter a hoarse and powerfulry when the stake was driven though it.

Vampires do not reproduce by copulation, but by bite.ccording to popular belief “those who are killed by a vam-ire usually become vampires themselves” can be read in pages3 to 69 of the Mercure Galant, May 1693 issue [4].

Thus, vampirism (as a perversion consisting in the aggres-or’s bleeding to his victim) could be compared, because ofhe inoculation mode of transmission during the bite, to aontagious disease of microbial origin. The microorganism iso dreadful that there is a risk for the victim to turn into aampire.

Furthermore, much before the discovery of vaccines, Prussiannd Polish peasants did not hesitate to protect themselves byngesting a little blood found in the graves of vampires or bypreading some earth from the same grave around their houses.

. Yersinia pestis and vampirism

The vampire theme has inspired German poets and writersince 1748, when Heinrich Augustin von Ossenfelder wrote aoetry book including a poem called “Der Vampyr”. It was fol-owed in 1773 by Bürger’s “Leonore”, and in 1797 by Goethe’sDie braut von Korinth” (Fig. 1). In “Die braut von Korinth”oethe tells the story of a young woman buried “non dead”,

eeding on blood to survive in her grave.John Polidori created the most charismatic and sophisticated

ampire character in modern fiction in 1819. In his book “Theampire”, the living-dead hero was inspired by Lord Byron;ndeed, Polidori was his personal physician.

Nevertheless it was Bram Stoker’s “Dracula”, written in897, which became the genre standard, determining the vam-ire image still popular in fiction, even though it was quiteifferent from its folklore ancestors of which it keeps only fewriginal specificities.

The first cinematographic adaptation of Bram Stoker’s bookas probably the one made by Murnau in 1922: “Nosferatu, eineymphonie des Grauens”1. But the scenario does not strictlyollow the book’s plot because, among other reasons, Murnauid not have the means to buy of copyrights from Stoker’sidow. The names and places were changed. Even Nosfer-

tu was very different from Dracula: he was pale, rigid, bald,nd deformed, like a cadaver with wasted hands and an obnu-ilated stare whereas Stoker’s Dracula was a suave, elegant,ysterious, and refined gentleman. Murnau’s influence on vam-

ire movies was considerable because in his film, his vampireas destroyed by daylight (this photosensitivity was compared

o that of porphyria), whereas in Bram Stoker’s book, count

1 Nosferatu, eine Symphonie des Grauens (titre francais : Nosferatu le vam-ire). Réalisateur : Friedrich-Wilhelm Murnau, Allemagne : 1922 ; 94 min.

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infectieuses 43 (2013) 363–367

racula walks in broad daylight. Daylight has become syn-nymous of death for a vampire since Murnau’s film cameut.

Murnau associated vampirism and the plague in this cinemaasterpiece, since the boat taking Nosferatu to Wismar also

arbored disease (Fig. 2). The question remains as to this waseally the plague or if this was the only explanation found by theopulation, frightened by the increasing number of mutilatednd bloodless corpses. Seeing rats on the boat and in the harborelped confusing the audience: were rats and their fleas vectorsf the disease or were they only companions of the “vampirelague” coming from far-eastern Europe and infecting Wismar?

In 1979, Werner Herzog adapted Bram Stoker’s novel: “Nos-eratu Phantom of the night”, film which received four awardsnd three nominations2. It was the story of Hutter, a young notaryublic’s clerk, who left to finish a sale with a castle owner in thearpathian range. After threatening encounters and evil war-ings, he was received by count Orlock who was none otherhan the reincarnation of the vampire Nosferatu. The plagues strongly suggested is with numerous rats symbolizing theisease (Fig. 2).

Two others films have associated vampirism and the plague:

“The Satanic Rites of Dracula” was made by Alan Gibsonwith Christopher Lee in 19733. In the movie, Van Helsingdiscovers satanic masses made by a strange leader in a mys-terious London: Dracula in person. The latter, assisted bymilitary personnel and rich capitalists, has decided to upsetthe British regime, and to spread the black plague. Van Helsingmust fight him;

“Leonor” was made by Juan Luis Bunuel in 1975 with MichelPiccoli and Liv Ullmann4. The action takes place in the middleages: a lord, first inconsolable, marries again and soon his firstwife’s ghost come to him. A stranger offers to bring his wifeLeonor back from the dead and he accepts. But Leonor hasbecome a vampire and the plague begins to break out. Thecaptivating medieval atmosphere in this movie combines alove story and death, with the association of a living-deadand the curse of plague carried by an evil wind.

. Treponema pallidum and vampirism

The modern AIDS pandemic has taken the leadership fromhe plague, as a symbolic representation of epidemic death.efore AIDS, syphilis had made a deep symbolic mark in theollective unconscious and many films have used this dramaticorce. The references to the plague, so present in “Nosferatu”,

2 Phantom der Nacht (titre francais : Nosferatu Fantôme de la Nuit). Réalisa-eur : Werner Herzog, Allemagne/France : 1979 ; 107 min.

