Banana

For the plant genus to which bananas belong, see Musa(genus). For other uses, see Banana (disambiguation).A banana is an edible fruit, botanically a berry,[1][2]

Four varieties of banana fruit

Banana farm at Chinawal, India

produced by several kinds of large herbaceous floweringplants in the genus Musa.[3] (In some countries, bananasused for cooking may be called plantains.) The fruit isvariable in size, color and firmness, but is usually elon-gated and curved, with soft flesh rich in starch coveredwith a rind which may be green, yellow, red, purple,

or brown when ripe. The fruits grow in clusters hang-ing from the top of the plant. Almost all modern edibleparthenocarpic (seedless) bananas come from two wildspecies – Musa acuminata and Musa balbisiana. Thescientific names of most cultivated bananas are Musaacuminata,Musa balbisiana, andMusa × paradisiaca forthe hybrid Musa acuminata × M. balbisiana, dependingon their genomic constitution. The old scientific nameMusa sapientum is no longer used.Musa species are native to tropical Indomalaya andAustralia, and are likely to have been first domesticated inPapua New Guinea.[4][5] They are grown in at least 107countries,[6] primarily for their fruit, and to a lesser ex-tent to make fiber, banana wine and banana beer and asornamental plants.Worldwide, there is no sharp distinction between “ba-nanas” and “plantains”. Especially in the Americas andEurope, “banana” usually refers to soft, sweet, dessert ba-nanas, particularly those of the Cavendish group, whichare the main exports from banana-growing countries. Bycontrast, Musa cultivars with firmer, starchier fruit arecalled “plantains”. In other regions, such as SoutheastAsia, many more kinds of banana are grown and eaten,so the simple two-fold distinction is not useful and is notmade in local languages.The term “banana” is also used as the common name forthe plants which produce the fruit.[3] This can extend toother members of the genus Musa like the scarlet ba-nana (Musa coccinea), pink banana (Musa velutina) andthe Fe'i bananas. It can also refer to members of thegenus Ensete, like the snow banana (Ensete glaucum) andthe economically important false banana (Ensete ventrico-sum). Both genera are classified under the banana family,Musaceae.

1 Description

The banana plant is the largest herbaceous floweringplant.[7] All the above-ground parts of a banana plantgrow from a structure usually called a "corm".[8] Plantsare normally tall and fairly sturdy, and are often mistakenfor trees, but what appears to be a trunk is actually a“false stem” or pseudostem. Bananas grow in a wide va-riety of soils, as long as the soil is at least 60 cm deep,has good drainage and is not compacted.[9] The leaves ofbanana plants are composed of a “stalk” (petiole) and ablade (lamina). The base of the petiole widens to form

1

2 1 DESCRIPTION

A banana corm, about 25 cm (10 in) across

Banana inflorescence, partially opened.

a sheath; the tightly packed sheaths make up the pseu-dostem, which is all that supports the plant. The edgesof the sheath meet when it is first produced, making ittubular. As new growth occurs in the centre of the pseu-dostem the edges are forced apart.[10] Cultivated bananaplants vary in height depending on the variety and grow-ing conditions. Most are around 5 m (16 ft) tall, with arange from 'Dwarf Cavendish' plants at around 3 m (10ft) to 'Gros Michel' at 7 m (23 ft) or more.[11][12] Leavesare spirally arranged and may grow 2.7 metres (8.9 ft)long and 60 cm (2.0 ft) wide.[1] They are easily torn bythe wind, resulting in the familiar frond look.[13]

When a banana plant is mature, the corm stops pro-ducing new leaves and begins to form a flower spike orinflorescence. A stem develops which grows up inside thepseudostem, carrying the immature inflorescence until

The female flowers (which can develop into fruit) have petals andother flower parts at the tip of the ovary (the ovary is “inferior”).

The Cavendish banana is the most common banana type sold.

eventually it emerges at the top.[14] Each pseudostem nor-mally produces a single inflorescence, also known as the“banana heart”. (More are sometimes produced; an ex-ceptional plant in the Philippines produced five.[15]) Afterfruiting, the pseudostem dies, but offshoots will normallyhave developed from the base, so that the plant as a wholeis perennial. In the plantation system of cultivation, onlyone of the offshoots will be allowed to develop in orderto maintain spacing.[16] The inflorescence contains manybracts (sometimes incorrectly referred to as petals) be-tween rows of flowers. The female flowers (which can de-velop into fruit) appear in rows further up the stem (closerto the leaves) from the rows of male flowers. The ovaryis inferior, meaning that the tiny petals and other flowerparts appear at the tip of the ovary.[17]

The banana fruits develop from the banana heart, in alarge hanging cluster, made up of tiers (called “hands”),with up to 20 fruit to a tier. The hanging cluster is knownas a bunch, comprising 3–20 tiers, or commercially as a“banana stem”, and can weigh 30–50 kilograms (66–110lb). Individual banana fruits (commonly known as a ba-nana or “finger”) average 125 grams (0.276 lb), of whichapproximately 75% is water and 25% dry matter.The fruit has been described as a “leathery berry”.[18]

3

There is a protective outer layer (a peel or skin) with nu-merous long, thin strings (the phloem bundles), which runlengthwise between the skin and the edible inner portion.The inner part of the common yellow dessert variety canbe split lengthwise into three sections that correspond tothe inner portions of the three carpels by manually de-forming the unopened fruit.[19] In cultivated varieties, theseeds are diminished nearly to non-existence; their rem-nants are tiny black specks in the interior of the fruit.[20]

Bananas are naturally slightly radioactive,[21][22] more sothan most other fruits, because of their potassium contentand the small amounts of the isotope potassium-40 foundin naturally occurring potassium.[23] The banana equiva-lent dose of radiation is sometimes used in nuclear com-munication to compare radiation levels and exposures.[24]

2 Etymology

The word banana is thought to be of West African origin,possibly from the Wolof word banaana, and passed intoEnglish via Spanish or Portuguese.[25]

3 Taxonomy

Banana 'tree' showing fruit and inflorescence.

The genus Musa was created by Carl Linnaeus in1753.[26] The name may be derived from Antonius Musa,physician to the Emperor Augustus, or Linnaeus mayhave adapted the Arabic word for banana,mauz.[27] Musa

is in the family Musaceae. The APG III system as-signs Musaceae to the order Zingiberales, part of thecommelinid clade of the monocotyledonous floweringplants. Some 70 species of Musa were recognized bythe World Checklist of Selected Plant Families as of Jan-uary 2013;[26] several produce edible fruit, while othersare cultivated as ornamentals.[28]

The classification of cultivated bananas has long been aproblematic issue for taxonomists. Linnaeus originallyplaced bananas into two species based only on their usesas food: Musa sapientum for dessert bananas and Musaparadisiaca for plantains. Subsequently further speciesnames were added. However, this approach proved inad-equate to address the sheer number of cultivars existingin the primary center of diversity of the genus, SoutheastAsia. Many of these cultivars were given names whichproved to be synonyms.[29]

In a series of papers published in 1947 onwards, ErnestCheesman showed that Linnaeus’s Musa sapientum andMusa paradisiaca were actually cultivars and descen-dants of two wild seed-producing species, Musa acumi-nata and Musa balbisiana, both first described by LuigiAloysius Colla.[30] He recommended the abolition of Lin-naeus’s species in favor of reclassifying bananas accord-ing to three morphologically distinct groups of cultivars– those primarily exhibiting the botanical characteristicsofMusa balbisiana, those primarily exhibiting the botan-ical characteristics of Musa acuminata, and those withcharacteristics that are the combination of the two.[29]Researchers Norman Simmonds and Ken Shepherd pro-posed a genome-based nomenclature system in 1955.This system eliminated almost all the difficulties and in-consistencies of the earlier classification of bananas basedon assigning scientific names to cultivated varieties. De-spite this, the original names are still recognized by someauthorities today, leading to confusion.[30][31]

The currently accepted scientific names for most groupsof cultivated bananas are Musa acuminata Colla andMusa balbisiana Colla for the ancestral species, andMusa × paradisiaca L. for the hybrid M. acuminata ×M. balbisiana.[32]

Synonyms of M. × paradisica include:

• A large number of subspecific and varietial names ofM. × paradisiaca, including M. p. subsp. sapientum(L.) Kuntze

• Musa × dacca Horan.

