BARRIERS TO GEOGRAPHY LEARNING AND TEACHING IN GRADE …

BARRIERS TO GEOGRAPHY LEARNING AND TEACHING IN

GRADE 12 IN THE LIMPOPO PROVINCE

by

LESHABELA HERBERT MADUANE

Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

in

LANGUAGE EDUCATION

in the

FACULTY OF HUMANITIES

(School of Education)

at the

UNIVERSITY OF LIMPOPO

SUPERVISOR: Prof R.J. Singh

2016

i

DECLARATION

I declare that BARRIERS TO GEOGRAPHY LEARNING AND TEACHING IN

GRADE 12 IN THE LIMPOPO PROVINCE is my own work and that I have referred

to or quoted duly indicated and acknowledged by means of complete

references. This work has not been submitted before for any other degree at any

other institution in the RSA or abroad.

Full Names: Leshabela Herbert Maduane Date: May 2015

Student number:

ii

DEDICATION

The thesis is dedicated to my late grandfather Selepe Kwena Leshabela; my late

parents Mokitle Selwalekgwadi Machesane and Tjiane Mosedi Mahwadijong.

iii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I want to thank the following persons for their invaluable contributions to this work:

My wife Tilodi A’ Mawa, daughter Baubamosadi, and son Maroeshe ‘A

Ramothata for their unconditional love, unfailing support, motivation and

understanding.

A special thank you to my supervisor, Prof R.J. Singh, for her guidance, support,

encouragement and patience.

A special thank you to my statistician, Mr M.V. Netshidzivhanani for his

guidance in designing the questionnaires, and his expert analysis of the data.

A special thank you to Mr Maropanyana Mokgotho for his technological service

support.

A special thank you to my typists, Francina Ngwato and Martha Ramoraswi, and

Kgasodi Moropa and Sebasa Thobejane for their unselfishness with their

precious time.

District Senior Managers, Circuit Managers, School Managers, CAs, Teachers of

geography and their learners in Capricorn, Mopani, Sekhukhune, Vhembe and

Waterberg districts in the Limpopo Province; for sharing their precious time from

their tight schedules to participate in the study.

Doctor M.A. Madigoe for his guide.

The Limpopo Province: Department of Education, for giving me permission to

access their institutions to gather data.

Professor Cloete for editing the work.

Professor M.J. Mojalefa for his motivation.

Mr Kgakanchane Phoku, for providing map-work teaching guide.

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ABSTRACT

The purpose of this research was to investigate teachers’ professional proficiency in

terms of geography as a subject and English as the language of learning and

teaching, the level of difficulty of the textbooks in terms of their difficulty of

terminologies and structure, and the impact of code-switching from LoLT into local

African languages on learners’ growth in geographical terminologies and

communicativeness in English thinking in geography. These issues were considered

by the researcher as barriers to learning and teaching of geography in grade 12 in

the Limpopo Province.

For the investigation of the barriers, the researcher chose research design

comprising qualitative, quantitative, explorative and descriptive approaches pertinent

to the study. The central figure in the investigation was the learner; the study was

underpinned by the constructivist approach. The researcher considered triangulation

of methods when gathering data due to the comprehensiveness of the sought data.

The method employed was to gather literature on similar studies conducted by

scholars elsewhere to shed light to the researcher of the problem under

investigation. Structured questionnaires, semi-structured interviews, participant

observations were used to collect data on focal learning and teaching activities. The

researcher was keen in determining how teachers employed their preferred methods

of teaching geography and the attitudes and perceptions of the learners to the

activities that were part of the lessons. The researcher involved (n=16) subject

teachers, and administered a 20-item questionnaire to learners. (n=407) responded

to a 15-item questionnaire. Curriculum teachers (n=10) were interviewed separately

from the pool of the said (n=16), subject advisers (n=2) were interviewed to provide

first-hand experience. The findings affirmed that there was poor professional

proficiency; textbooks were a recognized learning barrier to second language

English learners in terms of the difficulty of the language which was linked to

geographical concepts coined in English, teachers’ lack of linguistic competence in

LoLT to supplement the difficult textbooks. The result was that this led to resorting to

code-switching that deprived learners of practice in the language to attain effective

learning and good performance in examinations.

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KEY CONCEPTS

Barriers; research design; constructivist approach; vision and mission of learning and

teaching; qualitative research; quantitative research; explorative research;

descriptive research; learning and teaching practices; language of learning and

teaching; dual medium of instruction; code-switching; data gathering; questionnaires;

participant observations; interview; document analysis; methods; preferences;

attitudes; perceptions; learning content; curriculum; textbooks’ level of difficulty;

effective learning and teaching practices; professional proficiency; competence;

expertise; repertoire of terminologies or concepts; home language; experiential or

practical learning; theoretical learning; linguistic competence; performance; cognitive

development; numeracy; literacy; enquiry; acquisition; framework; language across

the curriculum; theoretical teaching and learning; assessment; geosciences; map-

work; map-work types; LoLT proficiency.

TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE

Declaration i

Dedication ii

Acknowledgements iii

Abstract iv

Key Concepts v

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

1.1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY 1

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT 2

1.3 AIM 3

1.4 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY 3

1.5 OBJECTIVES 5

1.6 RESEARCH QUESTIONS 6

1.7 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY 6

1.8 LITERATURE REVIEW 6

1.9 THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 10

1.10 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 12

1.10.1 Research Design 14

1.10.2 Population and Sampling 16

1.10.3 Data Collection 17

1.10.4 Questionnaires 18

1.10.5 Interviews 18

1.10.6 Observations 19

1.10.7 Documents Analysis 19

1.11 DATA ANALYSIS 20

1.12 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY 21

1.13 ETHICAL CONSIDARATIONS 22

1.14 DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS 23

1.15 CHAPTER DIVISION 25

1.16 SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 26

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION 27

2.2 THE GEOGRAPHIC DELIMINATION OF THE LIMPOPO

PROVINCIAL EDUCATION DISTRICTS 29

2.3 LITERATURE REVIEW ON GEOGRAPHY 29

2.3.1 Theories that frame the research 32

2.3.2 Challenges to language in education (in geography classrooms) 37

2.3.3 Geography-specific curriculum knowledge challenges 39

2.3.4 Geography teachers’ development to close poor performance gaps

in the subject 43

2.3.5 Learners construct knowledge through active learning 48

2.3.6 How can geography curriculum teachers use textbooks better

to benefit learners? 55

2.3.7 Map work teaching and learning: Quantitative literacy challenges 58

2.3.8 Administering employment of assessment in geography teaching

and learning 66

2.3.9 Reflecting on pass rates in grade 12 geography in Limpopo DoE

during 1999-2009 66

2.3.10 Development of critical thinking development in learners of

geography 70

2.3.11 Expert teacher in relation to barriers to curriculum knowledge 71


CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 OVERVIEW 92

3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN AND PURPOSE 94

3.3. SAMPLING PROCEDURES 96

3.4. DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS 98

3.5. DATA COLLECTION PROCESS 101

3.5.1 Participants 102

3.5.2 Interviews 104

3.6. INSTRUMENT ADMINISTERING 104

3.6.1 Questionnaires 104

3.6.2 On-Site Participant Observation 105

3.6.3 In-Depth Interviews 107

3.6.4 Document Analysis 107


CHAPTER 4: DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

4.1 INTRODUCTION 109

4.2 RESEARCH FINDINGS 112

4.2.1 Introduction 112

4.3 BIOGRAPHICAL DATA 114

4.3.1 Biographical Data of learners 114

4.3.2 Learners’ Age 115

4.3.3 Data for schools/teachers 117

4.4 TEACHER QUALIFICATIONS 118

4.4.1 Major Subjects 120

4.5 TEACHER PERFORMANCE 128

4.5.1 Teacher Performance 1999-2001 129

4.5.2 Teacher performance 2002-2004 130

4.5.3 Teacher performance 2005-2007 131

4.5.4 Teachers Performance 2008-2010 132

4.5.5 Teacher Performance 2011 133

4.6 FINDINGS FROM TEACHER QUESTIONNAIRE 134

4.6.1 Findings from teacher questionnaire statement on objective 1 135

4.6.2 Finding from learners questionnaire statements addressing

objective 2 152

4.6.3 Findings from learner questionnaire statements addressing

objective 3 160

4.6.4 Findings from teacher questionnaire statements addressing

objective 3 170

4.6.5 Findings from learner questionnaire statements addressing

objective 4 177

4.6.6 Interview data 195

4.7 DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS 198

4.7.1 Introduction 198

4.7.2 Overview of the barriers … 199

4.8 RESULTS OF THE STUDY ON BARRIERS 200

4.9 SUMMARY OF BARRIERS-BASED RESULTS 208

4.9.1 Barrier-based objective 1: Teachers 208



4.9.4 Barrier-based objective 2: Learners 209




CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS, CONCLUSION

5.1. INTRODUCTION 211

5.2. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHOD 212

5.3. OVERVIEW AND CONCLUSION OF THE STUDY 212

5.4. SUMMARY AND INTERPRETATION OF THE RESEARCH

FINDINGS 214

5.5. RECOMMENDATIONS 216

5.6. CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE STUDY 219

5.7 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY 219

5.8 SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH 220

5.9 CONTRIBUTIONS MADE BY THE STUDY 220

5.10. CONCLUDING REMARKS 221

REFERENCES 222

APPENDIX A

APPENDIX B

APPENDIX C

APPENDIX D

APPENDIX E

APPENDIX F

APPENDIX G

APPENDIX H

1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY

The researcher chose to investigate the barriers to Geography learning and teaching in Grade 12;

because there is an alarming and concerning decline in pass rates, specifically in Geography in

the National Senior Certificate (NCS) examinations in the Limpopo Province. This study is

presented in the context of the use of a second language in learning and teaching Geography in

grade 12 in the Limpopo Province. The purpose of the investigation was to identify underpinning

barriers to good performance in Geography, and to describe and analyse these barriers.

Thereafter, the researcher recommends to the Department of Education (DoE) intervention

strategies to redress the barriers, in order to improve the pass rates in the subject.

The concept of barriers is central to this study. The concept can be defined as hindrances or

threats to effective learning and teaching in Grade 12 classrooms. The educational barriers to

learners could emanate from many issues. The researcher believes the language of learning and

teaching (LoLT) in Geography, the teachers’ proficiency in both Geography and English as

subjects, the learners’ literacy in Geography/difficult English textbooks, and the use of code-

switching from the (LoLT) into the mother-tongue (MT), act as possible barriers to Geography

learning and teaching.

The researcher’s intimation about the barriers is elicited from the registered 44.2 percentage

average pass rate in Geography in the National Senior Certificate between 1999 and 2009.

