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SHN 3113
Lab 2: Aquaculture species (2)
Learning Objective
1. To learn in details about aquaculture species locally and globally
2. To determine the latest research about aquaculture species
Materials and Methods
Group discussion and presentation
Instructions
1. Every group will receive one aquaculture species
2. Write a report about the species and present in front of the class. Please
submit the report in the following week and presentation will be held in week
10 or 11.
3. In the report, you must include all the following details:
a. The most cultured species under the same genus or family. Describe
each species in details
b. Include the biology, production locally and globally, feeding habit,
natural spawning or artificial fertilization and general characteristic
c. Discuss about the aquaculture system normally use to culture the
species
d. Find an interesting facts or research related to your species and
describe about it
e. Briefly discuss about the challenges facing by the aquaculturist in
producing the species.
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Barramundi (Lates calcarifer)
Introduction
Seabass, Lates calcarifer, is an economically important food fish in tropical countries. It is a
species with catadromous habits within its areas of distribution. Studies on the biology and
fisheries of the species are still in progress but the possibility of its culture has been
established and undergoing development. This species categorized in kingdom animalia,
phylum chordata, class actinoptergyii, perciformes, family latidae, genus lates.
Biology and life history
The barramundi (can live in fresh, brackish and marine environments) and
catadromous (grows to maturity in fresh or brackish waters and spawns in the sea)
characteristics of the species result in a very interesting ecological distribution at various
stages of its life history. The fish spend most of their life in a lagoon which connects to the
sea. They spend two to three more years in estuarine areas until they mature, then migrate
to the sea water around the mouth of a river or lagoon for spawning. Larvae and juveniles
live in the sea grass bed in coastal areas for about six months, attaining a size of about 2 to
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5 inches. The fish migrate to freshwater when they grow bigger. Spawners live in coastal
rocky shores but some migrate to a freshwater body after the spawning is over.This species
has an elongate body form with a large, slightly oblique mouth and an upper jaw extending
behind the eye. the lower edge of the preoperculum is serrated with a strong spine at its
angle; the operculum has a small spine and a serrated flap above the origin of the lateral
line. Its scales are ctenoid. In cross section, the fish is compressed and the dorsal head
profile clearly concave. The single dorsal and ventral fins have spines and soft rays; the
paired pectoral and pelvic fins have soft rays only; and the caudal fin has soft rays and is
truncate and rounded. Barramundi are a salt and freshwater sportfish, targeted by many.
They have large silver scales, which may become darker or lighter, depending on their
environment. Their bodies can reach up to 1.8 meters (5.91 feet) long, though evidence of
them being caught at this size is scarce.
Feeding habit
The adult fish is regarded as carnivorous, but juveniles are omnivorous. Analysis of stomach
content of wild seabass (1 to 10 cm) found 20 % phytoplankton and the rest are small fish
and shrimp. The larger fish consists of 100 % animal prey, 70 % crustacean and 30 % small
fish. Barramundi are euryhaline, but stenothermal. This catadromous species inhabits rivers
and descends to estuaries and tidal flats to spawn. In areas remote from freshwater purely
marine populations may become established. At the start of the monsoon, males migrate
downriver to meet females, which lay very large numbers of eggs (multiple millions each).
The adults do not guard the eggs or the fry, which require brackish water to develop.
Production locally and globally
The fish is of large commercial importance.It is fished internationally and raised in
aquaculture in Australia, Malaysia, India, Indonesia, Israel, Thailand, the United States and
Poland. The Australian barramundi industry is relatively established with an annual
production of more than 4000 tons. In the broader Southeast Asian region production is
estimated to exceed 30,000 tons. By contrast, the US industry produces about 800 tons a
year from a single facility. Barramundi under culture will commonly grow from an ex-hatchery
juvenile, between 50 and 100 mm in length to a table size of 400-600g within 12 months and
to 3.0 kg within 1824 months. In the Asian Pacific region, Malaysia, Indonesia, Taiwan and
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Preoperculum&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operculum_%28fish%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ctenoidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Compression_%28zoology%29&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorsal_finhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ventralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fin_rayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pectoral_finhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelvichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fin_rayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caudalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fin_rayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truncatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euryhalinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stenothermichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fish_migrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estuaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mudflathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monsoonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brackish_waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquaculturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture_in_Israel#Fishing_having_a_barra_and_aquaculturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thailandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thailandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture_in_Israel#Fishing_having_a_barra_and_aquaculturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquaculturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brackish_waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monsoonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mudflathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estuaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fish_migrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stenothermichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euryhalinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truncatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fin_rayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caudalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fin_rayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelvichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pectoral_finhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fin_rayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ventralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorsal_finhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Compression_%28zoology%29&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ctenoidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operculum_%28fish%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Preoperculum&action=edit&redlink=18/3/2019 BArramundi azmir
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Thailand remain the leading countries involved in commercial sea bass production, with
Hong Kong.