• Musa × sapidisiaca K.C.Jacob, nom. superfl.

• Musa × sapientum L., and a large number of its vari-etal names, including M. × sapientum var. paradisi-aca (L.) Baker, nom. illeg.

Generally, modern classifications of banana cultivars fol-low Simmonds and Shepherd’s system. Cultivars are

4 5 HISTORICAL CULTIVATION

A variety of banana cultivated widely in Indian state of Kerala,locally known as nendran

placed in groups based on the number of chromosomesthey have and which species they are derived from. Thusthe Latundan banana is placed in the AAB Group, show-ing that it is a triploid derived from both M. acuminata(A) andM. balbisiana (B). For a list of the cultivars clas-sified under this system see List of banana cultivars.In 2012, a team of scientists announced they had achieveda draft sequence of the genome of Musa acuminata.[33]

4 Bananas and plantains

In regions such as North America and Europe, Musafruits offered for sale can be divided into “bananas” and"plantains", based on their intended use as food. Thusthe banana producer and distributor Chiquita producespublicity material for the American market which saysthat “a plantain is not a banana”. The stated differencesare that plantains are more starchy and less sweet; theyare eaten cooked rather than raw; they have thicker skin,whichmay be green, yellow or black; and they can be usedat any stage of ripeness.[34] Linnaeus made the same dis-tinction between plantains and bananas when first nam-ing two “species” of Musa.[35] Members of the "plantainsubgroup" of banana cultivars, most important as food inWest Africa and Latin America, correspond to the Chiq-uita description, having long pointed fruit. They are de-scribed by Ploetz et al. as “true” plantains, distinct fromother cooking bananas.[36] The cooking bananas of EastAfrica belong to a different group, the East African High-land bananas,[12] so would not qualify as “true” plantainson this definition.An alternative approach divides bananas into dessert ba-nanas and cooking bananas, with plantains being oneof the subgroups of cooking bananas.[37] Triploid cul-tivars derived solely from M. acuminata are examplesof “dessert bananas”, whereas triploid cultivars derivedfrom the hybrid between M. acuminata and M. balbi-nosa (in particular the plantain subgroup of the AAB

Group) are “plantains”.[38][39] Small farmers in Colombiagrow a much wider range of cultivars than large commer-cial plantations. A study of these cultivars showed thatthey could be placed into at least three groups based ontheir characteristics: dessert bananas, non-plantain cook-ing bananas, and plantains, although there were overlapsbetween dessert and cooking bananas.[40]

In Southeast Asia – the center of diversity for bananas,both wild and cultivated – the distinction between “ba-nanas” and “plantains” does not work, according to Val-mayor et al. Many bananas are used both raw and cooked.There are starchy cooking bananas which are smaller thanthose eaten raw. The range of colors, sizes and shapesis far wider than in those grown or sold in Africa, Eu-rope or the Americas.[35] Southeast Asian languages donot make the distinction between “bananas” and “plan-tains” that is made in English (and Spanish). Thus bothCavendish cultivars, the classic yellow dessert bananas,and Saba cultivars, used mainly for cooking, are calledpisang in Malaysia and Indonesia, kluai in Thailand andchuoi in Vietnam.[41] Fe'i bananas, grown and eaten in theislands of the Pacific, are derived from entirely differentwild species than traditional bananas and plantains. MostFe'i bananas are cooked, but Karat bananas, which areshort and squat with bright red skins, very different fromthe usual yellow dessert bananas, are eaten raw.[42]

In summary, in commerce in Europe and the Americas(although not in small-scale cultivation), it is possible todistinguish between “bananas”, which are eaten raw, and“plantains”, which are cooked. In other regions of theworld, particularly India, Southeast Asia and the islandsof the Pacific, there are many more kinds of banana andthe two-fold distinction is not useful and not made in lo-cal languages. Plantains are one of many kinds of cook-ing bananas, which are not always distinct from dessertbananas.

5 Historical cultivation

5.1 Early cultivation

See also: Musa acuminataFarmers in Southeast Asia and Papua New Guineafirst domesticated bananas. Recent archaeological andpalaeoenvironmental evidence at Kuk Swamp in theWestern Highlands Province of Papua New Guinea sug-gests that banana cultivation there goes back to at least5000 BCE, and possibly to 8000 BCE.[4][44] It is likelythat other species were later and independently domes-ticated elsewhere in Southeast Asia. Southeast Asia isthe region of primary diversity of the banana. Areas ofsecondary diversity are found in Africa, indicating a longhistory of banana cultivation in the region.[45]

Phytolith discoveries in Cameroon dating to the first mil-lennium BCE[46] triggered an as yet unresolved debate

5.2 Plantation cultivation in the Caribbean, Central and South America 5

Original native ranges of the ancestors of modern edible ba-nanas. Musa acuminata is shown in green and Musa balbisianain orange.[43]

alt=Map stating that banana cultivation occurred in pre-Islamictimes in India and Southeast Asia, during the 700–1500 CE“Islamic period” along the Nile River and in Mesopotamia andPalestine, and less-certainly in sub-Saharan Africa during thatsame period

about the date of first cultivation in Africa. There is lin-guistic evidence that bananas were known in Madagascararound that time.[47] The earliest prior evidence indicatesthat cultivation dates to no earlier than late 6th centuryCE.[48] It is likely, however, that bananas were brought atleast to Madagascar if not to the East African coast dur-ing the phase of Malagasy colonization of the island fromSouth East Asia c. 400 CE.[49]

The banana may also have been present in isolated loca-tions elsewhere in the Middle East on the eve of Islam.The spread of Islam was followed by far-reaching diffu-sion. There are numerous references to it in Islamic texts(such as poems and hadiths) beginning in the 9th cen-tury. By the 10th century the banana appears in textsfrom Palestine and Egypt. From there it diffused intoNorth Africa and Muslim Iberia. During the medievalages, bananas from Granada were considered among thebest in the Arab world.[50] In 650, Islamic conquerorsbrought the banana to Palestine. Today, banana con-sumption increases significantly in Islamic countries dur-ing Ramadan, the month of daylight fasting.[51]

Bananas were certainly grown in the Christian Kingdomof Cyprus by the late medieval period. Writing in 1458,

the Italian traveller and writer Gabriele Capodilista wrotefavourably of the extensive farm produce of the estates atEpiskopi, near modern day Limassol, including the re-gion’s banana plantations.[52]

Bananas were introduced to the Americas by Portuguesesailors who brought the fruits from West Africa in the16th century.[53]

Many wild banana species as well as cultivars existin extraordinary diversity in New Guinea, Malaysia,Indonesia, China, and the Philippines.