The study is informed by scholarly works to argue why the LoLT can impact negatively on non-

English speakers’ performance in the Geography curriculum. Butt (2002:200) and Leat

(2002:109) state that English provides the medium of learning Geography in an English context

in every classroom. English should, therefore, be a major consideration in the planning and

preparation of lessons. The English language used across the Geography curriculum for teaching

and learning manifests in verbal interaction between the teacher and the learner, reading and

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learning in Geography, and writing Geography content in English. Butt (2002:201) indicates that

the use of English can be a barrier to pupils’ learning if the Geography teacher fails to direct

learners’ mere talking about Geography to impact their actual learning. Geography language in

itself is a recognised barrier to learners, because of its difficult geographical terminology (Butt,

2002:201). Butt (2002:210) emphasises that the use of the geographical technical language and

concepts bars learners from learning; because the second-language learners do not have a good

command of English (Kgosana, 2009:3).

Howie (2005:176) agrees with Butt’s (2002:201) view that English is a critical and significant

factor for learners as the medium of instruction in Geography. Howie (2005:176) argues how the

English speakers – with English as their first language – attained higher scores in a Mathematics

test. However, the African-language speakers’ scores were lower in the same Mathematics test.

The higher and lower scores scenario was attributed to the factor of English proficiency and the

barrier in English proficiency in respect of proficient English speakers and non-proficient non-

English speakers, respectively. The findings of Howie (2005:178) were based on the fact that

non-English speakers or African-language speakers could not interpret the English tables, figures

and illustrations.

And the failure was because of the content. These researchers stated that it appeared that the

learners were unable to articulate their answers by writing in English. The researcher views

Howie’s findings (2005:178) to be pertinent to this study, because of the LoLT similarities of the

stated barriers to Geography learning and teaching in Grade 12 in the Limpopo Province.

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

The pass rate of Grade 12 Geography learners in the National Senior Certificate examinations in

the Limpopo Province has been on a disturbing decline between 1999 and 2009. This study

hypothesises that some barriers to Geography learning and teaching may be at play. This

problem is pursued by this study, which sets out to investigate the existence of the possible

barriers.

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1.3 AIM

The aim of this study is to investigate the barriers that hinder or threaten quality teaching and

learning in Geography in Grade 12 in the Limpopo Province. The purpose is to redress the

barriers concerned in the classroom/learning situation by implementing the relevant intervention

strategies, in order to attain better pass rates in schools.

1.4 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

To put the background of the study in perspective, the researcher had to consult previous

research, which was considered pertinent to this study’s problem. McMillan and Schumacher

(2000:593) claim that literature helps the study to seek pertinent knowledge from collateral

previous empirical works. Leedy (1989:66) and Welman and Kruger (2001:30) assert that the

previous empirical studies can provide this study with deeper insight and broad-spectrum

knowledge, which could assist the study to formulate the research problem, in order to facilitate

the complete planning of the study. The study suspected that the following problems constituted

the barriers:

The teacher is considered a barrier to teaching-learning geography with respect to

second-language learners.

The English used in the textbook is a barrier to second-language learners in the

geography learning-teaching context.

Code-switching from English into vernacular languages is experienced as a barrier to

second-language learners, thereby depriving them of opportunities to grow in English and

geography literacy.

Barriers to teaching and learning content (geography) in grade 12 in the Limpopo Province are a

concern; because they hinder second-language learners from optimising their geographical

knowledge. The learners’ growth in geography-specific language and English literacy are

considered the prime vision and mission – in order for teaching and learning to be satisfactorily

accomplished. It is the core function/business of the content teacher. The content teacher is the

prime mover for the educational activities referred to above to take effect. Howell and Lazarus

(2003:5) consider the curriculum (geography) as one of the most significant barriers. The content

knowledge of learners is dependent on how the teacher teaches the subject. Teaching geography

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entails the medium of instruction (English), which the geography teacher must master well with

specific teaching methods and strategies, in order to be effective in teaching (Howell & Lazarus

2003:5). In addition to the question of the geography-specific expertise of the teacher, Butt

(2002:2000) states that the content and medium (English) of instruction are critical and crucial

requirements for the content teacher.

As a general norm, effective teaching is discharged by a competent content and an English-

speaking teacher. This scenario grants the second-language learners opportunities to optimise

their content mastery and language-literacy skills. The competent teacher teaches from the

textbook, conscious of the fact that textbooks contribute to the development of the geographical

knowledge of the learner (Naish, 1992:188).

Incompetent geography teachers’ failures are manifested in their inability to select and handle

textbooks. Naish (1992:178) says that “textbooks are too difficult to be read by the students for

whom they are intended”. The incompetent geography teachers cannot supplement the difficult

English of the textbook. This compromises the learner in terms of attaining meaningful learning.

Their failure acts as a barrier for the learners; because second-language learners cannot deal with

difficult textbooks independently in terms of English without the instructional help of the

competent teacher. The competent teacher would always supplement the difficult textbook

easily, in order for the second-language pupil to learn (Naish, 1992: 78; Naidoo, 2006:9).

Graves and Murphy (2000:229) assert that “there is no such thing as a perfect textbook. The

teacher plays the primary role. Whatever book he has, it is for him to make his own selection

from the material offered. He must use it, according to his conception of the lesson; and he must

supplement it, as he thinks necessary.” What this quote entails is that an expert geography

teacher commands geography-specific expertise that helps her/him to conceive of her/his second-

language learners through her/his constructivist conceptual framework. Such a competent teacher

has a sufficient command of the subject to enhance the learners’ learning.

The teaching-learning frameworks that the teacher uses enable the learners to learn effectively,

especially when they are involved personally in learning. They own the learning process; and

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they are enthused by taking all learning challenges head-on. They derive new experiences from

the learning content (Vermeulen, 2000:15; Sawyer, 2006:302).

Code-switching is the fourth barrier in this study; and this has far-reaching consequences for the

geography second-language learner. This dual medium of instruction is brought about in the

geography teaching-learning contexts by expecting teachers to use English as the medium of

instruction. Mahlalela-Thusi and Heugh (2001:24) maintain that “… there is no or sufficient

terminology in African languages” to use, in order to supplement English for the second-

language learners in the learning and teaching of geography. The teacher who practises code-

switching would not be able to produce competent learners to become the future geographers in

their own right (Rodseth, 2002:109).

Breidlid (2003:88) says the pro-code-switching practice teachers become barriers to effective

geography learning. Instead of simplifying the difficult learning material for the second-language

learners to benefit, they resort to a dual-medium instruction, which is counterproductive. They

disadvantage the second-language learners through code-switching; because vernacular

languages do not have a developed terminology/corpus in geography that enables the second-

language learners to derive any benefit from the teaching.

In rounding off the background to the study, it must be indicated that a broader spectrum of

literature was consulted to inform the study on how the identified barriers above are manifested,

and how they can be addressed to improve learners’ performance. The literature provided

information on the barriers under the spotlight in the study; and it was probed and interpreted in

Chapter 4. Subsequently, the data gathered in Chapter 4 will be discussed and validated in

Chapter 5.

1.5 OBJECTIVES

The objectives of this study were:

To determine whether there is a link between the grade of difficulty of the textbooks

written in English that second-language learners studying Geography must use and the

Geography pass rates in examinations;

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To assess whether the medium of instruction (English) acts as a barrier to Grade 12

Geography learners;

To determine the level of proficiency of teachers to teach Geography in Grade 12;

To determine the impact of the code-switching practice from the medium of instruction

(LoLT) into the mother-tongue (MT) in the Geography-learning situation.

1.6 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The research investigated the following questions:

Is there a link between the standard of English used in the Geography textbooks with the

second-language learners’ understanding of the curriculum in relation to pass rates in

examinations in Grade 12 in the Limpopo Province?

Does English as LoLT act as a barrier to second-language learners in the Grade 12

Geography learning and teaching?

Are Geography teachers adequately proficient in English and Geography to teach Grade

12 learners?

Does code-switching practice from the LoLT into the MT in the Geography learning and

teaching situation bar learners from attaining quality learning?

1.7 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

Upon completion of the study, Geography teachers and learners should be the beneficiaries – in

the sense that teachers will overcome the barriers militating against their Geography teaching,

currently resulting in lower pass rates in Geography Grade 12 learners. The implementation of

recommended intervention strategies for teaching and learning Geography should help learners

to acquire literacy in Geography. The acquisition of Geography literacy would benefit learners –

by enabling them to follow careers in Geography.

1.8 THE LITERATURE REVIEW

One of the essential areas in Geography teaching and learning is map-work. This area also poses

many problems in Geography teaching. The researcher agrees with the view of Tshibalo and

Schulze’s (2000:230-243) on teaching map-work to Geography learners in the South African

context as posing barriers to teachers’ teaching. These scholars assert that many Geography

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teachers use ineffectual traditional methods in teaching Geography. They advocate the co-

operative map-learning approach to develop learners. Butt (2002:16-17) mentions that the maps

and photographs are critical for learners in the learning of Geography. However, maps and

photographs often pose perceptual and conceptual barriers to learners. They recommend that

map-work needs to be handled by employing efficacious strategies to benefit learners and to

grow their knowledge for their future career-paths.

Probyn et al. (2002:29) found in their research on language policy in four Eastern Cape

education districts, based on the classroom context in which English was the LoLT interchanged

with the home language of IsiXhosa and Sesotho across the curriculum, indicated sharp

conflicting practitioners’ views regarding code-switching. Anti-code-switching practitioners

condemned the code-switching practice as being counterproductive in learners’ curriculum

language development. The anti-code-switching practitioners viewed the use of English as the

LoLT promoting learners’ communicativeness in the curriculum; while the pro-code-switching

practice is counterproductive in the literacy of Geography development.

Morgan and Lambert (2005:66) argue, in the British context, that expert teachers in English and

Geography could impact positively on learners’ attainment of proficiency in English and

Geography. On the other hand, inexpert teachers in English and Geography can be barriers to

learners’ quality learning in Geography. It is argued that effective and efficient Geography

curriculum teachers could raise learners’ awareness to literacy approaches in Geography.

Proficient Geography teachers can develop in learners listening, speaking, reading and writing

skills in English; as Geography is characterised by the learners’ ability to explain facts in a

communicative geographical manner.

Carstens (2008:1), on the question of Geography teachers’ proficiency, advocates that

Geography teachers should have a repertoire of Geography subject-specific terms to promote

literacy in Geography; so that learners can attain Geography literacy optimally. Conversely,

inefficient Geography teachers can be barriers to the quality learning of pupils in Geography.

Therefore, it is critical for the Geography teachers to be able to guide the form and function of

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English in the learners’ learning in Geography-learning situations; so that they can overcome

barriers to Geography learning and teaching (Butt, 2002:210-211).