Farming system
Criteria for selecting a suitable site for cage culture of seabass are the following:
1. Water salinity (which should range from 1031 ppt).
2. Tide and water depth. Water depth should be more than 23 meters. This is due to
the usual size of culture cage which is 5 m 5 m and 2 m deep. The tidal fluctuuation
should allow the water depth to be at least 2 meters at the low water of spring tide.
3. Current and waves. Area should be protected from strong winds, waves and current.
An ideal area would be in protected bays, sheltered coves and inland sea.4. Water quality. The site should be relatively free from domestic, industrial and
agricultural wastes and other environmental hazards.
5. Water circulation. The site should have enough water circulation to improve on poor
water quality that could occur at some period in the culture due to the decomposition
of waste material which often accummulate at the bottom under the net cage.
In concrete tanks also can be as a suitable system for seabass,depending upon the
production target, the number and size of the fishes proposed to be maintained broodstock
holding tanks are constructed . It is advisable to maintain fishes in large tanks because the
fish will have more natural condition and sufficient space will be there for swimming. Brood
stock tanks of 144 meter per cube are used. Broodstock tanks should have adequate water
inlet and drainage provision. Flow through facility is desirable and provision for aeration is
adviseable. The concrete tanks can be covered with shade nets to prevent the direct sunlight
exposure to the tanks. Cannibalism is one of the serious problems encountered during early
stages of sea bass culture. This may be related to the uniform size of the fry and heavy
stocking density.
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Floating cage
The net cages are hung on GI pipe, wooden or bamboo frames. The cage is kept afloat by
styrofoam drum, plastic carbuoy or bamboo. The most convenient dimension for a cage is
that of a rectangle and a volume of 50 cubic meters (5.5 m 6 m 2 m). The cage unit is
stabilized with concrete weights at each bottom corner (Figure 2). The cage unit has to be
anchored to the bottom. The cages might be rocked a little by strong wind and current.
Floating cages can be set on coastal waters where tidal fluctuation is wide.
Stationary cage
This type is fastened to wooden poles installed at its four corners . Stationary cages are
usually set in shallow bays where the tidal fluctuation is narrow.
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The mesh size of nylon net would depend on the size of fish as shown in. Firstly,
finglerlings should be transferred to a nylon net (mesh size of 2.0 cm) for about 2 months
of culture period. Them they are moved to a cage net of 4.0 cm mesh size until harvest.
* The cages should be checked bimonthly or monthly to ensure that they are not
damaged by fouling organisms, crabs or flotsam. The cages should be cleaned or
changed every month. Therefore, fish farmers should have spare nylon net cages.
Changing cages also allows the farmer to check on the number and health of the fish.
Interesting facts about barramundi
The species is sequentially hermaphroditic, most individuals maturing as males and
becoming female after at least one spawning season. Most of the larger specimens are
therefore female. Fish held in captivity sometimes demonstrate features atypical of f ish in the
wild: they change sex at a smaller size, exhibit a higher proportion of protogyny and some
males do not undergo sexual inversion. Smaller specimens are a popular aquarium fish and
can be very entertaining especially at feeding time. However they grow quickly, so it is not
recommended that they be kept in any set up of less than 5 feet ( 500 litres) In aquaria they
become quite tame and can be hand fed, they are non aggressive species however the
feeding reflex is violent and sudden so they cannot be kept with any tank mates small
enough to be swallowed. Sea bass has been cultivated in both brackish water and
freshwater ponds as well as in marine cages. A relatively high dietry protein level may be
suggested for sea bass since the fish is primarily a carnivore under natural conditions. Dietry
crude protein(cp) requirement of juvenile sea bass to be 50%. The highest growth was
achieved with a dietry level of 45% . The essential amino acid requirement of sea bass.