There are fuzzy bananas whose skins arebubblegum pink; green-and-white stripedbananas with pulp the color of orange sherbet;bananas that, when cooked, taste like straw-berries. The Double Mahoi plant can producetwo bunches at once. The Chinese name ofthe aromatic Go San Heong banana means'You can smell it from the next mountain.'The fingers on one banana plant grow fused;another produces bunches of a thousandfingers, each only an inch long.—Mike Peed, The New Yorker[54]

In 1999 archaeologists in London discovered what theybelieved to be the oldest banana in the UK, in a Tudorrubbish tip.[55]

5.2 Plantation cultivation in theCaribbean, Central and South Amer-ica

Main article: History of modern banana plantations in theAmericasIn the 15th and 16th centuries, Portuguese colonists

Fruits of wild-type bananas have numerous large, hard seeds.

started banana plantations in the Atlantic Islands, Brazil,and western Africa.[56] North Americans began consum-ing bananas on a small scale at very high prices shortly

6 6 MODERN CULTIVATION

after the Civil War, though it was only in the 1880s that itbecamemore widespread.[57] As late as the Victorian Era,bananas were not widely known in Europe, although theywere available.[56] Jules Verne introduces bananas to hisreaders with detailed descriptions in Around the World inEighty Days (1872).The earliest modern plantations originated in Jamaica andthe related Western Caribbean Zone, including most ofCentral America. It involved the combination of mod-ern transportation networks of steamships and railroadswith the development of refrigeration that allowed ba-nanas to have more time between harvesting and ripen-ing. North America shippers like Lorenzo Dow Bakerand Andrew Preston, the founders of the Boston FruitCompany started this process in the 1870s, but railroadbuilders like Minor C Keith also participated, eventu-ally culminating in the multi-national giant corporationslike today’s Chiquita Brands International and Dole.[57]These companies weremonopolistic, vertically integrated(meaning they controlled growing, processing, shippingand marketing) and usually used political manipulation tobuild enclave economies (economies that were internallyself-sufficient, virtually tax exempt, and export orientedthat contribute very little to the host economy). Their po-litical maneuvers, which gave rise to the term Banana re-public for states like Honduras and Guatemala, includedworking with local elites and their rivalries to influencepolitics or playing the international interests of the UnitedStates, especially during the Cold War, to keep the polit-ical climate favorable to their interests.[58]

5.3 Peasant cultivation for export in theCaribbean

Main article: History of peasant banana production inthe Americas

The vast majority of the world’s bananas today are cul-tivated for family consumption or for sale on local mar-kets. India is the world leader in this sort of production,but many other Asian and African countries where cli-mate and soil conditions allow cultivation also host largepopulations of banana growers who sell at least some oftheir crop.[59]

There are peasant sector banana growers who producefor the world market in the Caribbean, however. TheWindward Islands are notable for the growing, largely ofCavendish bananas, for an international market, generallyin Europe but also in North America. In the Caribbean,and especially in Dominica where this sort of cultivationis widespread, holdings are in the 1–2 acre range. Inmanycases the farmer earns additional money from other crops,from engaging in labor outside the farm, and from a shareof the earnings of relatives living overseas. This style ofcultivation often was popular in the islands as bananasrequired little labor input and brought welcome extra in-

come. Banana crops are vulnerable to destruction by highwinds, such as tropical storms or cyclones.[60]

After the signing of the NAFTA agreements in the 1990s,however, the tide turned against peasant producers. Theircosts of production were relatively high and the ending offavorable tariff and other supports, especially in the Euro-pean Economic Community, made it difficult for peasantproducers to compete with the bananas grown on largeplantations by the well capitalized firms like Chiquita andDole. Not only did the large companies have access tocheap labor in the areas they worked, but they were betterable to afford modern agronomic advances such as fertil-ization. The “dollar banana” produced by these concernsmade the profit margins for peasant bananas unsustain-able.Caribbean countries have sought to redress this problemby providing government supported agronomic servicesand helping to organize producers’ cooperatives. Theyhave also been supporters of the Fair Trade movementwhich seeks to balance the inequities in the world tradein commodities.

5.4 East Africa

Main article: East African Highland bananas

Most farms supply local consumption. Cooking bananasrepresent a major food source and a major income sourcefor smallhold farmers. In east Africa, highland bananasare of greatest importance as a staple food crop. In coun-tries such as Uganda, Burundi, and Rwanda per capitaconsumption has been estimated at 45 kilograms (99 lb)per year, the highest in the world.

6 Modern cultivation

All widely cultivated bananas today descend from thetwo wild bananas Musa acuminata and Musa bal-bisiana. While the original wild bananas containedlarge seeds, diploid or polyploid cultivars (some beinghybrids) with tiny seeds are preferred for human raw fruitconsumption.[61] These are propagated asexually fromoffshoots. The plant is allowed to produce two shoots ata time; a larger one for immediate fruiting and a smaller“sucker” or “follower” to produce fruit in 6–8 months.The life of a banana plantation is 25 years or longer,during which time the individual stools or planting sitesmay move slightly from their original positions as lateralrhizome formation dictates.Cultivated bananas are parthenocarpic, i.e. the flesh ofthe fruit swells and ripens without its seeds being fer-tilized and developing. Lacking viable seeds, propaga-tion typically involves farmers removing and transplant-ing part of the underground stem (called a corm). Usu-

6.2 Ripening 7

ally this is done by carefully removing a sucker (a ver-tical shoot that develops from the base of the bananapseudostem) with some roots intact. However, smallsympodial corms, representing not yet elongated suckers,are easier to transplant and can be left out of the groundfor up to two weeks; they require minimal care and canbe shipped in bulk.It is not necessary to include the corm or root structureto propagate bananas; severed suckers without root mate-rial can be propagated in damp sand, although this takessomewhat longer.In some countries, commercial propagation occurs bymeans of tissue culture. This method is preferred since itensures disease-free planting material. When using veg-etative parts such as suckers for propagation, there is arisk of transmitting diseases (especially the devastatingPanama disease).As a non-seasonal crop, bananas are available fresh year-round.

6.1 Cavendish

Main article: Cavendish bananaIn global commerce in 2009, by far the most impor-

Cavendish bananas are the main commercial banana cultivarssold in the world market.

tant cultivars belonged to the triploid AAA group ofMusa acuminata, commonly referred to as Cavendishgroup bananas. They accounted for the majority of ba-nana exports,[61] despite only coming into existence in1836.[62] The cultivars Dwarf Cavendish and Grand Nain(Chiquita Banana) gained popularity in the 1950s afterthe previous mass-produced cultivar, Gros Michel (alsoan AAA group cultivar), became commercially unviabledue to Panama disease, caused by the fungus Fusariumoxysporumwhich attacks the roots of the banana plant.[61]Cavendish cultivars are resistant to the Panama Diseasebut in 2013 there were fears that the Black Sigatoka fun-gus would in turn make Cavendish bananas unviable.[63]

Ease of transport and shelf life rather than superior tastemake the Dwarf Cavendish the main export banana.

Even though it is no longer viable for large scale cultiva-tion, Gros Michel is not extinct and is still grown in areaswhere Panama disease is not found.[64] Likewise, DwarfCavendish and Grand Nain are in no danger of extinction,but they may leave supermarket shelves if disease makesit impossible to supply the global market. It is unclear ifany existing cultivar can replace Cavendish bananas, sovarious hybridisation and genetic engineering programsare attempting to create a disease-resistant, mass-marketbanana.[61]

6.2 Ripening

Export bananas are picked green, and ripen in specialrooms upon arrival in the destination country. Theserooms are air-tight and filled with ethylene gas to induceripening. The vivid yellow color consumers normally as-sociate with supermarket bananas is, in fact, caused bythe artificial ripening process.[65][66] Flavor and textureare also affected by ripening temperature. Bananas arerefrigerated to between 13.5 and 15 °C (56.3 and 59.0 °F)during transport. At lower temperatures, ripening perma-nently stalls, and the bananas turn gray as cell walls breakdown. The skin of ripe bananas quickly blackens in the4 °C (39 °F) environment of a domestic refrigerator, al-though the fruit inside remains unaffected.