Graves and Murphy’s study (2000:228), based on a British background, focused on how critical

Geography teachers are in the selection and handling of Geography textbooks, in order for the

learners to learn effectively. They point out a consequential fact that “there is no such thing as a

perfect textbook. The teacher plays a primordial part. Whatever book he has, it is for him to

make his own selection from the material offered. He must use it, according to his conception of

the lesson; and he must supplement it as he thinks necessary” (Graves & Murphy 2000:229).

Naidoo (2006:9) carried out a study in the Eastern Cape, which attests to the scholars’ quotation

that the Geography curriculum teacher must be a catalyst to barriers in learning and teaching at

the initial stages of education; content selection should be made in view of the language level of

the learners for whom the content is intended. The Geography curriculum teacher must look for

criteria of readability, suitability of the textbook for English for the second-language learners,

and link it with the ability of the subject teacher to supplement the difficult textbook.

The English should be user-friendly to the learners. If the teacher is not an expert in the

curriculum, complicated unreadable textbooks might be selected, which learners can barely use

independently. Such complicated textbooks in English are linked to ineffective and inefficient

teachers, who are barriers to Geography learning and teaching. This seemingly manifests in

lower pass rates in Geography in Grade 12 in the Limpopo Province.

In her study carried out in the rural North West, Macdonald (1990:4) emphasised that the

teacher’s proficiency in English as a subject and the medium of instruction are very critical

issues, and consequential to the learners’ learning. This scholar states that a proficient teacher in

English as a LoLT can enable the teacher to handle textbooks with efficiency, in order to enrich

learners’ learning experiences or vice versa. Van Rooyen (1990:1-3) points out that unqualified

and under-qualified teachers in English as a subject and as a LoLT experience difficulty in

handling textbooks written in English.

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They cannot facilitate the second-language (English) learners’ learning problems. Breidlid

(2003:88-102) notes that inefficient curriculum teachers in LoLT often resort to code-switching

from the LoLT into the MT. The code-switching practice becomes a barrier to learning in

Geography – especially when the content is difficult for the teacher herself/himself to handle;

and the MT does not have a developed terminology/corpus to enable the pupil to learn in it. The

language barrier is a further disadvantage; since the learners do not then acquire literacy in

Geography to communicate properly in examinations/assessment tasks.

Balderstone (2000:114-115) mentions that the lack of literacy in Geography is a critical barrier

because learners therefore can hardly construct meaning in learning Geography – when

struggling in learning situations. In ideal situations, knowledgeable Geography teachers can

create learning opportunities for learners to actively construct knowledge to optimise literacy and

thinking in Geography. Effectively taught and perfectly guided learners develop verbal learning

and discovery skills in learning Geography, whereby barriers to learning are overcome in

learners.

Proficient Geography teachers provide learners with effective learning techniques, such as oral

lessons, using textbooks and atlases.

The consequences of the LoLT are highlighted by Koch and Kriel (2005:633-636). Their

argument is based on the reading or learning of Accounting at university level in the South

African context, with special reference to the performance of non-speakers of English. They

focus on the inability of the first-year students to apply their knowledge in English across the

curriculum. It seems that these first-year students experienced similar curriculum learning

barriers in Grade 12; because of their teachers’ inefficiency in the respective curriculum. This is

similar to the Grade 12 experiences in Geography in the Limpopo Province.

It seems that the Grade 12 learners lack English proficiency to read, conceptualise, interpret and

analyse information from the textbooks with understanding and critical minds. The learners

learning barriers seem to be compounded by the fact that Geography has geographical concepts,

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which learners are challenged to acquire, as accentuated by Butt (2002:200) and Kgosana

(2009:3).

1.9 THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

The study is underpinned by the constructivist theoretical approach of Piaget, Vigotsky, Dewey

and other adherents (Sawyer, 2006:137). The rationale for the choice was that geography is a

practical subject; and it is best taught in a language that should be practised in context. The

concepts of conceptual and theoretical framework entail the following aspects: the conceptual

framework has to do with the factors that affect the employment of learner-centred learning

methods. On the other hand, the theoretical framework has to do with a model that can enhance

learner-centred learning in the teaching-learning of geography in grade 12 in the Limpopo

Province.

The conceptual framework embraces approaches, such as content-based strategies and values in

terms of teaching-learning Geography. The discussion of the conceptual framework underpinned

by geography teaching methods will be interlaced with theories on how geography-specific

knowledge can be meshed with geography–based literacy. The latter promotes teaching-learning

methods. The curriculum is underpinned by constructivist theories; and their pertinent methods

must be looked into. The content teacher must be viewed as the implementer of the specific

content; and the learner must be seen as the central figure in the learning-teaching activity

(Tshibalo & Schulze, 2002:231). This means that the content specialists should select the

learning material, content-specific teaching methods and strategies to commensurate the learner

to accomplish the optimal level of learning in Geography (Wilmot, 2003:313-318).

The rationale of the study for selecting the constructivist approach was to advocate that learning-

teaching Geography is second-language/learner-centred. The learner-centred learning-teaching is

underpinned by active, learning, cooperative and experiential learning approaches that are linked

with pertinent strategies.

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The adherents of Piaget (1954), like Sawyer (2006:122), hold the notion that “learning is an

active constructive process…” This notion is contrary to the notion held by conventionalism or

traditionalists that learning is dependent on the transmission and evaluation of knowledge by the

subject expert to the novice (Sawyer, 2006:122). The constructivist approach says the active

learner manipulates the learning material to create cognitive links from the new material to their

own previously owned knowledge (Sawyer, 2006:122).

Active learners do self-evaluation of their own learning; and they monitor their own learning

activities in context (Sawyer, 2006:258). This study upholds the constructivist approach for

learning and teaching geography through the medium of instruction of English. This enables

learners to grow in the language of geography, as well as to gain literacy in the second language.

Houijer and Fourie (2009:135-151) consider geography as a subject that uses language in all

activities in its contexts.

The constructivist approach espouses the practice of cooperative and experiential learning. The

two approaches advocate the learning of geography by learners in manageable groups, in which

the focus falls on optimal learning, based on individual learners, without restraints and prejudice

(Cotton, 1995:130). The constructivists are pragmatists who are concrete experimenters. They

derive pleasure out of trying out ideas in practice; hence they espouse experiential learning. They

face learning challenges head-on with enthusiasm. They are enthused by getting involved with

the phenomena in investigating problems critically – in order to arrive at pertinent solutions

(Cotton, 1995:136-137).

The Geography learner must learn through conviction why the phenomena or facts behave the

way they do. The learners’ urge for enquiry into the behavioural patterns in context, helps them

to strike the balance with their immediate world and to survive. This is the ultimate vision and

mission of learning Geography. Learners should end up valuing their world and, maintain and

sustain the scarce resources on which their lives are dependent. They should end up being

experts in their future career paths (Sawyer, 2006:137).

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1.10 THE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Overview

This study has used both the quantitative and quantitative approaches; because the two

approaches “complement each other rather well” (Montello & Sutton, 2006:40). The researcher

used both these approaches for collecting and analysing the data, interpreting the findings, and

drawing inferences by employing both approaches (Reswell, 2003:32). The qualitative approach

was used as the basis for the study; because it enabled the researcher to articulate the problem in

the language. Having formulated the study problem, the researcher introduced the problem,

stated the problem, advanced the aims of the study, gave the objectives, listed the research

questions, gave the significance of the study, laid out the background of the study, constructed

the overview of the research design, listed the multiple research techniques used in data

gathering, discussed the validity and reliability criteria – in terms of gathering instruments’

results consistency, indicated ethical considerations, gave definitions of the concepts, and gave

the chapter divisions.

All the indicated steps were articulated by the language, which underpinned the qualitative

method (Hooijer & Fourie, 2009:155-151). In summary, a distinctive characteristic of the

qualitative research method is that it has non-numerical values. It uses language to articulate by

virtue of its attempt to understand human attitudes and feelings about the barriers in focus. It

attempts to investigate the meaning the learners and teachers have given to experiences in the

context of their meaning. The choice of the qualitative research approach was that of Hooijer and

Fourie, 2009:138).

The quantitative approach was also used in the study for data analysis on the barriers presented

by the use of a second language in learning and teaching geography. The quantitative approach

uses the manipulation of data, thereby expressing the results in numerical values. The statistical

technique of the Likert scale was used to quantify the data of this study. The responses of the

respondents to the statements probing the barriers in the spotlight were quantified in percentages.

The rationale was to show correlations, equivalences, or contrasts of responses to practices or

13

attitudes in their specific contexts (Creswell, 2003:30). The responses were evoked by the

respondents’ conceptualisation of the barriers in focus (Montello & Sutton, 2006:40).

The other significance of the quantitative research method used in the study was that it was used

to draw a sample from the population pool. The study used the random-sampling method,

whereby numerical parameters were utilised to draw a representative sample for the study. The

data analysis procedures were used; and inferences of evidence were drawn from the plotted data

in the form of numbers quantified in percentages.

Hooijer and Fourie (2009:138) informed the researcher’s decision to use the qualitative mode of

enquiry: in an attempt to understand human (teaching and learning) phenomena as factors in

investigating the meaning that teachers and learners give to learning and experience during the

teaching and learning activities in the classroom. On the other hand, the quantitative

methodology was employed, in order to gather the data from responses to structured

questionnaires that utilised responses that require the use of the Likert scales.

This study focused on variable relationships, which constitute barriers to Geography learning and

teaching. The variable relationships are constituted by the Geography teachers’ effectiveness and

efficiency regarding dispensing the learning content to learners in the learning situation.

According to Welman and Kruger (2001:13-13), in simple and pertinent terms to this study, the

expertise/proficiency of the Geography teacher is termed the independent variable. The

independent variable practically affects and influences the dependent variable, which is the

learner, who is ultimately driven by the independent variable to perform excellently in

Geography – to the credit of the proficient teacher.

The expert Geography teacher manipulates and effects selected specific/suitable methods and

strategies, in order to attain quality learning in Geography. However, the state of Geography

learning and teaching in the Limpopo Province seems to be projecting a negative picture that

prompted the researcher to carry out this research.

14

Another importance of the choice of the mixed/triangulation methods by this study, according to

McMillan and Schumacher (2001:272) and Merriam (1999:204), is that the mixed-methods

technique will boost the credibility of the enquiry into barriers to Geography learning and

teaching in Grade 12 Geography in the Limpopo Province. The study was able to gather the data

from different sources, in order to substantiate and confirm the findings on the barriers, and to

realise the research objectives. The triangulation-method technique afforded the researcher with

the opportunity to peruse journals and various pertinent documents related to barriers to

Geography curriculum learning and teaching.

When using the quantitative mode of inquiry, the researcher used the Likert scales to record,

interpret and analyse the variable relationships referred to above. The statistical technique is used

in conducting an analysis of the 1999-2009 Grade 12 Geography results. The statistical

application related to questionnaires and semi-structured questionnaires and interviews probing

the posed research questions under 1.5 to reconcile with the 44.2% average for the pass rate of

the 1999-2009 examination results.