Where, tryptophan requirement of juvenile sea bass to be 0.5% of dietry protein. The
requirement for methionine, lysineand arginine have been determined to be 2.24, 4.5 -5.2
and 3.8% of dietry protein, respectively. But excessive concentration of tyrosine in the sea
bass diet may result in kidney malfunction. The optimum dietry lipid level for sea bass
fingerlings is between 15 and 18% found that when -62 g sea bass were fed diets containing
9.3 % and 12.9% fat, growth was similar but the FCR was significantly lower with the 12.9%
fat diet. The growth and survival of sea bass fry fed a diet containing 9% supplemented lipid
comprising 4.5% cod liver oil and 4.5% soybean oil were higher compared with those fed
cod liver oil alone or soybean oil alone. In addition, the performance of the fry decreased
when these dietry lipid sources were replaced with coconut oil and the poorest performance
when diet contained no lipid supplement..
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermaphroditehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protogynyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_inversionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_inversionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protogynyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermaphrodite8/3/2019 BArramundi azmir
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The challenges in culture of barramundi
Environmental impacts associated with marine fish cage aquaculture derive mainly fromnutrient inputs from uneaten fish feed and fish wastes. For example, studies carried out in
Hong Kong indicate that 85 percent of phosphorus, 8088 percent of carbon and 5295
percent of nitrogen inputs (from 'trash' fish) to marine finfish cages may be lost through
uneaten food, faecal and urinary wastes. These nutrient inputs, although small in
comparison with other coastal discharges, may lead to localised water quality degradation
and sediment accumulation. In severe cases, this 'self pollution' can lead to cage farms
exceeding the capacity of the local environment to provide inputs (such as dissolved oxygen)
and assimilate wastes, contributing to fish disease outbreaks and undermining
sustainability.
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White Seabass, Atractoscion nobilis
Kingdom:AnimaliaPhylum:Chordata
Class:Actinopterygii
Order:Perciformes
Family:Sciaenidae
Genus:Atractoscion
Species:Atractoscion nobilis
Biology:
The white seabass is the largest of the 10 species in the family Sciaenidae
(croakers and drums) known to occur in California coastal waters, and can reach a
size of up to 5 feet and about 95 pounds (Miller and Lea 1972).
White seabass are broadcast spawners, with multiple (2-5) males simultaneouslyreleasing gametes to fertilize the eggs of a spawning female within the water column
(Aalbers and Drawbridge, in press). The spawning activity of white seabass occurs
from March through July and peaks in May, with the majority of spawning events
occurring over the two hour period following sunset. A nighttime spawning strategy is
typical of other temperate croakers, and has likely been adopted to reduce initial egg
predation (Holt 1985).
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Like most croakers, male white seabass produce sounds by contracting
specialized sonic musculature to resonate low frequency sound off of the adjacent
swim bladder. As is the case in most croaker species, female white seabass lack
this specialized structure (Tavolga 1964). Sound production has been associated
with reproduction in other sciaenid species, including the red drum Sciaenops
ocellata (Guest and Lasswell 1978) spotted seatrout Cynoscion nebulosis (Mok
and Gilmore 1983), weakfish Cynoscion regalis(Connaughton and Taylor 1995)
and orange-mouth corvina Cynoscion xanthulus (Fish and Cummings
1972). Numerous fish species have developed effective sound producing and
detection mechanisms to take advantage of the high speed and distance of sound
propagation underwater (Hawkins and Myrberg 1983). Sound production
apparently supports the development of spawning aggregations and may aid in
the simultaneous release of gametes during broadcast spawning events after
dark.
Production locally and globally:
Commercial landings of white seabass have fluctuated widely over the nearly85 years of record keeping. Almost three million pounds were reported in 1922,
599,000 in 1937, 3.5 million in 1959, and 58,000 in 1997. Since 1959 the trend has
been one of decline, although landings have been over 100,000 pounds for the years
1984 through 1991 and 1998-1999. Although there was a commercial fishery in the
San Francisco area from the late 1800s to the mid- 1920s, landings of fish caught
north of Point Conception rarely exceeded 20 percent of the total California catch.
Today, catches of white seabass are concentrated along the coast from PointConception to San Diego and around the Channel Islands. The frequency of fish
caught north of Point Conception has increased in the past few years, although the
pounds landed still represent less than 20 percent of the total California catch.