Ripened bananas (left, under sunlight) fluoresce in blue whenexposed to UV light.

“Tree-ripened” Cavendish bananas have a greenish-yellow appearance which changes to a brownish-yellowas they ripen further. Although both flavor and texture oftree-ripened bananas is generally regarded as superior toany type of green-picked fruit, this reduces shelf life toonly 7–10 days.Bananas can be ordered by the retailer “ungassed” (i.e.not treated with ethylene), and may show up at the super-market fully green. Guineos verdes (green bananas) thathave not been gassed will never fully ripen before becom-ing rotten. Instead of fresh eating, these bananas are bestsuited to cooking, as seen in Mexican culinary dishes.A 2008 study reported that ripe bananas fluoresce whenexposed to ultraviolet light. This property is attributedto the degradation of chlorophyll leading to the accumu-lation of a fluorescent product in the skin of the fruit.The chlorophyll breakdown product is stabilized by apropionate ester group. Banana-plant leaves also fluo-resce in the same way. Green bananas do not fluoresce.

8 6 MODERN CULTIVATION

The study suggested that this allows animals which cansee light in the ultraviolet spectrum (tetrachromats andpentachromats) to more easily detect ripened bananas.[67]

6.3 Storage and transport

Bananas must be transported over long distances from thetropics to world markets. To obtain maximum shelf life,harvest comes before the fruit is mature. The fruit re-quires careful handling, rapid transport to ports, cooling,and refrigerated shipping. The goal is to prevent the ba-nanas from producing their natural ripening agent, ethy-lene. This technology allows storage and transport for 3–4 weeks at 13 °C (55 °F). On arrival, bananas are held atabout 17 °C (63 °F) and treated with a low concentrationof ethylene. After a few days, the fruit begins to ripenand is distributed for final sale. Unripe bananas can notbe held in home refrigerators because they suffer from thecold. Ripe bananas can be held for a few days at home.If bananas are too green, they can be put in a brown pa-per bag with an apple or tomato overnight to speed up theripening process.[68]

Carbon dioxide (which bananas produce) and ethyleneabsorbents extend fruit life even at high temperatures.This effect can be exploited by packing banana in apolyethylene bag and including an ethylene absorbent,e.g., potassium permanganate, on an inert carrier. Thebag is then sealed with a band or string. This treatmenthas been shown to more than double lifespans up to 3–4weeks without the need for refrigeration.[69][70][71]

6.4 Production and export

Indian Bananas, various varieties sold in a rural shop in SouthIndia

Statistics on the production and export of bananas andplantains are available from the Food and Agriculture Or-ganization. Some countries produce statistics which dis-tinguish between bananas and plantains, but three of thetop four producers (India, China and the Philippines) do

not, so comparisons can only be made using the total forbananas and plantains combined. The 2011 statistics (seeTable 1) show that India led the world in banana produc-tion, producing around 20% of the worldwide crop of 145million metric tonnes. Uganda was the next largest pro-ducer with around 8% of the worldwide crop. Its nationaldata does distinguish between bananas and plantains, andshows that the latter made up over 95% of production.Ten countries produced around two thirds of the totalworld production.[Note 1]

The statistics for the export of bananas and plantains showa rather different picture (see Table 2). Total world ex-ports at around 18 million metric tonnes amounted toonly 12% of total world production; two thirds of theexports were generated by only five countries. The topthree producing countries do not appear in this table, andtwo countries, Costa Rica and Guatemala, do not appearin the table of top producers. Only the Philippines hasa consistent position in both tables. Exports were domi-nated by Ecuador, with 29% of the world total. Statisticsfor Ecuador distinguish between bananas and plantains;93% of its exports were classified as bananas.[Note 1]

Bananas and plantains constitute a major staple foodcrop for millions of people in developing countries. Inmost tropical countries, green (unripe) bananas used forcooking represent themain cultivars. Bananas are cookedin ways that are similar to potatoes. Both can be fried,boiled, baked, or chipped and have similar taste and tex-ture when served. One banana provides about the samecalories as one potato.Most producers are small-scale farmers either for homeconsumption or local markets. Because bananas andplantains produce fruit year-round, they provide an ex-tremely valuable food source during the hunger season(when the food from one annual/semi-annual harvest hasbeen consumed, and the next is still to come). Bananasand plantains are therefore critical to global food security.Bananas have been an important source of disagreementin the Doha Round of trade talks. A study for ICTSDshowed that the new deal on EU banana import tariffs willbe a boon to Latin American exporters but would triggera drop in exports of the fruit fromAfrican, Caribbean andPacific (ACP) countries.[72]

Bananas are among the most widely consumed foods inthe world. Chiquita, Del Monte, Dole, and Fyffes growtheir own bananas in Ecuador, Colombia, Costa Rica,Guatemala, and Honduras. Banana plantations are capitalintensive and demand significant expertise. The majorityof independent growers are large and wealthy landown-ers in these countries. Producers have attempted to raiseprices via marketing them as "fair trade" or RainforestAlliance-certified in some countries.The banana has an extensive trade history starting withfirms such as the Irish Fyffes and the US United FruitCompany (now Chiquita) at the end of the 19th century.For much of the 20th century, bananas and coffee dom-

7.1 Panama disease 9

inated the export economies of Central America. In the1930s, bananas and coffee made up as much as 75% ofthe region’s exports. As late as 1960, the two crops ac-counted for 67% of the exports from the region. Thoughthe two were grown in similar regions, they tended not tobe distributed together. TheUnited Fruit Company basedits business almost entirely on the banana trade, becausethe coffee trade proved too difficult to control. The term"banana republic" has been applied to most countries inCentral America, but from a strict economic perspectiveonly Costa Rica, Honduras, and Panama had economiesdominated by the banana trade.The European Union has traditionally imported many ofits bananas from former European Caribbean colonies,paying guaranteed prices above global market rates (seeLomé Convention). These arrangements have now beenlargely withdrawn under pressure from other major trad-ing powers, principally the United States. The withdrawalof these indirect subsidies to Caribbean producers is ex-pected to favour the more efficient banana producers ofCentral America, in which American companies have aneconomic interest. In addition, small-scale Caribbeanproducers are finding it difficult to comply with increas-ingly strict certification requirements. Some support isbeing provided to Caribbean countries under the EU’sBanana Accompanying Measures (BAM).[73]

The United States produces few bananas. A mere 14,000tonnes (14,000 long tons; 15,000 short tons) were grownin Hawaii in 2001.[74] Bananas were once grown inFlorida and southern California.[75]

In March 2014 it was announced that Fyffes and Chiq-uita would merge to create the world’s largest bananacompany, worth about $1bn (£597m). The new firm,named ChiquitaFyffes, is expected to sell about 160 mil-lion boxes of bananas annually.[76]

7 Pests, diseases, and natural dis-asters

Main article: List of banana and plantain diseasesWhile in no danger of outright extinction, the most com-mon edible banana cultivar Cavendish (extremely pop-ular in Europe and the Americas) could become unvi-able for large-scale cultivation in the next 10–20 years.Its predecessor 'Gros Michel', discovered in the 1820s,suffered this fate. Like almost all bananas, Cavendishlacks genetic diversity, which makes it vulnerable to dis-eases, threatening both commercial cultivation and small-scale subsistence farming.[77][78] Some commentators re-marked that those variants which could replace whatmuch of the world considers a “typical banana” are so dif-ferent that most people would not consider them the samefruit, and blame the decline of the banana onmonogeneticcultivation driven by short-term commercial motives.[58]

Banana bunches are sometimes encased in plastic bags for pro-tection. The bags may be coated with pesticides.