1.10.1 The Research Design

As a matter of principle, the researcher included a research design to direct the undertaking

towards solving the problem of the study (being barriers presented by the use of a second

language in teaching-learning geography in grade 12 in the Limpopo Province). The research

design is, therefore, the plan for the study. The plan provides all the steps of the study, whereby

the sought data will be gathered (Leedy, 1998:93). In this study, the researcher has planned to

use the qualitative and quantitative methods complemented with multiple methods.

The main aim for the choice of the qualitative method was to obtain a detailed description of

learning-teaching activities in geography contexts, as well as getting answers to the questions.

For the quantitative method, the aim was to measure the respondents’ responses to a pertinent set

of questions through statistical analysis. Furthermore, with the multiple techniques, the study

wanted to ensure the validity and reliability of the gathered data (Creswell, 2003:32). The

research findings are discussed under 4.6 and 4.7, in Chapter 4; and the final results are

discussed in Chapter 5.

15

The survey design was considered appropriate for this study, because of its merit. It can provide

indispensable information, in order to provide valid and acceptable answers to the research

problems or questions – and to realise the research objectives (Mouton, 2001:49). Cresswell

(2003:32) and Montello and Sutton (2006:40) note that a survey of the literature, which forms

the major part of the survey design helps to inform the research study. It helps the study to

examine what other educational experts/scholars have researched, their findings and

recommendations on similar problems they have investigated in the past. The relevant literature

informed this study and its framework to conduct an investigation of the barriers to Geography

learning and teaching in Grade 12 Geography in the Limpopo Province.

The study chose to use the purposeful method (McMillan & Schumacher, 2001:175-176; Kutame

& Mulaudzi, 2010: 91-92) particularly with representative Geography curriculum teachers and

learners in Geography offering Grade 12 secondary schools in the Limpopo Province. The

researcher used this method for its effect on gathering valid data to guarantee generalisation to

the Geography population pool represented in the sampled Geography teachers and learners. The

study assumes that Geography teachers and learners can provide the looked-for data on the

investigated barriers to Geography learning and teachers. The Geography teachers and learners

are presumed to be informative and knowledgeable of experiences regarding the barriers stated

as the problem for investigation (under 2).

The study targeted Grade 12 Geography teachers and learners for two reasons: Firstly, Grade 12

is a critical exit point intended to produce quality future geographers. Secondly, the Limpopo

Province has registered a declining pass rate in Geography. The registered low pass rate in

Geography over the said period militates against the prospect of realizing the production of

quality geographers in the Limpopo Province. The state of affairs should be a matter of grave

concern for the stakeholders, as well as the Department of Education (DoE); because the core

business of the DoE is to produce self-sufficient geographers (Uline, Johnson, Hoy, Paul &

Stroot, 2005:47-49; Department of Education, 2002:12).

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1.10.2 Population and Sampling

During 1999-2007 and 2008-2009, 442 732 learners wrote Geography Higher Grade (HG)

during the National Curriculum Statement (NCS) Examinations at 1700 Geography-offering

secondary schools in the Limpopo Province. The researcher applied the small-size sample

technique of Kreicie and Morgan (1970: 607-610), in order to draw representative samples from

the school population in respect of the subject geography. Four hundred and seven learners (407)

from 16 geography-offering secondary schools in the 5 districts in the province were sampled.

From each school, 76 learners were targeted. For the teacher interviews, the researcher drew ten

teachers from different schools in two districts of the province, apart from those sampled for

administering the questionnaires, as maintained above.

Finally, two (2) Curriculum advisers (CAs), one for each of the two papers written for the

Geography examinations (NCS) in the Limpopo Province, were interviewed, according to the

research-ethics procedure outlined below. The researcher views the examiners as critical and

significant for the following reason: The examiners ensure that the mandate or the core function

of the DoE is fulfilled by assessing teachers’ effectiveness and efficiency on teaching and

assessing learners by conducting the final examinations which learners write. The standardised

national examinations gauge teachers’ compliance in respect of the implementation of the

departments’ assessment policies and procedures, which are intended to be optimally discharged

by the teacher to the learners. The ultimate function of the subject teacher is to produce

knowledgeable learners/citizenry indicated by the learners’ good performance.

Therefore, in the final analysis, the examiners provided the researcher with the data on the

compliance of the teachers with respect to the adoption and employment of effective and

efficient teaching, learning and assessment methods and strategies. Teachers’ compliance should

ensure that learners attain good performance in the NCS examinations in the Limpopo Province.

The examiners’ response to the interview consolidated and validated teachers’ and learners’

responses to the barriers to Geography learning and teaching in Grade 12 in the Limpopo

Province.

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1.10.3 The Data Collection

The study chose to use multiple methods of data collection to enable triangulation. According to

Hoggart, Lees and Davies (2002:67), “triangulation is the use of a series of complementary

methods, in order to gain deeper insight into a research problem.” The study employed

questionnaires and specifically semi-structured interview schedules targeting Geography

curriculum practitioners – by probing the practical and related experiences challenging their

performance. Equally critical are observations and documentary analysis based on the classroom

activities and practices of teachers and learners of the Geography curriculum. Documentary

analysis is relevant to the study; because the study was informed by subtle data difficult to elicit

through questionnaire administration and observation of employment techniques.

Questionnaires, semi- and unstructured interviews, observations and documentary analysis were

used to gather the data from the targeted samples which comprised the teacher and learner

participants in their situations of practice and learning. Included in the qualitative mode of data

collection are the structured interviews, tests, classroom observations and documentary analysis.

The techniques were selected by the researcher for their efficacy to tap specifically sought data

constituting presumed educational barriers. Specific questionnaires were employed to

geographical practitioners and learners to probe the practical teaching and learning barriers in the

Geography curriculum, in order to redress the barriers. The study visited and observed practical

teaching and learning activities and perused all the critical documents used by the Geography

teachers to determine the existence of the practical barriers to Geography teaching and learning.

The researcher shared with the subject-teachers the content challenges preventing teachers from

realising effective and efficient teaching. On the other hand, the learners demonstrated learning

challenges, such as how they struggle with the LoLT, and the complicated Geography textbooks

in the learning situation. The gathered facts enabled the researcher to draw conclusions, findings

and recommendations to the Department of Education (DoE), in order to redress the barriers and

to attain better pass rates in Geography in Grade 12 in the Limpopo Province.

The researcher shared with the subject-teachers content challenges that were preventing teachers

from realising effective and efficient teaching. Effective and efficient teaching is brought about

18

by competent teachers who can select good textbooks for their second-language learners. The

textbook must be legible to the second-language learners; it must also be comprehensible to the

second-language learner. The competent geography teacher must supplement the difficult

English in which the textbook is written. The competent content teacher must provide

instructional help to the second-language learner, to enable the second-language learner to learn

from the amplified textbook adequately, and to thereby maximise learning.

1.10.4 Questionnaires

The study used the questionnaires specifically to formulate items to cover the assumed barriers to

Geography learning and teaching in Grade 12 under investigation (Montello & Sutton,

2002:228). The objectives of the research questions were to quantitatively determine from the

teachers, examiners and learners whether Geography textbooks written in English can prevent

the second-language (English) learners from effective learning; to determine whether the

Geography teacher has any conception of the impact of the barriers on the use of the difficult

textbooks because of the complexity and the illegibility of the textbooks; to determine what the

Geography teacher does to get learners to use textbooks effectively; to determine whether code-

switching is practised; and if so, what levels of code-switching are used in the classroom; and

how does code-switching become a barrier to Geography learning and teaching in Grade 12 in

the Limpopo Province.

1.10.5 Interviews

The study employed this qualitative technique for the purpose of covering barriers to Geography

learning and teaching. Ten (10) subject teachers were interviewed and the duration of the

interviews was 30 minutes long. This technique was used to supplement the questionnaires and

to ensure the validity and the reliability as data-gathering tools and to close any gaps that might

have been created during the administration of the questionnaire. The researcher seized the

opportunity to win the participants’ confidence by assuring them of the confidentiality and

anonymity of the data source they provided to address the research questions (McMillan &

Schumacher, 2001:244; Montello & Sutton, 2006:228).

19

The relaxed one-on-one interview helped the researcher to pose questions and to evince

unlimited response from the interviewees on the barriers. The researcher used tape to record the

answers from the participants, as they responded to the barriers in Geography teaching and

learning.

1.10.6 Observations

The research employed the observation technique on-site to guarantee the validity of the data

gathering to make room for the necessary leeway that existed in data gathering through the

employment of the questionnaires and interviews on the barriers presented by the use of a second

language in geography learning-teaching in Grade 12 in the Limpopo Province. The researcher

was aware that some of the participants would have biases towards the researcher’s questions;

and they could withhold their responses to the questions put to them. The researcher, therefore,

used the opportunity to observe the teachers practically in their respective contexts.

The purpose of such observation is that the researcher wanted to observe whether the teachers

were employing the constructivist approach or the traditional approach. The length of the

observation was thirty-five minutes. The research was informed of the teachers’ employment of

suitable and effective strategies to teach learners, so that they learn optimally (McMillan &

Schumacher, 2001:276).

1.10.7 Documentary Analysis

This research employed the documentary analysis technique qualitatively – with the intention of

bridging any gaps that might exist – due to the weaknesses resulting from the employment of the

questionnaires, interviews and observations in the process of the data gathering. The researcher

employed documentary analysis to determine whether the textbooks used were syllabus-

compliant; and also to determine the textbooks’ complexity in terms of legibility and suitability

of the English used regarding the linguistic level of the second-language (English) learners to

access information to realise meaningful learning; to determine whether the subject teacher

makes any effort to explain the difficult language; so that the learners can overcome the difficult

English barriers and can learn effectively; to determine whether the teacher and learner portfolios

are up to the expected standards; to determine whether the teacher and learner portfolio contents

20

are corresponding and authentic, and to determine whether the records of achievements are

included.

Assessment tasks are critical aspects in the Geography-learning area. The research determined

whether the prescribed number of tasks was included; whether the different forms of assessment

were used; and whether the tasks were assessed, according to the agreed criteria. Furthermore,

was the scoring or marking appropriate? Are the tasks varied on the level of difficulty? Do

teachers provide details of the cognitive levels being assessed? Are the learners able to respond

appropriately to the administered tasks? How is the authenticity of the portfolios proven? Do

subject teachers identify tasks that can be used as exemplars? The researcher determined whether

internal moderations were evidenced in the portfolios. The dates on which the different

moderations were done were examined to determine whether they were consistent with the

learners’ portfolios. The researcher verified whether there were comments, and assessed the

quality of the moderation.