3 The Satanic Rites of Dracula (titre francais : Dracula vit toujours à Londres).éalisateur : Alan Gibson, Grande Bretagne : 1973 ; 87 min.4 Leonor. Réalisateur : Juan Luis Bunuel, Espagne/France/Italie : 1975 ;01 min.

O. Castel et al. / Médecine et maladies infectieuses 43 (2013) 363–367 365

Fig. 1. Posters of films Nosferatu, eine Symphonie des Grauens (1922), Nosferatu the Vampire (1922) by Manau, Count Dracula and the Vampire Bride by AlanGibson (1973), Leonor by Juan Luis Bunuel (1975), and Nosferatu Phantom of the night by Werner Herzog (1979).Affiches des films Nosferatu, eine Symphonie des Grauens (1922), Nosferatu the Vampire (1922) by Manau ; Count Dracula and the Vampire Bride d’Alan Gibson(1973) ; Leonor de Juan Luis Bunuel (1975) et Nosferatu Fantôme de la Nuit de Werner Herzog (1979).

Fig. 2. First image of the film Nosferatu by Murnau showing rats leaving the ship’s hold with coffins and the vampire’s pestilential mists; scene showing theimportance of rats in the film Nosferatu Phantom of the night by Herzog.P le dum erzog.

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remière image du film Nosferatu de Murnau montrant les rats sortant de la caontrant l’importance des rats dans le film Nosferatu Fantôme de la Nuit de H

eeing some rats racing around. There are many references toexual decadence and to its inherent consequences. No movieas been made associating vampirism and AIDS; this raiseshe question of the required incubation period, in the collectivenconscious, for a new pandemic infectious disease to triggerinematographic creation.

The hypothesis according to which Bram Stoker, the authorf Dracula, would have died from sequels of syphilis was onlyecently ruled out. In Coppola’s film “Bram Stoker’s Dracula”,rofessor Van Helsing first appears during a lecture on sexuallyransmitted diseases5.

“Bram Stoker’s Dracula” is modern version of the vampireegend (Fig. 3). Lucy, a sex-starved young woman, who openlyourts 3 men, quickly becomes Dracula’s victim, while Jonathanust escape from the three demons that keep him prisoner in the

astle. The decadence of the bourgeois society is stressed by theord SIN that appears in the liquid deformation an absintheottle label.

5 Bram Stoker’s Dracula (titre francais : Dracula). Réalisateur : Francis Fordoppola, États-Unis : 1992 ; 128 min.

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navire convoyant les cercueils et les brumes pestilentielles du vampire ; scène

The inherent violence of intercourse is brilliantly demon-trated in the parallel development, typical of Coppola, betweenina and Jonathan’s marriage and Lucy’s murder by Dracula

s a wolf. Doctor Van Helsing was the one who best statedhis: “Civilization and syphilization progressed together”. Thisolds true for the cinematographic versions of Bram Stoker’sovel5,6.

. Bacillus vampiris: the identified agent of vampirism

“I am Legend”, by the American author Richard Matheson, isonsidered as a great classic science-fiction novel [5,6] (Fig. 4).t was published in 1954 and has been adapted three times as aovie.This is the story of Robert Neville’s tragic fate, as the last

urvivor of a pandemic that began in California. This outbreak

as caused by a bacillus that the bacteriologist hero was able

o isolate and that the author called Bacillus vampiris. This bac-erium, no listed yet in the official bacterial taxonomy, changes

6 Dracula. Réalisateur : Bill Eagles, Grande Bretagne : 2006 ; 90 min.

366 O. Castel et al. / Médecine et maladies infectieuses 43 (2013) 363–367

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Fig. 3. Posters of films Bram Stoker’s Dracula by FrancAffiches des films Bram Stoker’s Dracula de Franci

umans into wasted and cannibal beings, trop sensitive to UVso survive in the sunlight. Any individual infected by this bacil-us becomes allergic to odor of garlic, which induces nausea andmesis. The bacterium secretes an isotonic solution in blood, thepresence of which slows down blood flow but ensures functionalctivity of all the body. The bacillus feeds on fresh blood (ironapture by overexpressed siderophores) and provides the body

ith the energy it needs (symbiotism). Without blood, it sur-ives by sporulation or by engendering bacteriophages. It canive with or without oxygen (facultative aero-anaerobic). In the

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ig. 4. Posters of films The Last Man on Earth by Ubaldo Ragona (1964), The Omegffiches des films The Last Man on Earth d’Ubaldo Ragona (1964) ; The Omega Man

rd Coppola (1992), and Dracula by Bill Eagles (2006). Coppola (1992) et Dracula de Bill Eagles (2006).

ody, it lives in symbiosis with the whole system. The vampirerovides it with fresh blood; the bacillus provides energy to theampire, so that the vampire can continue providing the bacil-us with fresh blood. Incidentally, the bacterium also triggers anbnormal growth of canines by post-transcriptional regulationf tooth growth genes”.