7.1 Panama disease

Panama disease is caused by a fusarium soil fungus (Race1), which enters the plants through the roots and travelswith water into the trunk and leaves, producing gels andgums that cut off the flow of water and nutrients, caus-ing the plant to wilt, and exposing the rest of the plant tolethal amounts of sunlight. Prior to 1960, almost all com-mercial banana production centered on “Gros Michel”,which was highly susceptible.[79] Cavendish was chosenas the replacement for GrosMichel because, among resis-tant cultivars, it produces the highest quality fruit. How-ever, more care is required for shipping the Cavendish,and its quality compared to Gros Michel is debated.According to current sources, a deadly form of Panamadisease is infecting Cavendish. All plants are geneticallyidentical, which prevents evolution of disease resistance.Researchers are examining hundreds of wild varieties forresistance.[79]

7.1.1 Tropical race 4

Tropical race 4 (TR4) is a reinvigorated strain of Panamadisease first discovered in 1993. This virulent form offusarium wilt has wiped out Cavendish in several south-east Asian countries. It has yet to reach the Americas;however, soil fungi can easily be carried on boots, cloth-

10 9 CULTURE

ing, or tools. This is how TR4 travels and is its most likelyroute into Latin America. Cavendish is highly susceptibleto TR4, and over time, Cavendish is almost certain to beeliminated from commercial production by this disease.The only known defense to TR4 is genetic resistance.[80]

7.2 Black sigatoka

Black sigatoka is a fungal leaf spot disease first observedin Fiji in 1963 or 1964. Black Sigatoka (also knownas black leaf streak) has spread to banana plantationsthroughout the tropics from infected banana leaves thatwere used as packing material. It affects all main culti-vars of bananas and plantains (including the Cavendishcultivars[63]), impeding photosynthesis by blackeningparts of the leaves, eventually killing the entire leaf.Starved for energy, fruit production falls by 50% or more,and the bananas that do grow ripen prematurely, makingthem unsuitable for export. The fungus has shown ever-increasing resistance to treatment, with the current ex-pense for treating 1 hectare (2.5 acres) exceeding $1,000per year. In addition to the expense, there is the questionof how long intensive spraying can be environmentallyjustified. Several resistant cultivars of banana have beendeveloped, but none has yet received commercial accep-tance due to taste and texture issues.

7.2.1 In East Africa

With the arrival of Black sigatoka, banana production ineastern Africa fell by over 40%. For example, during the1970s, Uganda produced 15 to 20 tonnes (15 to 20 longtons; 17 to 22 short tons) of bananas per hectare. Today,production has fallen to only 6 tonnes (5.9 long tons; 6.6short tons) per hectare.The situation has started to improve as new disease-resistant cultivars have been developed by theInternational Institute of Tropical Agriculture andthe National Agricultural Research Organisation ofUganda (NARO), such as FHIA-17 (known in Uganda asthe Kabana 3). These new cultivars taste different fromthe Cabana banana, which has slowed their acceptanceby local farmers. However, by adding mulch and manureto the soil around the base of the plant, these newcultivars have substantially increased yields in the areaswhere they have been tried.The International Institute of Tropical Agriculture andNARO, funded by the Rockefeller Foundation andCGIAR have started trials for genetically modified ba-nanas that are resistant to both Black sigatoka and bananaweevils. It is developing cultivars specifically for small-holder and subsistence farmers.

7.3 Banana bunchy top virus

Banana bunchy top virus (BBTV) jumps from plantto plant using aphids. It stunts leaves, resulting in a“bunched” appearance. Generally, an infected plant doesnot produce fruit, although mild strains exist which allowsome production. These mild strains are often mistakenfor malnourishment, or a disease other than BBTV. Thereis no cure; however, its effect can be minimized by plant-ing only tissue-cultured plants (in vitro propagation), con-trolling aphids, and immediately removing and destroyinginfected plants.

7.4 Banana bacterial wilt

Banana bacterial wilt (BBW) is a bacterial disease causedby Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum.[81] Afterbeing originally identified on a close relative of bananas,Ensete ventricosum, in Ethiopia in the 1960s,[82] BBWoc-curred in Uganda in 2001 affecting all banana cultivars.Since then BBW has been diagnosed in Central and EastAfrica including the banana growing regions of Rwanda,the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Tanzania, Kenya,Burundi, and Uganda.[83]

8 Nutrition

Bananas are an excellent source of vitamin B6 and containmoderate amounts of vitamin C, manganese and dietaryfiber (right table).[84]

Although bananas are commonly thought to supply ex-ceptional potassium content,[85] their actual potassiumcontent is relatively low per typical food serving at only8% of the Daily Value (right table). A compilation ofpotassium content in common foods consumed in theUnited States shows that raw bananas rank 1,611th, sup-plying 358 mg of potassium per 100 g; some foods withhigher potassium content include beans, milk, apricots,carrots, sweet green bell peppers and potatoes.[86]

Banana ingestion may affect dopamine production inpeople deficient in the amino acid tyrosine, a dopamineprecursor present in bananas.[87][88] Individuals with alatex allergy may experience a reaction to bananas.[89]

9 Culture

9.1 Food and cooking

See also: Cooking plantain and List of banana dishes

9.2 Fiber 11

9.1.1 Fruit

Bananas are a staple starch for many tropical populations.Depending upon cultivar and ripeness, the flesh can varyin taste from starchy to sweet, and texture from firm tomushy. Both the skin and inner part can be eaten raw orcooked. The primary component of the aroma of freshbananas is isoamyl acetate (also known as banana oil),which, along with several other compounds such as butylacetate and isobutyl acetate, is a significant contributor tobanana flavor.[90][91][92]

During the ripening process, bananas produce the gasethylene, which acts as a plant hormone and indirectlyaffects the flavor. Among other things, ethylene stim-ulates the formation of amylase, an enzyme that breaksdown starch into sugar, influencing the taste of bananas.The greener, less ripe bananas contain higher levels ofstarch and, consequently, have a “starchier” taste. On theother hand, yellow bananas taste sweeter due to highersugar concentrations. Furthermore, ethylene signals theproduction of pectinase, an enzyme which breaks downthe pectin between the cells of the banana, causing thebanana to soften as it ripens.[93][94]

Bananas are eaten deep fried, baked in their skin in a splitbamboo, or steamed in glutinous rice wrapped in a bananaleaf. Bananas can be made into jam. Banana pancakesare popular amongst backpackers and other travelers inSouth Asia and Southeast Asia. This has elicited the ex-pression Banana Pancake Trail for those places in Asiathat cater to this group of travelers. Banana chips are asnack produced from sliced dehydrated or fried banana orplantain, which have a dark brown color and an intensebanana taste. Dried bananas are also ground to makebanana flour. Extracting juice is difficult, because whena banana is compressed, it simply turns to pulp. Bananasfeature prominently in Philippine cuisine, being part oftraditional dishes and desserts like maruya, turrón, andhalo-halo or saba con yelo. Most of these dishes usethe Saba or Cardaba banana cultivar. Bananas are alsocommonly used in cuisine in the South-Indian state ofKerala, where they are steamed (puzhungiyathu), madeinto curries,[95] fried into chips (upperi)[96] or fried in bat-ter (pazhampori).[97] Pisang goreng, bananas fried withbatter similar to the Filipino maruya or Kerala pazham-pori, is a popular dessert in Malaysia, Singapore, andIndonesia. A similar dish is known in the United King-dom and United States as banana fritters.Plantains are used in various stews and curries or cooked,baked or mashed in much the same way as potatoes, suchas the Pazham Pachadi prepared in Kerala.[95]

Seeded bananas (Musa balbisiana), one of the forerun-ners of the common domesticated banana,[98] are sold inmarkets in Indonesia.