1.11 THE DATA ANALYSIS

The data are presented using the narrative and Likert- Scale methods. The researcher attempted

to show the impact that the complex Geography textbooks written in English has on the second-

language learners; the impact the LoLT has on learners in the learning situation; the impact of

teachers’ proficiency in the LoLT and learning area on the learners’ learning; and the impact and

consequences of code-switching on pupils’ learning.

The questionnaires were analysed quantitatively using the Likert scale. The interviews,

observations and documents were analysed qualitatively using coding methods; so that

commonalities could be derived from the data. This enabled the researcher to identify themes

from the data related to the barriers in Geography teaching.

The researcher deduced from the tables the participants’ responses in correlation to the research

questions, in order to determine whether the claims on the barriers to Geography learning and

teaching hold water. The study confirmed the correlation for both Geography teachers and

learners by use of the related figures, which were complemented by interviews, observations and

21

documentary analytical reports. The research made it clear whether barriers exist in Geography

learning and teaching in the district. The researcher, therefore, finally stated with confidence

whether or not, there is a significant correlation between teacher proficiency in LoLT and the

curriculum area (geography) in Grade 12 pass rates in Geography in the Limpopo Province.

This means that the less-proficient the Geography teachers are in both English (LoLT) and

Geography (content), the lower the pass rates that the learners will attain.

1.12 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY

Reliability and validity are closely related’ and a researcher must consider both these qualities

when selecting a research instrument. This means that a selected instrument should be both

reliable and valid. The validity of a research instruments is when the instruments essentially

measures what is was supposed to measure (Flowerdew & Martin, 1997:81). A measuring

instrument that is unreliable cannot be valid. The validity of a research instrument is when the

instrument essentially measures what it was intended to measure (Flowerdew & Martin,

1997:81). Reliability is the consistency of an instrument to measure an attribute or concept that it

is designed to measure. The reliability of an instrument requires that if the same instrument is

used at different times or administered to different subjects from the same population, the

findings should be the same.

The researcher first did a pilot test to determine whether the instrument would address the

problem adequately. The researcher took some of the questionnaires and administered them to a

few teachers from a different group – in order to confirm the validity and reliability of the

instruments.

Prior to the data collection, the researcher conducted a pilot study at a school with 26 learners

and 1 teacher in a district. Teacher and learner questionnaires were administered to the teacher

and learners, in order to determine the intelligibility and relevance of the constructed respective

questionnaire to the targets, which ultimately determined the feasibility of carrying out the

investigation barriers to geography learning and teaching in grade 12 in the Limpopo province.

The observations were made at one school from one circuit of the district. The reasons for

22

conducting in-depth interviews and observations in this research study were discussed in detail in

Chapter 1; and they are repeated in Chapter 3 (Montello & Sutton, 2006:107; Mellish, Brink &

Paton, 1998:331).

1.13 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

It was incumbent on the researcher to obtain approval from the authorities in the Limpopo

Department of Education to conduct research in their schools. The approval was sought in a

letter issued by the research unit of the University of Limpopo, introducing and sanctioning the

researcher as a bona fide research student of the Limpopo Department of Education (LDE). The

researcher was then introduced by letter to all the relevant provincial levels of education. The

researcher’s questionnaires were accompanied by a letter assuring the principals of compliance

with the rules and regulations of the LDE regarding research ethics.

The researcher informed the respective participants of the aims, the purpose and the probable

publication of the research data contributed by them. Another critical point was that the

participants gave their consent before they participated in the information sharing. The aim of

informing the participants in the undertaking was in compliance with the research principle that

the participants have a right to withdraw from participating; and they have a right to remain

anonymous (Lowe, 2007:19-20). According to Lichtman (2010:54-55), a participant’s privacy,

confidentiality and anonymity were guaranteed by getting them to sign an informed consent form

that explained these ethical issues.

Over and above the said principles above, the researcher was obliged to inform the participants

of the nature of the study – so that they could choose whether or not to participate (Lichtman

2010:55). It was critical to the researcher to maintain and sustain the rapport and friendship, in

order to ensure the confidentiality of the information. Intrusiveness by the researcher into the

personal matters of the participants was avoided at all costs, in order to prevent withdrawal of the

participants from providing the needed responses to the focused questions of this research study

(Lichtman, 2010:56-57).

23

The researcher was cognizant of the fact that the employment of a qualitative research design

dictates to the researcher the need to consider the issue of the research ethics (McMillan &

Schumacher, 2001:420-422). Therefore, the researcher was aware that the data-gathering

exercise from the participants is a sensitive exercise. The exercise needs the mutual respect and

trust of the researcher with all the participants who are used in the study. The researcher secured

a letter of permission and introduction by the University of Limpopo to the DoE and the

secondary schools, where the research activities were to be implemented. The researcher wrote

personal applications to the individual sampled schools’ management, asking for permission to

enter their schools. The researcher asked for permission to access critical confidential documents

containing the much-needed information on barriers to Geography learning. Furthermore, the

researcher assured the authorities that the records would be treated confidentially and

anonymously. The researcher motivated and appealed to the participants to be aware that they

have an interest in the investigated problem. Their participation in the research boosted the

researcher’s efforts to arrive at answers to the research questions, in order to meet their needs

and interest, and to accomplish good pass rates in Geography in Grade 12.

The 1999-2009 Grade 12 data related to geography results were applied for and obtained from

the Examination Section of the Limpopo Provincial office. This database was analysed to

determine the performance rate in geography during the indicated period.

1.14 DEFINITION OF THE CONCEPTS

Barriers are obstructs/hindrances towards the attainment of intended outcomes aspired to being

realised through the employment of teaching strategies and learning activities in the particular

context (Macdonald, 1990:4; Mkhize, 2012:28; Dale, Ferguson & Robin, 1988:23).

Subject expertise encompasses the content plus effective and efficient methods, strategies and

related classroom-based approaches, how subject knowledge is selected to suit the level of the

learner, the value or worth of the imparted knowledge to the learner for learners’ wellbeing in the

present context and their future career paths (Butt, 2011:176).

24

A second-language learner is a non-English speaker who uses English as the medium of

instruction and communication in learning environments (Macdonald, 1990:4).

The constructivist approach posits that learners are active knowledge constructors through

interaction between their own ideas and experiences with concrete reality in the context to grow

conceptually and to become cognitively underpinned by meta-language development (Chaille,

2008:4-5; Ho, 2010:20).

Subject-specific language/terminologies/concept, this entails a vocabulary that is peculiar to

content/subject-based technical language (Radnor, 2002:14; Butt, 2002:200, Plüddemann,

2002:55).

Co-operative learning is participative learning, where the learners learn in manageable groups

of peers, it is underpinned by sharing in a discourse (Tshibalo & Schulze, 2000:231).

Experiential learning is individual learner-centred. It calls for caring for attaining effective

learning results/outcomes with peculiar learners, in order to maximise their results in the

subject/learning materials (Turner-Bisset 2001:61; Sawyer, 2006:122).

Curriculum-specific knowledge is the knowledge peculiar to a specific content evoked by the

use of special technical language needs to be attained by learners (Turner-Bisset, 2001:61).

Conventional teaching is a practice, which renders the learners to the status of a passive

recipient of information from the teacher rather than being actively involved, as the constructor

of knowledge (Sawyer, 2006:122).

Professional proficiency entails subject-specific knowledge that adheres to the view held by

Turner-Bisset (2000:147) that teaching is “a knowledge-based profession”; which manifests

command of curriculum knowledge and command of knowledge-integrated subjects e.g.

integrated system of related sciences: biology, agriculture, geography, physical sciences, which

are usually taught in isolation (Cavanagh, 2007:13; Ho, 2010:20).

25

Meta-language/meta-linguistics development entails content-specific language appropriation

by the learner, whereby the content is actively interpreted and analysed in the language of the

curriculum (Davis & Davis, 2000:85; Davis & Reed, 2003:101-112).

Literacy is the command of a higher-order repertoire of vocabulary, whereby a learner can

practise appropriately in any learning/communication contexts (Sawyer, 2006:300).

Knowledge construction is an active process, whereby learners are actively involved with the

learning material, which they link cognitively with their existing knowledge (Sawyer, 2008:122).

Cognition is the ability of the learner to think critically of perceived and conceived information

in the learning situation (Ashman & Conway, 1997:41).

Meta-cognition entails learners’ ability to discern a learning activity, derive knowledge from it

and make it of their own to apply to tackle the various tasks in learning situations (Kruger &

Adam 1993:180; Davis, 1998:154).

Communicative competence is the ability of the learner to participate actively and meaningfully

in a discourse appropriating content-specific language pertinent to obtaining the learning

contexts.

1.15 CHAPTER DIVISION

The research work consists of six chapters; and these are briefly described as follows:

Chapter 1 introduces the study, the background to the study, the problem, and the aim, the

objectives of the study, the research questions, and the significance of the study, a definition of

the concepts, an overview of the research design, the research design, and the ethical

considerations.

26

Chapter 2 presents the theoretical framework. It focuses on the barriers presented by the use of a

second-language learner in learning and teaching Geography in grade 12 in Limpopo Province.

Chapter 3 discusses an overview of the methods, the research design, the sampling procedures,

the data-collection instruments, the data-collection process, the instruments used for

administering the date, and a summary of the chapter.

Chapter 4 focuses on the empirical study, the data-analysis interpretation and the research

findings on the barriers to learning and teaching geography. It discusses the results of the study,

the interpretation and the analysis of the barriers in the study.

Chapter 5 draws conclusions on the study, makes pertinent recommendations, highlights

limitations to the study, spells out the contributions of the study, and makes some suggestions for

further research on the issue.

1.16 SUMMARY OF CHAPTER

There is a decrease in performance rates of Grade 12 learners in the Limpopo Province, due to

barriers to Geography learning and teaching. The research deduced from the results borne in

tables that teachers’ proficiency in the medium of instruction and Geography curriculum

decreases learners’ performance/pass rate in Geography. The research indicates intervention

strategies (in the final chapter) to effect efficient and effective teaching and learning, and to

improve the performance in the subject in Grade 12 in the Limpopo Province.

27

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this chapter is to explore the literature, and to inform the research study of the

barriers presented by the use of a second language in learning-teaching Geography in Grade 12

in the Limpopo Province. The study chose the qualitative and quantitative research designs,

supplemented by the multiple methods for the investigation of the problem. The design,

according to Hooijer and Fourie (2009:138) “will help the researcher in the attempt to understand

human phenomena and the meaning that people give to the events they experience.” The survey

design is underpinned by learner-centeredness and the constructivist theory, which forms part of

the triangulation / multi-methods. The multi-methods are critical for gathering data on barriers to

Geography learning and teaching in the province – by virtue of their comprehensiveness for data

gathering on the teaching practice and the learning environment (Koekemoer & Olivier,

2002:33).