Before 1982, California commercial fishermen landed thousands of pounds of white
seabass taken in Mexico. Often these landings comprised more than 80 percent of
the annual catch. Since then, the Mexican government has denied access permits to
U.S. fishermen, and the fishery is concentrated in California. During the early years
of the fishery, commercial catches were made using gillnets, hook-and-line, and
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round haul nets such as lamparas and purse seines. Purse seining was curtailed in
the late 1920s because decreasing catches made it uneconomical. Since all round
haul nets were prohibited in the early 1940s, gillnets have been the major
commercial fishing gear. Set gillnet fishing for white seabass within state waters was
completely disallowed beginning in 1994. Therefore, drift gillnetting is the primary
fishing method utilized today. Some commercial hook-andline fishing takes place
during the early spring, when large seabass are available. Although the legal size
limit for white seabass is 28 inches (about seven pounds), the average commercially
caught fish is nearly 40 inches (about 20 pounds). Because of consumer demand,
seabass has always commanded relatively high prices. In 2000, commercial
fishermen were typically paid $2.25 per pound for whole fish. At the retail level the
fish are sold fresh, primarily as fillets and steaks. Recreational fishing for white
seabass began around the turn of the century. Because of their size and elusive
nature, seabass are popular with anglers. Historical records show that anglers on
commercial passenger fishing vessels (CPFVs), fishing in California waters, landed
an average of 33,400 fish annually from 1947 through 1959. The catch steadily
declined to an average of 10,400 fish in the 1960s, 3,400 fish in the 1970s, and
1,200 fish in the 1980s, but increased to 3,000 fish in the 1990s. In fact, the 1999
recreational catch of white seabass from California waters was greater than 11,000
fish and appears to be as high for 2000. Additional seabass are caught by anglers
aboard private boats, but accurate catches by private boat anglers are difficult to
estimate. Today, sport anglers catch white seabass that are generally between
seven and 25 pounds. This was not true in the past. While the 28-inch size limit also
applies to recreational anglers, most of the catch prior to the 1990s (kept and
released) was between 20 and 24 inches. In a survey of private boaters at launch
ramp facilities from 1978 through 1982, biologists found that only six to 16 percent of
the white seabass kept were of legal size. In a similar survey aboard CPFVs from
1985 through 1987, biologists reported that 16 to 25 percent of the seabass caught
were legal. However, this has changed dramatically with the apparent increase in the
abundance of legal-size white seabass. During the period from 1995 through 1999,
data collected from private boat anglers revealed 77 percent of the fish were legal
size while data from CPFV anglers showed 80 percent of the fish were legal size.
White seabass are more often caught with live bait than with dead bait or lures, butall are effective when the fish are actively feeding. Seabass can sometimes be
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brought to the surface by heavy chumming with live bait. Anglers fishing around
Santa Catalina Island have reported consistently good catches using blacksmith and
silversides as bait. However, when available, live squid and Pacific sardines are
popular baits. Spearfishing for large seabass by free divers (without SCUBA) is
successful in kelp beds. Regulations covering white seabass have been in effect
since 1931, and have included a minimum size limit, closed seasons, bag limits, and
fishing gear restrictions. Such regulations are in effect today, w White Seabass shery
management plan for white seabass is presently being adopted and the need for
additional regulations will be considered.
Natural spawning or artificial fertilization:
Biologists believe the movement is probably spawning-related. Spawning
occurs from April to August, with a peak in the late spring to early summer. Fecundity
(egg productivity) for this species has not been determined, but a maturity study in
the late 1920s reported that females begin maturing when four years old (nearly 24
inches), and some males were sexually mature at three years (20 inches). All white
seabass have probably spawned at least once by age six (nearly 32 inches). Theeggs, which are the largest of any croaker on the west coast (approximately 0.05
inch in diameter), are planktonic. The larvae, which are darkly colored, have been
collected from Santa Rosa Island, California to Magdelena Bay, Baja California. Most
are found in the inshore areas of Sebastian Viscaino and San Juanico Bays, Baja
California, indicating that major spawning occurs off central Baja California. Young
of-the-year white seabass, ranging in length from 0.25 inch to 2.25 inches, inhabit
the open coast in waters 12 to 30 feet deep. They associate with bits and pieces of
drifting algae in areas of sandy ocean bottom. Sometime between the ages of one
and three years old, they move into protected bays where they utilize eelgrass
communities for cover and forage. Older juveniles are caught off piers and jetties
and around beds of giant kelp. Adult seabass occupy a wide range of habitats
including kelp beds, reefs, offshore banks, and the open ocean. Adult white seabass
eat Pacific mackerel, Pacific sardines, squid, pelagic red crabs, and Pacific herring.
Laboratory spawning of white seabass was first induced in 1982. Beginning in 1983,
the California Department of Fish and Game initiated the Ocean Resources
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Enhancement and Hatchery Program (OREHP) to test the feasibility of raising
seabass for population enhancement. That goal was achieved in the first 10 years of
the program and the goals of the program have been expanded to test the feasibility
of enhancing marine fish populations through the stocking of cultured fish. By 1999,
more than 375,000 juvenile. White seabass had been released off southern
California, and it is estimated that 17,500 of those may have survived to legal size or
larger. Additionally, valuable life history information has been gathered during this
program through ecological surveys, tagging, and genetic studies. However, more
work is necessary to determine if artificial propagation is successful in enhancing the
seabass population.