The creatures that the disease has removed from humankind

re monsters humans can be protected from only by elimination.he hero was immunized by a bat bite (antagonism with the

abies virus?).

a Man by Boris Sagal (1971), and I am a Legend by Francis Lawrence (2007). de Boris Sagal (1971) et I am a Legend de Francis Lawrence (2007).

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[5] Matheson R. Je suis une légende. Traduction Claude Elsen. 10 Paris: Denoël,coll. Présence du futur; 1955, 246 pages.

[6] Matheson R. Je suis une légende. Traduction Nathalie Serval. 53 Paris:

O. Castel et al. / Médecine et ma

“The Last Man on Earth” was made by Ubaldo Ragona in964. In this movie, Robert Neville is the ultimate obstacle tohe birth of a new social and biological order, the vampires7.e must be eliminated. He enters the “legend” as the last Man,

entenced to death by an improvised court of vampires.In the 1971 version “The Omega Man” (in French “The

urvivor”) by Boris Sagal, vampires were replaced by albinosressed as medieval monks8. The memorable vision of a devas-ated Los Angeles while Charlton Heston drives in streets litteredith wrecks and cadavers contributed greatly to the film’s suc-

ess that rapidly became a cult and classic post-apocalypticcience-fiction movie. This film had the merit to present in a real-stic and rarely equaled manner the menace of a bacteriologicallague that still remains quite present in our minds.

The latest version has kept the original title “I am a Legend”as made by by Francis Lawrence in 20079. In this version, airus supposed to cure cancer, mutates and eradicates 90% ofuman beings. Most of the survivors present with rabies and arehanged into night creatures suggesting vampires. The others1% of humans) have miraculously resisted. One of these, ailitary scientist Robert Neville, played by Will Smith, has Nework for himself and decides to find the remedy that will save

he world.

. Conclusion

Vampirism has been the theme of a great filmography, closeo 200 films.

A Canadian movie made by David Cronenberg in 1977 shoulde mentioned as related to viruses. It is a revisited “underground”ersion of the vampire myth according to the moviemaker. Inhis film vampires do not have longer teeth but an appendageocated under the armpits.

Concerning bacteria, only nine films have suggested a rela-ionship between vampirism and infectious diseases.

Two bacteria responsible for a worldwide plague have beensed because of their symbolic power:

Yersinia pestis for its transmission and lethality as an almostunavoidable dreadful scourge. Between realism and symbol-

ism, the disease that has plagued humankind with 3 knownpandemics has been used abundantly in cinematographic pro-duction;

7 The Last Man on Earth (titre francais : Je suis une légende). Réalisateur :baldo Ragona, États-Unis/Italie : 1964 ; 86 min.8 The Omega Man (titre francais : Le Survivant). Réalisateur : Boris Sagal,tats-Unis : 1971 ; 98 min.9 I am a Legend (titre francais : Je suis une légende). Réalisateur : Francisawrence, États-Unis : 2007 ; 90 min.

infectieuses 43 (2013) 363–367 367

Treponema pallidum, less spectacular in its manifestationsand contagiousness. It symbolizes sexually transmissible bac-terial diseases before the era of AIDS.

Furthermore, a bacterial species, Bacillus vampiris, wasreated for science fiction to answer, not without wit, needsssociating the menace of a bacteriological plague with a recallf traditional vampirism.

These movies are as also attempts to better understandumans through one of their greatest fears: the infectious dis-ase.

isclosure of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interestoncerning this article.

ppendix A. Supplementary data

A French version of this article is available as a multimediaomponent. Supplementary materiel (pdf file) associated withhis article can be found at http://www.sciencedirect.com, atttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.medmal.2013.06.014.

eferences

1] Collin de Planey J. Dictionnaire infernal ou recherches et anecdotes. Paris:À la Bibliothèque Universelle de P. Mongié aîné; 1818, 582 pages.

2] Borrini M. La scopert a di una sepoltura di “vampiro”: archeologia eantropologia forense analizzano la genesi di una leggenda. In: Rendicontidella Società Italiana di Antropologia. 138 ed Etnologia, Archivio perl’Antropologia e l’Etnologia; 2008. p. 215–7.

3] Calmet A, de Sénones A. Traité sur les apparitions des esprits, et sur lesvampires, ou les revenans de Hongrie, de Moravie, etc. Avec une lettre deM. le marquis de Maffei sur la magie. Paris: Chez Debure l’ainé; 1751, 484pages.

4] Faivre A. Du vampirisme villageois aux discours des clercs. In: Faivre A,Marigny J, editors. Les vampires, Colloque de Cérisy. Paris: Albin Michel;1993. p. 45–74.

Gallimard, coll. Folio SF; 2001, 228 pages.