The research study consulted scholarly literature on the curriculum and related teaching and

learning challenges; and it looked specifically into: Firstly, teachers’ proficiency in the second

language or medium of instruction in teaching-learning Geography. The second language in the

medium of instruction (English) is a major barrier to Geography teaching and learning

(Govender, 2010:4). The content teacher dispenses the learning material to the second-language

learner where English is the second language. This vehicle of Geography teaching and learning

must be simplified, in order to suit the second-language learner’s comprehension level to

conceptualise the content, and to grow cognitively and meta-cognitively; if the content teacher is

not communicatively competent in English, s/he cannot assist the learner by using mind-mapping

terms of planning and preparing lessons to suit their comprehension level of English (Butt,

2002:200). Secondly, the Geography teacher must be competent in the subject. The Geography

teacher must be proficient in Geography-specific language, which is fundamental for executing

teaching and learning activities. If the teacher does not have content expertise, s/he becomes a

barrier to the second-language pupil’s learning. S/he would not be able to help the subject

28

learners with instructional guidance, in order for them to be able to learn the subject

independently by virtue of the learning skill s/he would have dispensed to them (Radnor,

2002:14). Thirdly, the Geography teacher must be able to select suitable textbooks for the

second-language learners.

The Geography curriculum is incomplete without geography textbooks. Howell and Lazarus

(2003:5) state that “the most significant barrier to learning is the curriculum itself … this

includes: What is taught and the language/medium of instruction”. The textbook must be

readable and comprehensible; so that it enables the second-language learners to read on their

own. If it is difficult for them, due to the level, which is beyond the comprehension of the

second-language learners, the textbook then becomes a barrier to learning Geography. If the

Geography teacher fails to supplement the textbook’s English, and explain the Geographical

concepts beyond the learners’ conceptual level, then both the incompetent Geography teacher

and the textbook would be considered barriers to the second-language learner. Fourthly, code-

switching practice from English into the vernacular languages is a barrier to second-language

learners; because it deprives them of opportunities to attain Geography-specific knowledge and

language literacy.

The code-switching practice is encouraged by the incompetent teacher of Geography. Breidlid

(2003:83) says that the curriculum-challenged teacher is tempted to shield his curriculum-

specific language weakness behind code-switching from English into the vernacular languages.

This practice impoverishes second-language learners of Geographical knowledge and English

competence; because they are not actively exposed to learning the content and English. The

claim is due to the fact that, according to Mahlaela-Thusi and Heugh (2001:24), “there is no or

insufficient terminology in the African languages.” This means that the African languages have

not developed a Geography corpus, through which second-language learners can benefit from the

use of the mother tongue in Geography teaching and learning (Koekemoer & Olivier, 2002:33).

The stated barriers/factors are purported by the researcher to have a bearing on learners’ poor

performance in Geography in the Limpopo Province. In justifying the researchers’ claim that the

stated barriers hold water, scholarly literature on the Geography curriculum and English across

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the Geography curriculum is extensively explored to inform the research, in order to validate the

claim’s reason for pursuing the investigation. The research study delimits the area of

investigation before it explores the literature to unpack the stated barriers to Geography learning

and teaching in secondary schools in Capricorn, Mopani, Sekhukhune, Vhembe and Waterberg

districts, comprising together the Limpopo Department of Education.

2.2 THE GEOGRAPHIC DELIMITATION OF THE LIMPOPO PROVINCIAL

EDUCATION DISTRICTS

The five districts comprising the Limpopo Province are as follows: Capricorn district consists of

the Vhembe district; and this consists of 27 circuits; while the Waterberg consists of 18 circuits.

Therefore, the whole of the Limpopo Department of Education is made up of 135 circuits in all;

and the five districts of Education are depicted in Figure 2.1.

2.3 THE LITERATURE REVIEW ON GEOGRAPHY

According to Nunan (1992:216), Creswell (2003:32) and Montello and Sutton (2006:40), the

purpose for exploring specific-field literature is to tap indispensable information to provide

background information on the research question. The information enabled, initially, the

researcher to frame a problem, and then to construct specific questionnaire items to probe and

30

gather the data on the problem under investigation. Equally critical is the choice of a theoretical

framework (Creswell, 2003:32). Interlaced with the theoretical framework is the research design,

which is critical for the data gathering; and this is central to the identified factors impacting on

the problem.

The other significance of exploring specific field-scholarly literature, according to Montello and

Sutton (2006:40), is to acquire information from previous studies, which could provide answer/s

to the very question being pursued. The informative scholarly literature pertinent to the research

study alerts the researcher of problems and potential pitfalls; and it provides ways to circumvent

or limit/eradicate those pitfalls in the investigation of the problem. Put succinctly, the study uses

the literature, which is pertinent to the solution of barriers to good performance attainment in

Geography learning and teaching.

The researcher is obligated, before broadly delving into a literature exploration pertinent to the

research study’s problem of barriers to geography learning and teaching in grade 12 in the

Limpopo Education Districts, to profile cursorily the importance of the Geography curriculum to

learners. Butt (2002:4) highlights the fact that Geography learning promotes in learners a sense

of awareness of relating to their immediate environments, and how to sustain the relationship to

survive mutually. Van Schie (2011:22) points out the importance of knowledge acquisition of

adaptation, biodiversity, health, and environmental policies by learners to sustain their lives in

their environment.

Marchant (1971), Naish (1992:44-45), Kent (2002:4) and Beets et al, (2006:vii-viii) opined the

view that the acquisition of geographical knowledge enables many learners to develop a habit of

observing, judging by power of reasoning, and a taste for carrying out scientific research. The

learner develops useful techniques of study used currently and in the future. The learner absorbs

and sustains co-operation with the people of the world. They know where they stand in relation

to their fellowmen, cultivate love for their country, see the interdependence between man and his

environment, and sustain their world for their survival. They understand other people, and learn

to tolerate their way of life and their problems.

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This knowledge helps the learner to grow relatively broad-minded. The learner becomes an

intelligent and cosmopolitan citizen. They compare themselves with their fellowmen to develop

into an informed, appreciative and understandable citizen related to the whole world, in which

they live, and to which they relate to in one way or another (Nichol, 1984:12).

Kent (2002:4) says that Geographical knowledge helps the learner to advanced growth in

understanding the social and international dynamics of life-relatedness impacting on man’s

survival. As future citizens of the global world, learners are trained through schooling to think

critically about political, social, economic and educational problems, in order to adjust and

survive in whatever life situations they might find themselves in. A practical case in point is a

topical global warming crisis threatening man’s survival, as was highlighted in the Second

National Climate Change Summit held in Midrand in South Africa (Sapa, 2009:3).

The researcher, having indicated the purpose and significance of a literature review, discusses,

tackles challenges on English across the Geography curriculum, and teaching and learning

practices in the classroom. The final product of teaching and learning underpinned by the

administration of assessment tools is an expected good performance in the subject. However,

Howell and Lazarus (2003:5) share a critical experience very consequential to the teaching and

learning situation as follows:

“The most significant barrier to learning is [the] curriculum itself … this includes: What

is taught, the language/medium of instruction, how lessons are organised and managed,

the methods and processes used in teaching, the pace of teaching, and [the] organisation

of time, the learning materials, as well as most importantly, how learning is assessed”

(Department of Education, 2001a:19).

The quotation is directly related to the question of the proficiency and efficiency of the teacher of

the Geography curriculum in the Geography teaching and learning environment. The language

(English) of learning and teaching of Geography is underpinned by other equally critical factors,

like the difficult learning materials of learners, the impact of employment of traditional versus

constructivist teaching and learning methods used in Geography classrooms, and subsequently

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how assessments are carried out to gauge the learners’ performance. Sibanyoni (2009:3)

accentuates the view of Howell and Lazaros (2005:5) by sharing her teaching experience, with

particular reference to English as a barrier to teaching and learning and how it interlaces with

African languages. The researcher looks into each barrier claimed above by exploring broadly

pertinent literature on the problem of barriers of Geography learning and teaching culminating in

learner performance with specific reference to the districts in the spotlight.

The barriers claimed are:

The absence of the teacher’s proficiency in English as the medium of instruction for second-

language learners in Geography teaching.

The learning context.

The level of English of the textbook as a barrier for the second-language learner in terms of

the illegibility and incomprehensibility of the textbook.

English per se is a barrier for the second-language learner; because the second-language

learner does not command literacy in English.

The incompetency of Geography learners in English is due to the teacher shielding their

weakness by resorting to the use of vernacular languages, when teaching Geography; and this

is also counterproductive.

2.3.1 Theories that frame the research study

The researcher is obliged to discuss educational theories advocated by Grosser and De Waal

(2008:41-56); Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2007:137) and Killen (2003:8-9) that frame the

research study. The purpose is to edify the significance of theories to an educational practitioner.

Theory application is meant to improve practice. The research study has adopted the

constructivist theoretical framework/approach in pursuit of the research problem. Bush (1995:

153) quotes Morgan (1986:335-336) who explains theory as follows:

“There is a close relationship between the way we think and the way we act … in using metaphor

to understand organisation we … are simply encouraged to learn how to think about situations

from different stand points. We are invited to do so more consciously and broadly … our images

or metaphors are theories or conceptual frameworks. Practice is never theory-free; for it is

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always guided by an image of what one is trying to do. The real issue is whether or not we are

aware of the theory-guiding notion.”

Our thoughts determine our actions. Our thoughts map out our action in learning situations. Any

act learners execute is driven by learners’ conceptual frameworks. That is, learners form images

by cognitive concepts that image to the learners’ imaginations. The learner transforms the images

into practice. The learner puts into practice what s/he is aware of. The learner learns what is

meaningful to her/him. That is, in the end of the teaching and learning process, the learner should

realise and demonstrate cognitive development. The material facts require the explanatory

framework of theory commanded by expert practitioners/teachers to ascertain their real

value/meaning to the teaching-learning process in relevant contexts.

It is incumbent upon the researcher in the study to take cognisance of adopting various

educational learning theories to guide the pursuit of the barriers to Geography practical teaching

and learning. It is for this purpose that no single theory is sufficient to guide practice. The

adopted constructivist approach to the study consists of varied models embraced and advocated

by constructivist practitioners in specific curricula avenues. Bush (1995:153) terms it the

specific-curricula conceptual parallelism appropriation in specific content. With specific

reference to the study, the researcher was able to select pertinent approaches to barriers to

Geography learning and teaching to attain good performance in the province. Put simply, it

implies that by appropriating one theory in investigating the causative factors/militating factors

against the attainment of good performance in Geography; this could lead to failing to reach the

objective optimally.

The reason is obvious: Because each theory intends redressing its specific

circumstance/action/event to the exclusion of others. The other theories are stated by their

peculiar identified causes. Thereafter, practitioners in specific fields of operation are advanced t

to relate to theory and practice to acquire effectiveness and efficiency in their practice (Bush,

1995:154).