General characteristics:
The body of the white sea bass is elongate, and somewhat compressed. The
head is pointed and slightly compressed. The mouth is large, with a row of small
teeth in the roof; While the lower jaw is slightly projected. The color is bluish to gray
above, with dark speckling, becoming silver below. The young have several dark
vertical bars that fade as the white sea bass reaches maturity. The white sea bass isclosely related to the California corbina, but is the only California member of the
croaker family to exceed 20 pounds in weight. They are most easily separated from
other croakers by the presence of a ridge running the length of the belly. White
seabass are the largest members of the croaker family on the U. S. Pacific coast,
reaching a maximum recorded length of 1.5 m and 41 kg and twenty years in age.
Aquaculture system normally used to culture White Seabass.
Phase 1. Seabass fry (15-21 days old) can be reared in earthen ponds, land-
based tanks, or in net cages (hapa) set in ponds. Ponds are preferably not more
than 2,000 m2 for easy management. Ponds are prepared and fertilized at least one
week before stocking to eradicate predators and grow zooplankton. This phase can
take 10-20 days. Fish are harvested when size is 2.5 cm total length. Concrete
nursery tanks are 3-5 tons where fry can be weaned to formulated diet. They are fed
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every 2 hours, size-graded every 5-7 days, and harvested or transferred at 2.5-3.0
cm total length. This can take 30 days. Net cages (hapa) set in ponds can measure 2
x 1 x 1 m. Optimum stocking density is 150-200 fry/m3. Fry are fed with natural
zooplankton, mysids, mosquito larvae and/or formulated diet, graded every 5-7 days,
and harvested or transferred to B-net when the fry attains 2.5-3.0 cm total length.
This can take 30 days. Lights can be provided to attract zooplankton and encourage
fish foraging during the night.
Phase 2. At this stage, fish juveniles are fed trash fish or formulated diet 6x
per day until they reach 20-50 g, the ideal size for grow-out culture. Phase 2 nursery
can be done in concrete tanks or cages in ponds. In concrete tanks (3-5 tons),
juveniles are fed with formulated diet every 2 hours. Juveniles are graded and the
tanks cleaned every 5-7 days. In ponds, B-net cages can measure 2 x 3 x 1 m or 1 x
3 x 1 m. The same procedure is used as in the above and the fish are harvested at
7-10 cm total length.
Seabass juveniles are stocked at about 20-50 g average body weight. They
are fed fish by-catch at 5-10% biomass or formulated diet at 3-5% biomass given 2-
3x per day. Seabass can reach marketable size of 300-600 g in about 4-7 months.
Grow-out culture can be done in ponds or cages. Pond culture. The recommended
stocking density is 5,000 pcs/ha. Water is changed at 40-60% of volume daily during
spring tide. Cage culture. Cage size is 5 x 5 x 3 m with a recommended stocking
density of 15-20 pcs/m3.
Other interesting issues:
There is an exciting and unique program in southern California working to
help restore and rehabilitate some of our depleted marine fisheries. The Ocean
Resources Enhancement Hatchery Program (OREHP) was instituted through
legislation in 1983 and is administered by the California Department of Fish and
Game. Lead by a research team from Hubbs-SeaWorld Research Institute, and
support from many others, an experimental marine fish hatchery was built on the
Agua Hedionda Lagoon in Carlsbad, California in 1995. The hatchery represents a
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unique facility that blends mariculture with scientific research toward the goal of not
only improving the depleted fisheries in southern California, but also of increasing
our knowledge of these species and their life histories. Although the hatchery is
located in San Diego County, satellite growout facilities and program supporters
extend throughout southern California. Once the cultured white seabass reach a
fingerling size of 3 4 inches, they are tagged and transported to one of twelve
growout facilities located up and down out coastline. Volunteer groups, coordinated
by the United Anglers, operate each of these facilities and include local angling
clubs, research organizations, and environmental groups. Volunteers care for the
juvenile fish until they reach a size of 8 12 inches, when they are released into the
ocean, with the hope that they will survive and contribute to the wild seabass
population. Presently growout facilities exist in San Diego Harbor, Mission Bay, Dana
Point Harbor, Newport Harbor, Huntington Harbor, King Harbor, Marina del Rey, Port
Hueneme, Channel Islands Harbor, Santa Barbara, and Catalina. Each white
seabass is identified with a small coded wire tag that is inserted into the cheek
muscle of the fish. These tags hold a unique batch code that allows every seabass to
be identified with the specific group that it was released with. Later when a tag is
recovered, it is possible to determine where and when the fish was released, and
how far it had traveled. Most importantly, researchers are using these tags to assess
survivorship and to optimize the conditions under which fish are released. It is
impossible to differentiate a wild white seabass from one that has been raised at the
hatchery externally since the tags are internal. Specialized wands are used to scan
seabass to determine whether or not they are tagged. This is another area where
this program relies heavily on the support of local anglers. Fishermen are
encouraged to hold on to the heads of any legal white seabass so the fish can be
scanned by HSWRI researchers. The recovery of white seabass heads is an integral
part of this program as it provides a method for monitoring the success of the
restocking effort. For more information about the head recovery program please call
(760) 434 9501 or view the HSWRI website athttp://www.hswri.org. In recent years,
tagged, legal-size white seabass have started to be recovered in greater numbers.