9.1.2 Flower

Banana hearts are used as a vegetable[99] in South Asianand Southeast Asian cuisine, either raw or steamed withdips or cooked in soups, curries and fried foods.[100]The flavor resembles that of artichoke. As with arti-chokes, both the fleshy part of the bracts and the heartare edible.[101]

9.1.3 Leaves

Main article: Banana leaf

Banana leaves are large, flexible, and waterproof. Theyare often used as ecologically friendly disposable foodcontainers or as “plates” in South Asia and severalSoutheast Asian countries. In Indonesian cuisine, ba-nana leaf is employed in cookingmethod called pepes andbotok; the banana leaf packages containing food ingredi-ents and spices are cooked on steam, in boiled water orgrilled on charcoal. In the South Indian states of TamilNadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala in everyoccasion the food must be served in a banana leaf and asa part of the food a banana is served. Steamed with dishesthey impart a subtle sweet flavor. They often serve as awrapping for grilling food. The leaves contain the juices,protect food from burning and add a subtle flavor.[102]In Tamil Nadu (India) leaves are fully dried and used aspacking material for food stuffs and also making cups tohold liquid foods. In Central American countries, bananaleaves are often used as wrappers for tamales.

9.1.4 Trunk

The tender core of the banana plant’s trunk is also usedin South Asian and Southeast Asian cuisine, and notablyin the Burmese dish mohinga.

• Peeled, whole, and longitudinal section

• Kilawin na pusô ng saging, a Filipino dish using ba-nana flowers

• Nicaraguan Nacatamales, in banana leaves, ready tobe steamed

• Kaeng yuak is a northern Thai curry made with thecore of the banana plant

• Pisang goreng fried banana coated in batter, popularsnack in Indonesia

• Banana in sweet gravy, known as pengat pisang inMalay. Popular along Malaysia’s east coast

9.2 Fiber

12 9 CULTURE

9.2.1 Textiles

The banana plant has long been a source of fiber for highquality textiles. In Japan, banana cultivation for clothingand household use dates back to at least the 13th cen-tury. In the Japanese system, leaves and shoots are cutfrom the plant periodically to ensure softness. Harvestedshoots are first boiled in lye to prepare fibers for yarn-making. These banana shoots produce fibers of varyingdegrees of softness, yielding yarns and textiles with dif-fering qualities for specific uses. For example, the out-ermost fibers of the shoots are the coarsest, and are suit-able for tablecloths, while the softest innermost fibers aredesirable for kimono and kamishimo. This traditionalJapanese cloth-making process requires many steps, allperformed by hand.[103]

In a Nepalese system the trunk is harvested instead, andsmall pieces are subjected to a softening process, me-chanical fiber extraction, bleaching and drying. Afterthat, the fibers are sent to the Kathmandu Valley for usein rugs with a silk-like texture. These banana fiber rugsare woven by traditional Nepalese hand-knotting meth-ods, and are sold RugMark certified.In South Indian state of Tamil Nadu after harvesting forfruit the trunk (outer layer of the shoot) is made intofine thread used in making of flower garlands instead ofthread.

9.2.2 Paper

Main article: Banana paper

Banana fiber is used in the production of banana paper.Banana paper is made from two different parts: the barkof the banana plant, mainly used for artistic purposes, orfrom the fibers of the stem and non-usable fruits. Thepaper is either hand-made or by industrial process.

9.3 Cultural roles

Coconut, banana and banana leaves used while worship-ing River Kaveri at Tiruchirappalli, India.

Banana flowers and leaves for sale in the Thanin marketin Chiang Mai, Thailand.

9.3.1 Arts

• The song "Yes! We Have No Bananas" was writ-ten by Frank Silver and Irving Cohn and originallyreleased in 1923; for many decades, it was the best-selling sheet music in history. Since then the songhas been rerecorded several times and has been par-ticularly popular during banana shortages.[104][105]

• A person slipping on a banana peel has been a stapleof physical comedy for generations. A 1910 USAcomedy recording features a popular character ofthe time, “Uncle Josh”, claiming to describe his ownsuch incident:[106]

Now I don't think much ofthe man that throws a bananapeelin' on the sidewalk, and I don'tthink much of the banana peel thatthrows a man on the sidewalk nei-ther ... my foot hit the bananerpeelin' and I went up in the air, andI come down ker-plunk, jist as I waspickin' myself up a little boy comerunnin' across the street ... he says,“Oh mister, won't you please dothat agin? My little brother didn'tsee you do it.”

• The poet Bashō is named after the Japanese wordfor a banana plant. The “bashō" planted in his gar-den by a grateful student became a source of inspi-ration to his poetry, as well as a symbol of his lifeand home.[107]

• The cover artwork for the debut album of The Vel-vet Underground features a banana made by AndyWarhol. On the original vinyl LP version, the de-sign allowed the listener to “peel” this banana to finda pink, peeled phallic banana on the inside.[108]

9.3.2 Religion and popular beliefs

In Burma, bunches of green bananas surrounding a greencoconut in a tray form an important part of traditional

13

Nang Tani, the female ghost of Thai folklore that haunts bananaplants

offerings to the Buddha and the Nats.In all the important festivals and occasions of Hindus, theserving of bananas plays a prominent part. Traditionallyin Tamil marriages, banana plants are tied on both sidesof the entrance of houses to bless the newlyweds to beuseful to each other. The banana is one of three fruitswith this significance, the others being mango and jackfruit.In Thailand, it is believed that a certain type of bananaplants may be inhabited by a spirit, Nang Tani, a typeof ghost related to trees and similar plants that manifestsitself as a young woman.[109] Often people tie a length ofcolored satin cloth around the pseudostem of the bananaplants.[110]

In Malay folklore, the ghost known as Pontianak is asso-ciated with banana plants (pokok pisang), and its spirit issaid to reside in them during the day.[111]

9.4 Other uses

• Banana sap from the pseudostem, peelings or fleshmay be sufficiently sticky for adhesive uses.

• The large leaves may be used as umbrellas.[102]

• Banana peel may have capability to extract heavymetal contamination from river water, similar to

other purification materials.[112][113] In 2007, ba-nana peel powder was tested as a means of filtra-tion for heavy metals and radionuclides occurringin water produced by the nuclear and fertilizer in-dustries (cadmium contaminant is present in phos-phates). When added and thoroughly mixed for 40minutes, the powder can remove roughly 65% ofheavy metals, and this can be repeated.[114]

10 Notes[1] The figures in the tables were derived from: “FAOSTAT”.

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Na-tions. The datasets for bananas and plantains for 2011were downloaded and combined (the two are not distin-guished in many cases). Totals and percentages were thencalculated. The number of countries shown was chosen toaccount for a minimum of 66% of the world total.

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[89] Taylor, J.S. & Erkek, E. (2004). “Latex allergy: di-agnosis and management”. Dermatological Therapy 17(4): 289–301. doi:10.1111/j.1396-0296.2004.04024.x.PMID 15327474.