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According to Montello and Sutton (2006:17), a theory is defined narrowly as follows:

“A theory is an idea or conjecture about a causal relationship in reality. It answers the question of

‘why’ something is the way it is by identifying its antecedent causes.”

The latter quotation is terse and to-the-point in relation to the study’s barriers under

investigation. The study is intent to look into the causes of the barriers to Geography learning

and teaching.

Turner-Bisset (2001:159) agrees with Bush (1995), and Montello and Sutton (2006:17), that

symbolic relationship theory and practice operate together. The quotation in summary says that it

is not feasible for teachers to be effective and efficient in the execution of their professional

responsibilities – when their selected theories are incompatible with their practice.

Sawyer’s (ed.) (2006:38) work on the theory of constructivism accentuates Piagets’ theory that

learners learn by constructing their own knowledge in their interactions in the world around their

environment. The theoretical approach denounces the passive transmission of knowledge

approach espoused by traditionalists, where a learner is aided by an adult (Sawyer, 2006:38).

Sawyer (2006), advocates that learners understand the world in fundamentally different ways

compared to adults. The constructivist theories highlight that in their approach, appropriation

comes into being in the knowledge construction. The approach emphasises that the learners make

knowledge their own; and they begin to identify with it (Sawyer, 2006:39).

Sawyer (2006:39) says knowledge construction is:

“The deliberate part of learning [which] consists of making connections between mental

entities that already exist; new mentalities seem to come into existence in more subtle

ways that escape conscious control … this suggests a strategy to facilitate learning by

improving the connectivity in the learning environment, by actions of culture, rather than

individuals.”

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The constructivists agree with the views above; and that learners exert effort to guide and

monitor their own learning activities in the learning situation (Sawyer, 2006:258). This view

reconciles with self-monitoring and with the metacognition/metacognitive learning process. Self-

monitoring enables learners to engage in self-questioning, in order to define their own learning

purpose, and redress identified failures affecting their own comprehension in learning. That is,

self-monitoring learning enables the learner to learn selectively; since the learner must pay

attention to the key content and shuffle away trivia; because it is the key knowledge that will

optimise the learner’s cognition and metacognition, in turn. Metacognitive learning enables the

learner to be aware of learning problems and then s/he solves them by applying the

metacognitive skills that s/he has acquired through learning.

Sawyer (2006:122) summaries Piaget (1954), who holds the notion that:

“Learning is an active constructive process … learning is not a passive process of

transferring information from expert to novice. Rather, learning is an active process;

employing a “learning by a mindfully doing” approach, where learners must cognitively

manipulate the material they are learning to create cognitive links from the new material

to their own prior knowledge.”

The quotation above fits in with the mind-map principle that Dryden and Vos (2005:5) advocate;

since it impacts on the effective and meaningful learning of a curricular learner in a particular

Geographical learning situation. The research study finds handy Rudyard Kipling’s (Dryden and

Vos, 2005:192) six honest serving men that form the brain-tree function model in the learning

process. These are: Who? What? Where? When? How? Why? The use of these educative serving

wise men is applied in interlocking ways with the learner’s prior knowledge to the conception of

new material in class. Secondly, the employment of the six educative serving men makes it

feasible for learners to recall the key points of information in the Geography/curriculum learning

process for effecting knowledge construction.

The six serving wise men educate the learner of Geography: The wise serving men’s When,

How, Where, Who, What and Why are very critical for employment in Geography teaching and

learning on many of the curriculum sections. The learner’s significant mind-map could affect

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cognitive image development by asking: What significance has this lesson for myself? Why

should one have to take geography as a career path? How should a learner live and practise

Geographical knowledge to sustain environmental awareness? Who is accountable for nature

conservation awareness promotion and sustenance? (Makgoba, 2012:7). Where can the learner

view different scenery; and, When/What is (it) the right time to do so? What impact does scenery

viewing have on one’s cognitive development as a citizen? The employment of the six serving

men by the learner manifests reflective/experiential learning, which is what functional

constructivist knowledge construction is all about. The learner will be demonstrating

communicatively to the interlocutor what practically the learner conceives of the facts and the

impression of the conceived facts on the environment.

The researcher conceives the expert teacher (Turner-Bisset, 2001:61) as critical and

consequential in the teaching and learning of Geography. The expert teacher could minimise the

existence of barriers to Geography learning and teaching in Limpopo. Expert teachers command

the knowledge that learners are endowed with individual talents to be nurtured for development

in creating opportunities for positive learning. Expert teachers of Geography embrace and value

active and constructive learning as opportunities to be afforded to learners to develop optimally

in their own time without hindrance/barriers. The learners acquire first-hand experience and

understanding in contrast to being led by rote-learning which is a learning barrier that bedevils

learners’ performance in Geography in Limpopo (Turner-Bisset, 2001:64).

Turner-Bisset (2001:83-84) follows the paradigm of teaching, where teaching is considered to be

“a knowledge-based profession”. This view implies that the curriculum teacher or the teacher of

Geography should command content competence; should interlace (match) with the command of

extensive knowledge of learner’s individual developmental challenges informed by learning

theorists. The teacher’s intensive knowledge of learners should interlock with the command of

assessment expertise logistics/logical steps. The assessment process is underpinned by keeping

groups of learners’ records, regular tests, scoring and interpreting results.

In the teaching-learning process, learners should be observed very closely. The mission is to

check learning challenges with the view to redress promptly, in order to optimise positive

learning (Turner–Bisset, 2001:84). The expert content/Geography teacher should, as a matter of

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convenience, hold talks with learners individually about their work. Administering the spoken

learning activities reinforces measures to ascertain learners’ understanding of the learning

material. (Turner–Bisset, 2001:84).

2.3.2 Language challenges for the second-language learner in learning-teaching contexts

Challenges to language in education (in Geography classrooms)

Govender (2010:4) and Hazelhurst (2010:6) attest that the language of learning and teaching

(English) is a consequential core to geography teaching and learning in the classroom. Butt

(2002:200) states that:

“Language provides the medium for learning Geography in every classroom and should

therefore be a major consideration in the planning and preparation of lessons.”

This suggests to the reader that language (English) across the Geography curriculum is the most

critical barrier to Geography learning and teaching. Radnor (2002:14) and Butt (2002:200) assert

that teachers’ proficiency and efficiency in the language of learning and teaching (LoLT) and the

subject-specific curriculum are fundamental in the execution of teaching and learning activities.

That is, the teacher’s role in the execution of the whole process is to guide the form and function

of language/English within the learning situation; as English impacts immensely on learners’

learning (Butt 2002:201). The teacher of Geography directs learners’ talking, writing, and

reading in Geography learning.

For learners, talking in Geography is difficult because of the complex Geographical terminology.

That is, in the Geography classroom, Geographical terminology is used predominantly (Butt,

2002:200-211). This creates barriers to learning; because it becomes very difficult for learners to

understand the subject-specific concepts. Therefore, learning the concepts is critical for the

attainment of Geographical literacy in learners.

Morgan and Lambert (2005:7) advocate that in meeting those teaching and learning challenges

indicated above, the teacher of Geography should be tireless in seeking to understand the subject

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maximally. It should be through engaging in continuous professional learning that good teachers

are characterised. This suggests that the two scholars above advocate the raising of awareness to

literacy approaches in learning Geography. The manifestation reiterated is that Geography links

with English speaking-listening, writing skills, English and Geography learning both require

subject-specific terminologies. The skills acquisition manifests in the promotion of explaining

Geographical information vividly, as well as expressing persuasively learners’ feelings and

attitudes in learning the subject. The acquisition of reading skills in English and Geography

involves the ability to scan texts to find relevant information – extracting the facts and deducing

meaning from the materials (Morgan & Lambert, 2005:66).

Ayliff (2010:3) maintains that learning should take place “in a meaning focus-led environment,

in which learners negotiate meaning when a gap in understanding occurs”. The bottom line is

that the teacher should support the learners to grasp the learning activity through the mastery of

language development.

Mkhize (2012:28) agrees with Macdonald (1990:4), who says that the pertinent factors

underpinning the poor performance of learners in the subject of the Geography curriculum are:

“… the linguistic difficulties experienced by the children [Grade 12

learners], thinking styles, which might be culture-specific problems

with content-subject textbooks, disparities between English learned as a

subject and English as required across the curriculum, and finally,

school-learning experiences.”

The quotation coined by the scholar was informed by observations made from the classroom

investigation into the language (English) curriculum as a learning barrier to learners. The

investigation was entitled: Crossing the Threshold into Standard Three in Black Education with

special reference to Sepedi-speaking learners in the former Bophuthatswana known as North

West Province today. The scholar highlighted learners’ cognition and meta-cognition challenges

in learning the learning material influenced by the subject teacher regarding proficiency in the

language of learning and teaching (English) interlaced with curriculum proficiency. Over and

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above the teachers’ expertise, learning and teaching practices had a bearing on the performance

of the learner in the classroom. The problem of performance involves both the learner and the

teacher; the teacher initiates and facilitates the learning activities in the learning and teaching

environment. The teacher is viewed as the architect and prime mover of learning activities.

Effective teaching results in effective learning, and the self-actualisation of the learner.

Therefore, if the teacher lacks proficiency in the LoLT and in the curriculum, as well as

coverage, the learners who encounter the teacher effectively suffer. This is so because the

difficult learning content cannot be simplified and supplemented to render it learner-friendly.

Therefore, pupils’ learning is undoubtedly set in motion by the teachers’ ingenuity.

Van Rooyen (1990:3) carried out a subsequent study of Macdonald’s investigation to verify the

authenticity of the recommendations on findings in the respective study. Both Macdonald (1990)

and Van Rooyen (1990) researched the barriers to learning and teaching curricula in the

intermediate and senior phases in the now-defunct Bophuthatswana. The specific focus was on

the inefficiencies of teachers in English as a vehicle of learning and teaching, subsequently

bedevilling learners’ performance/literacy attainment.

According to Carstens (2008:120), the issue of teacher’s non-proficiency in the language of

learning and the curriculum are cognitive underdevelopment, interlaced with dearth in specific

curriculum terminology mastery. The cognitive and salient concepts of underdevelopment in

curriculum-specific subjects (such as Geography) are, as a matter of fact, carried over into the

late phases or Further Education and Training (FET); which is the specific band of investigation

with particular emphasis on poor performance in grade 12 Geography in the different districts.

2.2.3 Geography-specific language challenges for the second-language learner in the

teaching-learning context

Plüddemann (2002:55) is one of the many curriculum scholars concerned about the dearth of

discipline-specific knowledge of teachers in their respective curricula. According to

Plüddemann, quoted in Taylor and Vinjevoid (1999:139), the view is that:

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“With regard to discipline-specific knowledge, [there is] an alarming number of teachers,

who have to teach science, in particular, [who] appear [to be] conceptually weak …

teachers’ low levels of conceptual knowledge, their poor grasp of their subjects, and the

range of errors made in the content and concepts [becomes clear] in [the presentation of]

their lessons” (Taylor & Vinjevoid, 1999:139).