This summer a spear fisherman caught a 22 pound white seabass off of La Jolla.
This fish was seven years old, and was released from the Newport Harbor growout
facility in late 1994. Legal-size white seabass have also been recovered from SantaBarbara, Catalina Island, and Mission Bay this year. As the number of fish released
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from the hatchery continues to increase, so too will the number of adults that are
recovered. During this calendar year, nearly 60 thousand juvenile white seabass
have been released into southern California waters. As the year draws to a close,
this number is sure to swell. The total number of white seabass released by this
program during its existence is over 600,000 fish.
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Australian Seabass.
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Chordata
Class Actinopterygii
Order Perciformes
Family Percichthyidae
Genus Macquaria
Species M. novemaculeata
Australian bass (Macquaria novemaculeata) are a small to medium sized, primarily
freshwater (but estuarine spawning) nativefishfound in coastal rivers and streams
along the east coast ofAustralia. They are a member of thePercichthyidaefamily
and, currently, theMacquariagenus. Australian bass are an iconic, highly predatory
native fish. They are an important member of the native fish faunas found in east
coast river systems and an extremely popular angling species.
Description and Size
Australian bass have a moderately deep, elongated body that is laterally
compressed. They have a forkedcaudal("tail") fin and angularanaland softdorsal
fins. Their spinydorsal finis of medium height, strong and sharp. They have a
medium sized mouth and relatively large eyes than can appear dark in low light or
red in bright light. Theoperculaor gill covers on Australian bass carry extremely
sharp flat spines that can cut fishermens' fingers deeply.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percichthyidaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percichthyidaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percichthyidaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macquariahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macquariahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macquariahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caudal_finhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caudal_finhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caudal_finhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anal_finhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anal_finhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anal_finhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorsal_finhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorsal_finhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorsal_finhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorsal_finhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorsal_finhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorsal_finhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorsal_finhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operculum_%28fish%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operculum_%28fish%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operculum_%28fish%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operculum_%28fish%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorsal_finhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorsal_finhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorsal_finhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anal_finhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caudal_finhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macquariahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percichthyidaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fish8/3/2019 BArramundi azmir
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Australian bass vary in colour from gold in clear sandy streams to the more usual
bronze or bronze-green colouration in streams with darker substrates and/or some
tannin staining to the water.
Australian bass are, overall, a smallish-sized species, averaging in most watersaround 0.5 kg and 2030 cm. A fish of 1 kg or larger is a good specimen. Maximum
size appears to be around 2.5 kg and 55 cm in southern waters, and around 3.0 kg
and 6065 cm in northern waters.
Typically, Australian bass stocked in man-made impoundments (where they cannot
breed) show greater average and maximum sizes than wild river fish.
Range
Australian bass are found in coastal rivers and streams from Wilsons
Promontory in Victoria east and north along the eastern seaboard to the rivers and
creeks of the Bundaberg region in central Queensland.
Australian bass are not found in the Murray-Darling system because although the
system is extensive, it has only one variable entrance to the Southern Ocean, a
feature that appears to be incompatible with the estuarine breeding habits of
Australian bass and other aspects of their life cycle.
Habitat
In the freshwater reaches of coastal rivers in the warmer months, Australian bass
require reasonable quality, unsilted habitats with adequate native riparian vegetation
and in-stream cover/habitat. Australian bass generally sit in cover during the day.