[90] Fahlbusch, Karl-Georg; Hammerschmidt, Franz-Josef;Panten, Johannes; Pickenhagen, Wilhelm; Schatkowski,Dietmar; Bauer, Kurt; Garbe, Dorothea & Surburg, Horst(2000). “Flavors and Fragrances”. Ullmann’s Encyclope-dia of Industrial Chemistry 15. Wiley-VCHVerlag GmbH& Co. KGaA. p. 82. doi:10.1002/14356007.a11_141.ISBN 978-3-527-30673-2.

[91] Mui, Winnie W. Y.; Durance, Timothy D. & Scaman,Christine H. (2002). “Flavor and Texture of BananaChips Dried by Combinations of Hot Air, Vacuum, andMicrowave Processing”. Journal of Agricultural and FoodChemistry 50 (7): 1883–1889. doi:10.1021/jf011218n.“Isoamyl acetate (9.6%) imparts the characteristic aromatypical of fresh bananas (13, 17−20), while butyl acetate(8.1%) and isobutyl acetate (1.4%) are considered to becharacter impact compounds of banana flavor.”

[92] Salmon, B.; Martin, G. J.; Remaud, G. & Fourel,F. (November–December 1996). “Compositionaland Isotopic Studies of Fruit Flavours. Part I. TheBanana Aroma”. Flavour and Fragrance Jour-nal 11 (6): 353–359. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-1026(199611)11:6<353::AID-FFJ596>3.0.CO;2-9.

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[112] Minard, Anne (March 11, 2011). “Is That a Banana inYour Water?". National Geographic. Archived from theoriginal on April 26, 2011. Retrieved 2011-03-15.

17

[113] Castro, Renata S. D.; Caetano, LaéRcio; Ferreira, Guil-herme; Padilha, Pedro M.; Saeki, Margarida J.; Zara,Luiz F.; Martines, Marco Antonio U. & Castro, Gus-tavo R. (2011). “Banana Peel Applied to the Solid PhaseExtraction of Copper and Lead from River Water: Pre-concentration of Metal Ions with a Fruit Waste”. In-dustrial & Engineering Chemistry Research 50 (6): 3446.doi:10.1021/ie101499e.

[114] ADIT, BE Brazil (96, 3 April 2007) from Master Thesisof M.R. Boniolo presented at Instituto de Pesquisas En-ergéticas e Nucleares (IPEN).

12 Bibliography

• Nelson, S.C.; Ploetz, R.C. & Kepler, A.K. (2006)."Musa species (bananas and plantains)". In Ele-vitch, C.R. Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agro-forestry. Hōlualoa, Hawai'i: Permanent AgricultureResources (PAR). Retrieved 2013-01-10.

• Office of the Gene Technology Regulator (2008).The Biology of Musa L. (banana). Australian Gov-ernment. Retrieved 2013-01-30.

• Ploetz, R.C.; Kepler, A.K.; Daniells, J. & Nelson,S.C. (2007). “Banana and Plantain: An Overviewwith Emphasis on Pacific Island Cultivars”. In Ele-vitch, C.R. Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agro-forestry. Hōlualoa, Hawai'i: Permanent AgricultureResources (PAR). Retrieved 2013-01-10.

• Stover, R.H. & Simmonds, N.W. (1987). Bananas(3rd ed.). Harlow, England: Longman. ISBN 978-0-582-46357-8.

• Valmayor, Ramón V.; Jamaluddin, S.H.; Silayoi, B.;Kusumo, S.; Danh, L.D.; Pascua, O.C. & Espino,R.R.C. (2000). Banana cultivar names and syn-onyms in Southeast Asia. Los Baños, Philippines:International Network for Improvement of Bananaand Plantain – Asia and the Pacific Office. ISBN978-971-91751-2-4. Archived from the original on2013-01-08. Retrieved 2013-01-08.

13 Further reading

• Dan Koeppel, The New York Times article of June18, 2008, “Yes, We Will Have No Bananas”

• Harriet Lamb, “Fighting The Banana Wars andother Fairtrade Battles”, ISBN 978-1-84604-083-2

14 External links

• Kew plant profile: Musa acuminata (banana)

• Articles on banana trade at Agritrade

• How the global banana industry is killing the world’sfavorite fruit, by Gwynn Guilford of Quartz/MSNNews, March 3, 2014

18 15 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

15 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

15.1 Text• Banana Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banana?oldid=637130604 Contributors: AxelBoldt, The Cunctator, Chuck Smith, Vicki