However, they are fairly flexible about the type of cover used. Sunken timber
(snags), undercut banks, boulders, shade under trees and bushes overhanging the
water and thick weedbeds are all used as cover. Such cover does not need to be in
deep water to be used; Australian bass are happy to use cover in water as shallow
as 1 metre in depth.
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Australian bass are strong swimmers at all sizes and can easily traverse rapids and
fast-flowing water. However, they generally avoid sitting directly in currents to
conserve energy.
At night Australian bass display pelagic (near-surface) behaviour and actively huntprey in shallow water and at the water's surface.
When aggregated for spawning in the broad reaches of estuaries in winter,
Australian bass are less cover oriented, and generally sit in deeper water.
Diet
Harris (1985) found that the common items in the diet of Australian bass are:
terrestrial insects, particularly cicadas
aquatic macroinvertebrates, particularly Trichoptera larvae
crustaceans in the forms of freshwater shrimps and estuarine prawns
small fish, particularly flathead gudgeon (Philhypnodon grandiceps), which are
common in their freshwater habitats.
However, Australian bass are fierce predators and any small creature that swims
across a bass pool such as (introduced) mice and native lizards or frogs are at risk of
being taken by a large Australian bass, and are regularly taken.
Growth and Age
For reasons that are not clear, Australian bass are extremely slow growing.
Australian bass continue the trend present in the larger native fish species of SE
Australia of being very long-lived. Longevity is a survival strategy to ensure that most
adults participate in at least one exceptional spawning and recruitment event, which
are often linked to unusually wet 'La Nia' years and may only occur every one or
two decades. Maximum age recorded so far is 22 years.
As with otherMacquariaspecies, there is sexual dimorphism in Australian bass.
Males tend to have an absolute maximum size of 1.0 kg or less, while females
regularly exceed 1.0 kg and sometimes reach the maximum size of 2.53.0 kg.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macroinvertebratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trichopterahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shrimphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prawnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mousehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lizardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Froghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1ohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macquariahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macquariahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macquariahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_dimorphismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_dimorphismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macquariahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1ohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Froghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lizardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mousehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prawnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shrimphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trichopterahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macroinvertebratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect8/3/2019 BArramundi azmir
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Males reach sexual maturity at around 34 years of age, females at 56 years of
age.
Aquaculture System Used
Usually, RAS (Recirculation Aquaculture System) is used to culture or breed the
species. RAS is encompasses system used for rearing of aquatic organism where
90% or more system water is recycled. This system is the latest most functional fish
farming system developed to cater need of the fast-growing aquaculture industry.
RAS is used as it gives many advantages as Australian Bass need more protection
from infection and desease.
Australian Bass are perfect to farm dams, you just purchase small fingerlings from a
commercial Bass hatchery and drop them in your dams. They will take several years
to get large enough to eat and 30% generally will not make it to an adult size. You
need to artificially breed bass, though they will roe up in your dam they are not going
to breed in farm dams.
Another system used is floating cage system where the construction cost is more
affordable to be done.
Reproduction
Australian bass spawn in estuaries in winter, generally in the months of July or
August.
The salinity range in which Australian bass spawn is still not clear. Estuaries are
dynamic habitats with daily fluxes in salinity due to tides, and are also affected by
droughts, floods and freshes (minor, temporary rises in flow), making measurements
of preferred spawning salinities for wild Australian bass difficult.
Harris (1986) concluded Australian bass spawned in salinities of 812 parts per
thousand (salt water is approximately 36 ppt), based on capture of recently spawned
larval and juvenile Australian bass in estuaries. Harris (1986) also found Australian
bass sperm had no viability at or below 6 ppt, but was most viable at 12 ppt, the
latter probably being the most relevant fact. However, Harris (in McDowall (ed.),
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1996) stated Australian bass spawned in salinities of 1218 ppt, with this statement
based on fishermens' reports of observing wild Australian bass spawnings and some
unpublished data gathered by the NSW Fisheries Department.
Artificial breeding of Australian bass is carried out at much higher salinities thannatural.
Australian bass are highly fecund, with Harris (1986) reporting a mean fecundity
("fertility") of 440,000 eggs from the mature wild female specimens examined, and
one very large specimen yielding 1,400,000 eggs. The eggs are reported as being
demersal ("sinking") in natural spawning salinities, in which case estuarine
vegetation such as sea grass almost certainly play an important role in "trapping"
and protecting eggs. Larvae hatch in 23 days. Juvenile Australian bass migrate into
the freshwater reaches after spending several months in estuarine waters.
Despite spawning in estuaries, Australian bass rely on floods coming down river
systems into the estuaries throughout the winter period, both to stimulate migration
and spawning in adult Australian bass and for strong survival and recruitment of
Australian bass larvae.
Conservation
Wild Australian bass stocks have declined seriously since European settlement.
Dams and weirs blocking migration of Australian bass both to estuaries and to the
upper freshwater reaches of coastal rivers is the most potent cause of decline. Most
coastal rivers now have dams and weirs on them. If Australian bass are prevented
from migrating to estuaries for breeding by an impassable dam or weir, then they will
die out above that dam or weir. Some dams or weirs exclude Australian bass from
the vast majority of their habitat. It is estimated for example that Tallowa Dam on
the Shoalhaven River, once an Australian bass stronghold, currently excludes wild
Australian bass from more than 80% of their former habitat (in early 2010 however a
"fish lift" was fitted to the dam). Dams and weirs also diminish or completely remove
flood events required for effective breeding of adult bass and effective recruitment of
juvenile Australian bass. A related issue is the myriad of other structures on coastal
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rivers such as poorly designed road crossings that (often needlessly) block migration
of Australian bass.
Another potent cause of decline is habitat degradation. Unfortunately poor land
management practices have been the norm historically in Australia. Completeclearing of riparian (river bank) vegetation, stock trampling river banks, and massive
siltation from these poor practices as well as poor practices in the catchment, can
severely degrade and silt coastal rivers to the point of being uninhabitable for
Australian bass. TheBega River in southern New South Wales is a particularly
salutory example of a coastal river so stripped of riparian vegetation and so silted
with coarse granitic sands from poor land management practices, that the majority of
it is now completely uninhabitable by Australian bass and other native fish.
As a slow-growing fish, Australian bass are vulnerable to overfishing, and overfishing
has been a driver of decline in Australian bass stocks in past decades. However, the
situation has improved markedly now the majority of fishermen are practicing catch
and release with Australian bass.
Hatchery breeding and stocking of Australian bass is used to create fisheries above
dams and weirs but these are causing concern over genetic diversity issues, use of
bass broodfish from different genetic strains, and introduction/translocation of
unwanted pest fish species in stockings. Stockings can also mask and divert
attention away from serious habitat degradation and decline of wild stocks in
catchments.
Interesting Fact
Fishing for Australian bass is a summertime affair, undertaken during the warmer
months in the freshwater reaches of the rivers they inhabitat. Australian bass are
keenly fished for as they are an outstanding sportsfish, extraordinarily fast and
powerful for their size. Their extraordinary speed and power is probably due to their
significant, strenuous annual migrations for spawning and a life-style that is
migratory in general. Australian bass in their natural river habitats are not to be
underestimated; they head straight for the nearest snags (sunken timber) when
hooked and light but powerful tackle and stiff drag settings are needed to stop them.
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Another interesting fact about Australian Bass is it has its migration pattern
especially during spawning and reproduction seasons.
Australian bass are primarily a freshwater riverine species, but must breed in
estuarine waters. Consequently, Australian bass reside in the freshwater reaches ofcoastal rivers for the warmer half of the year or slightly more and the estuarine
reaches in winter, and are highly migratory in general.
A general description of the migratory pattern for adult Australian bass would be:
September: re-enter lower freshwater reaches after spawning
OctoberNovember: movement through middle freshwater reaches
December
February: maximum penetration into negotiable upper freshwaterreaches
MarchApril: slow movement back down through freshwater reaches in
anticipation of spawning run
May: strong spawning run to estuarine reaches
JuneJulyAugust: aggregation and spawning in estuarine reaches
Obviously the timing of these migratory movements varies slightly from the south to
the north of their range. The timing of these migratory movements are also
dependent on river flows, particularly freshes and floods that drown out and make
larger rapids and cascades passable.
Australian bass are found at their highest altitude in the freshwater reaches of rivers
during the months of December, January and February. Research indicates there is
sexual segregation in this non-spawning season for resource partitioning purposes
(Harris, 1988). Males inhabit the lower freshwater reaches of rivers while females
travel far into the middle and upper freshwater (upland) reaches, up to an altitudinal
limit of around 600 metres (if there are no natural or man-made obstructions).
Australian Bass were special on the table because it is good eating, as bass can be
cooked in a variety of ways. Gently grilling or pan frying provides excellent results.
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Challenges Faced By Aquaculturist to culture Australian Bass.
Australian Bass needs proper procedure in breeding and culturing. Skilled labor
needed to operate the industry especially if the breeding or culturing using RAS.