Rosenzweig, Tarquin, Malcolm Farmer, Andre Engels, Khendon, Rmhermen, Toby Bartels, William Avery, Zoe, David spector, Fonzy,Ewen, DennisDaniels, Jpcarver, Edward, RTC, Kchishol1970, Earth, David Martland, Vera Cruz, The T, MartinHarper, Menchi, Tan-nin, Ixfd64, Sannse, Delirium, (, Arpingstone, Paul A, SebastianHelm, Minesweeper, Shimmin, Tregoweth, Radicalsubversiv, Ahoerste-meier, Jimfbleak, Jpatokal, Samuelsen, Theresa knott, Matpe815, Den fjättrade ankan, Julesd, Pratyeka, Glenn, Poor Yorick, Kimiko,Cherkash, Csernica, Mxn, Ilyanep, Vargenau, Schneelocke, Jengod, Adam Bishop, Timwi, RickK, N-true, Vanished user aewrkmvkms-dvke334c, Jay, Fuzheado, DJ Clayworth, CBDunkerson, Tpbradbury, Marshman, Dragons flight, Furrykef, Grendelkhan, Morwen, Itai,Flyingbird, Karukera, Thue, Fvw, Pakaran, Jusjih, David.Monniaux, Finlay McWalter, Owen, Catskul, Robbot, Dale Arnett, Hankwang,Sander123, Korath, Kristof vt, Moncrief, Ee00224, WormRunner, ZimZalaBim, Kowey, Romanm, Lowellian, Postdlf, Merovingian,Yosri, Academic Challenger, Rursus, Humus sapiens, Rasmus Faber, Mervyn, Wally, Hadal, UtherSRG, Kamiya, Mushroom, Isopropyl,Leecm, Superm401, Dina, Jooler, Alan Liefting, David Gerard, Kevin Saff, Centrx, Smjg, DocWatson42, MPF, Alan W, 0x0077BE,Wikilibrarian, Artakka, Tom harrison, Martijn faassen, Binadot, Everyking, Brona, David Johnson, Jfdwolff, Sdfisher, Slyguy, Nau-fana, Dmmaus, Eequor, Matt Crypto, Pne, Bobblewik, Christopherlin, ALargeElk, Gyrofrog, Avaragado, Comatose51, Manuel Anastá-cio, 159753, Andycjp, Plutor, Yarnover, Xmnemonic, Vanished user svinet8j3ogifm98wjfgoi3tjosfg, Yath, Quadell, Antandrus, Beland,OverlordQ, ClockworkLunch, JoJan, Piotrus, PDH, Paddyez, Jossi, Vina, Rdsmith4, DragonflySixtyseven, Wkdewey, Kevin B12, Starx,Jklamo, Neutrality, Marcus2, Joyous!, Ukexpat, Revised, Jh51681, Clemwang, Adashiel, Grunt, Canterbury Tail, Talkstosocks, MikeRosoft, Freakofnurture, Archer3, DanielCD, Indosauros, MysteryDog, Discospinster, Brianhe, Rich Farmbrough, Pak21, Jon Backen-stose, Vsmith, Mediahound, Xezbeth, Bumhoolery, Paul August, La gaie, ESkog, Kbh3rd, Kjoonlee, Kaisershatner, CanisRufus, BenjBot,Prashidi, Livajo, Pjf, El C, Zenohockey, Shanes, Tom, Sietse Snel, RoyBoy, EurekaLott, Aaronbrick, Femto, Thunderbrand, Adambro,Bobo192, Longhair, Fir0002, Leonardo Boiko, Hurricane111, Chtito, Tronno, Shenme, Viriditas, Johnteslade, Kappa, Phlake, Cdegough,Syd1435, LuoShengli, Jojit fb, Nk, TheProject, Slambo, RaffiKojian, Pschemp, Pperos, Hesperian, Hintha, Idleguy, MPerel, Polylerus,Jarich, Hooperbloob, Merope, Still, Conny, Ranveig, Jumbuck, Larry Grossman, Red Winged Duck, Stephen G. Brown, Alansohn, JY-olkowski, TheParanoidOne, Tablizer, ChrisGlew, Anthony Appleyard, H9565, Ibn zareena, Caa, 119, CyberSkull, Wiki-uk, Rd232, Car-bon Caryatid, Hadley, JoaoRicardo, Riana, Hippophaë, MarkGallagher, SlimVirgin, Hu, Malo, Katefan0, Bart133, NTK, Hohum, Klaser,Melaen, BanyanTree, Almafeta, Evil Monkey, Carioca, RainbowOfLight, H2g2bob, Computerjoe, Kusma, Axeman89, LunaticFringe,HenryLi, Xmort, Galaxiaad, Killing Vector, Dismas, Natalya, WilliamKF, Pekinensis, Woohookitty, TigerShark, Camw, Thorpe, Un-cle G, Pol098, TheoClarke, ^demon, MONGO, Bunthorne, Stronimo, Terence, BartBenjamin, JeffUK, Sengkang, Ljheidel, GregorB,BlaiseFEgan, Arifhidayat, Yoonkit, M412k, Waldir, Zzyzx11, Wayward, Polar, Mutante23, Essjay, DavidFarmbrough, GraemeLeggett,Affeman, Sandstorm6299, SqueakBox, Raguks, Graham87, Marcg106, Magister Mathematicae, BD2412, NoPuzzleStranger, Galwhaa,Chun-hian, FreplySpang, RxS, MauriceJFox3, Zoz, Matt Gabriel, Casey Abell, Search4Lancer, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Vary, Bill37212,Quiddity, JHMM13, Bruce1ee, Feydey, Lordkinbote, Heah, Funnyhat, SeanMack, Brighterorange, The wub, Bhadani, CowTipper, Tbone,Jobarts, Sango123, Rebug, Cassowary, Yamamoto Ichiro, Leithp, Hitsuji Kinno, Titoxd, Chunchulim, Xero, RobertG, Doc glasgow, Mar-gosbot, Papacha, Chanting Fox, Celestianpower, Spudtater, RexNL, DugDownDeep, Gurch, Mpradeep, DevastatorIIC, MediaHound,OrbitOne, EronMain, Jonahgreenthal, R160K, King of Hearts, Moocha, Karch, GangofOne, Bjwebb, Mhking, Gdrbot, Bgwhite, Gw-ernol, YurikBot, Wavelength, TexasAndroid, Huw Powell, Jimp, Kafziel, Adam1213, RussBot, FrenchIsAwesome, Crazytales, Rocket-goat, Cliffb, Muchness, Anonymous editor, Bhny, Splash, Epolk, Travisowens@hotmail.com, SpuriousQ, Ajc, Hydrargyrum, Akamad,Stephenb, Gaius Cornelius, Zimbricchio, Jirrupin, The Hokkaido Crow, RadioKirk, Royalbroil, Shanel, NawlinWiki, ENeville, Thecho-senone021, Wiki alf, -OOPSIE-, Calsicol, ManyFireflies, Cryptoid, Robertvan1, Badagnani, Jaxl, Welsh, Mgmbot, 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Thunderboltz, Bwithh, EncycloPetey,Svenlafe, Adammathias, Chronodm, Dyersgoodness, PJM, RobotJcb, Canthusus, Wakuran, Fnfd, Kslays, Nil Einne, Edgar181, Cazort,Kikuchiyo, SmartGuy Old, Commander Keane bot, PeterSymonds, Gilliam, Mrgrumpkin89, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Ppntori, ERcheck,Eloy, Anwar saadat, Izehar, Chris the speller, Bluebot, The X, Keegan, Geneb1955, Gspbeetle, Rkitko, Persian Poet Gal, Bduke, Snori,BabuBhatt, Liamdaly620, MalafayaBot, Kemet, Fluri, Silly rabbit, Timneu22, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Deli nk, Bazonka,Catlebrity, Sonicfan93, TheFeds, Sadisticality, Dustimagic, Ikiroid, Bhani, Darth Panda, Gracenotes, Anabus, Drkashik, Can't sleep, clownwill eat me, Art the Superman, Keith Lehwald, Brimba, Ioscius, Onorem, KaiserbBot, Somnlaut, Yidisheryid, EvelinaB, Xiner, Darwin’sBulldog, Stevenjgarner, Bardsandwarriors, Kcordina, SundarBot, Magmagirl, Stevenmitchell, Khoikhoi, Jmlk17, Boothman, Stuckinkiel,Bowlhover, Nakon, Aet Lindling, VegaDark, Thes entinel, RJN, MichaelBillington, Andymarczak, Thunk, Ozfreediver, Maxwahrhaftig,MartinRe, SteveHopson, Merlin-UK, Jabronimus, Kotjze, Zzorse, AndyBQ, Shawn2082, Daniel.Cardenas, Icecradle, Zeamays, Pilotguy,Kukini, Qmwne235, Ged UK, BozoTheScary, TenPoundHammer, Ohconfucius, Vitamin joe, Lambiam, Rory096, Swatjester, MrDar-win, Srikeit, Zahid Abdassabur, Dbtfz, Kuru, John, Demicx, Joro Iliev, Scoobs197, Ascend, SilkTork, Hlucho, Banjo Chopsticks, Vrazix,Robofish, Swqt, Linnell, Shadowlynk, DMurphy, Zaggamok, George16, Mattsbabygurl624, IronGargoyle, Hosimin, AaronEJ, Caviare,041744, LebanonChild, Skatastic, Ian Dalziel, Tarcieri, Gunray, Bless sins, Tasc, Mlakshmanan, Stizz, Waggers, Superjimkie74, Icez,TastyPoutine, Whomp, Vader1941, Ryulong, Halaqah, Ffxaddict899, H, Elb2000, Zapvet, Jose77, Galactor213, Beepsie, Jcbutler, KJS77,KlaudiuMihaila, HisSpaceResearch, Seqsea, ILovePlankton, The Giant Puffin, Tmangray, Walton One, Muéro, Quantum7, Hahahohohehe,UncleSTB, SweetNeo85, DavidOaks, Mathfan, Ewulp, Az1568, Ziusudra, Anger22, Chovain, IronJohnSr, Tauʻolunga, Bpal, Tawkerbot2,Dlohcierekim, DAMurphy, RaviC, AbsolutDan, Ryt, Lahiru k, Kaze0010, Will Pittenger, Boing345brooke, The Haunted Angel, JFor-get, Cherry123, Cherry1234, RWhite, Banana007, Wiltors, Fumblebruschi, Dycedarg, Sable232, Iced Kola, N3X15, Ryogathepenguin,Desiromeo107, Rogerborg, Nadyes, Mashed Potato, ZorroReturns, Pathh, Green caterpillar, Magicmage, El aprendelenguas, Duckbill90,WeggeBot, Avillia, ONUnicorn, Sickmate, Fairsing, Rudjek, Reds3031, Lasanthar, Sashyy, Linberry, ExTechOp, Cydebot, Peripitus,Jennifer H. 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15.1 Text 19

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20 15 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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