Plüddemann (2002:55), in support of the above quote, asserts that many subject teachers

command very little knowledge of their subjects. This scholar goes further to indicate that, in

some cases, teachers are just not qualified to teach specific subjects – even though they end up

teaching these subjects. The scenario profiled by Plüddemann (2002) seems to apply to the poor

performance in the Limpopo Education Districts, with specific reference to the Grade 12

Geography pass rates from 2005-2009. Naidoo and Bloch (2008:45) and Bloch (2010:7) are of

the view that many subject teachers lack competence in the subject knowledge, subsequently

disempowering their learners.

Teachers of Geography, who are conceptually challenged, resort to teaching the subject in the

mother tongue (MT), to facilitate learning, and for the learners to understand more easily. The

attempt and practice makes matters worse; because the MT’s scientific corpus of Geography is

seriously underdeveloped (Plüddemann, 2002:55; Veloso, 2002:80); Mkhize, 2010:28; Ramoupi

(2011:34); Code-switching as a practice in the learning environment has consequences for

learners’ development and performance. Mahlalela-Thusi and Heugh (2001:24) carried out their

research project on a feasibility study of the use of the dual medium of IsiXhosa and English in

the classroom in the Eastern Cape Province. It was found, amongst others, specific to this

research study: “… that there is no or insufficient terminology in African languages” to use to

supplement the difficult textbooks’ English, for second-language learners’ use in the classroom

(De Klerk, 2002:1-3; Sibaya, 1999:74-77; Ramani & Joseph, 2002:333-420; Heugh, 2001:185).

Ralenala (1993:1) had this to say of the language (English) across the science curriculum:

“…For instance, in situations where a language is studied for [the] purpose of acquiring

the content of a specific subject, certain adjustments in content and methodology of the

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Target Language (TL) must be made to suit the content and discourse of that specific

subject.”

According to Donald, Lazarus and Lolwana (2006:199), the core of the latter quotation is that the

curriculum/content language should be learner-user-friendly and accessible by the subject

teacher to facilitate the pupils’ learning. On the some score, Van Tonder (1999:90) advocated

that subject teachers teaching learners from different languages and cultures should have a

command of the learners’ respective languages, in order to benefit equitably all the learners

entrusted to the teachers. According to Rodseth (2002:109), the textbook language should enable

the second-language learners to access knowledge with ease, without facing concept barriers.

These difficult textbooks written in English are compounded by the fact that subject teachers or

teachers of Geography cannot supplement the difficult English for second-language learners.

The teachers’ failure to supplement the difficult textbook language is due to the fact that they are

not proficient in the language of learning and teaching themselves.

Owing to the language non-proficiency, subject teachers of Geography cannot assist learners to

construct information in the medium of learning; as Butt (2002:2001) and Morgan and Lambert

(2005:766) have already stated above. Breidlid (2003:83) says that the curriculum-challenged

teacher is tempted to shield her/his curriculum-conceptual weakness behind the MT by code-

switching into it. The code-switching practice from the LoLT into the MT betrays learners;

because learners’ home languages do not have the scientific terminology needed for answering

the question papers in examinations. Consequently, learners fail to express themselves in English

as the language of the curriculum; and as a result, the learners perform poorly in Geography.

Guppy and Hughes (1999:11) identify, for learners’ language development, three components of

reading in English as the curriculum language of learning. In order for learners to learn

effectively, they should command a mastery, or the ability to read the lines, reading between the

lines, and reading beyond the lines of the content of the Geography curriculum. The expected

acquired subject literacy ability would enable the learner to tap into information, in order to

understand the reading material, be able to pick up the main points, enable the learner to criticise

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the significant information, to construct knowledge and new ideas, to learn to grow in the

learning situation (Skehan, (1999:246). Metcalfe and Games (2008:355) say that learners acquire

knowledge to grow their cognition, in order to overcome their ignorance and dependence. The

learners’ cognitive growth makes them aware of their being alive in their situations.

On the question of textbook use, Graves and Murphy (2000:229) have this to say:

“There is no such thing as a perfect textbook. The teacher plays a primordial part in

whatever book he has; it is for him to make his own selection from the material offered.

He must use it, according to his conception of the lesson; and he must supplement it, as

he thinks necessary.”

The quotation is pertinent to defining the hypothetical barriers to Geography learning and

teaching in the Limpopo Province’s Geography Grade 12 learners. It is incumbent on the

teachers of Geography to acquire competence in the subject matter of Geography, in order to be

able to supplement the prescribed textbooks intended for second-language learners. The

informed teacher’s level must be above that of the selected textbooks; and they must supplement

its weaknesses to enable the dependent learner to grow cognitively. If a teacher cannot handle a

textbook, then the learners becomes vulnerable to poor performance in Geography.

In principle, teachers are the agents of policy implementation in their respective governments.

Graves and Murphy (2000:229) point out that this is a prime reason that:

“Textbooks are [a] reflection of the society that produced them [Textbooks mirror to a

large degree] … the nature of the education system in which they are embedded.”

Any education department must cherish the ideologies of the government; and the teachers must

realise that they must drive the policies of the regime to maximal realisation. Therefore, it is

incumbent upon the DoE to develop teachers to realise the vision and mission of educating the

country’s children.

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2.3.4 Geography teachers’ development to redress challenges in performance

Shalem (2003:31) attests to the view held by Uline, Johnson Jr, Hoy, Paul and Stroot (Eds.)

(2005:44-52), as quoted in Hirsb (2005:39):

“… We argue that if you create support structures for teachers, instruction in the school

will inch upward because, even in the lowest-performing schools, you typically find a

few teachers who are quite good. If you create a vehicle for them to help their colleagues

you will see improvement over time.”

Teacher development is a cornerstone for the attainment of professional competence across the

various curricula. Performing teachers across curriculum areas are dependent on collective

teamwork in pursuit of the vision and mission attainment of the school and the entire department

of education. In this regard, Bloch (2010:17) laments the poor foundations of literacy and

numeracy on the part of the subject teachers, who ultimately fail their learners. Johnson and

Uline (2005:45-49) call for teacher development at the school under the baton of school

managers/leaders, and curriculum speciality at the district up to national level.

The preparation of teachers for respective leadership is geared towards the attainment and

enhancement of quality and high standard education, whereby their communities would be

changed for the better (Osman, 2011:7) The aim of enhancing quality educational leadership is

underpinned by the need for the attainment of advocated specific standards, as the vision of

learning, the culture of teaching and learning and the management of learning, among others.

The vision and mission of effective educational leaders is to create learning environments in

which the continuous focus is on ensuring that every learner in every group achieves success

manifested in the mastery of literacy and numeracy.

The competent teacher would dispense Geography-specific knowledge to their learners, who

would, in turn, be able to fend for themselves in their future career paths. The acquisition of

school-based competence by learners opens opportunities for them in the economic, social,

political and intellectual spheres.

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Johnson et al. (2005:4) emphasise the philosophy that learning is a lifelong process:

“In successful schools, all educators continuously examine and utilise data to improve

[their] teaching.”

From this point of view, one can deduce that every learner achieves optimally given learning

opportunities, which correspond with individual abilities. Competent Geography teachers plan

and prepare their lessons and specific assessments around the individual learner’s abilities and

learning pace. The mindset of competent teachers is to realise the vision and mission of the

curriculum, which culminates in the realisation of future career paths for each learner.

The attainment of the vision and mission statement of a school is driven by the existence of a

culture of teaching and learning in the school. The implementation of effective strategies is

driven by teachers’ zeal to sustain professional development manifested daily in the execution of

teaching and learning. Teachers themselves are lifelong learners, who constantly seek to realise

improved instructional effectiveness. The ingenuity of the leaders to pinpoint instructional

challenges in Geography pass rates should ensure that these challenges are overcome and

eradicated. Good results in the school are in accordance with the vision and mission statement of

the school; and they are underpinned by expert learning management, where every teacher’s

effort is geared towards every learner’s attainment of performance.

Johnson and Uline (2005:49) maintain that in order for every teacher and learner to perform

maximally, all barriers to subject/Geography teaching and learning must be removed. It is

therefore incumbent upon leaders to conscientise teachers to prioritise their practice programmes

coupling them with the implementation of effective strategies to realise excellent performance

across the curricula – without any weakest-link obstruction in the curriculum chain.

Seitisho (2002:139) subscribes to Cross (1995), who maintained that “a teacher must remain a

student throughout her/his teaching career”, in order to enrich himself/herself in skills,

approaches and the application of strategies to ensure efficiency in teaching their respective

curriculum areas – in order to realise learners’ expectations in specific careers (Oosthuizen,

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1988:51). According to Bloch (2009:11), the development of professional teachers is

underpinned by the effective evaluation of all the curriculum areas offered by teachers geared to

improve learners’ performance (Bayat & Louw, 2011:27). Serrao (2009:6) says that teacher

development, and support by circuit managers and curriculum advisors can perfect performance

across the curriculum. He agrees with Jansen’s (2009:6) call for quality education provisioning

realisation through teacher development and support by inspectors into schools, interlaced with

the provision of curriculum service on wholesale to perfect performance across the different

curriculum areas. Cross (1995:34-38) emphasises the views held above that teachers’

qualifications and professional competencies in a curriculum area enhance the quality of teaching

and learning (Bell & Gilbert, 1996:10).

Van Rooyen (1990:7) sheds light on the use of difficult textbooks written in English for the

second-language learners in African-rural schools across curricula and grades in the main stream

in general. Among other impending significant factors impacting on second-language learners’

learning is the legibility or complexity of the text underpinned by sentence lengths. The

consequences of sentence length to the subject (Geography) textbook user are that the

learners/users struggle with comprehension of the language (English) of learning. Subsequently,

the English language affects the understanding of the learning content (Van Rooyen, 1990:17).

The learner fails to recognise meanings in the long sentences used in the text. This learner

barrier, therefore, calls for the content (Geography) of teachers’ ingenuity to supplement the

difficult English, in order for the learner to comprehend the learning material. However, only

continuously professionally developed teachers can redress the problem ably to enhance

learners’ effective performance in the respective subjects.

Van Rooyen’s (1990:25) focus is on the vocabulary of textbooks in posing challenges to both the

subject (Geography) teacher and the learner. The subject of Geography is supposed to be a prime

initiator/mover in the teaching and learning activity in the learning environment. It is the teacher

who must master the terminology / technical terms (words or phrases), which carry “single

specific meanings” (Van Rooyen, 1990:25), when used in particular texts to be understood

vividly by learners. The challenge of technical terms for learners is very critical – in the sense

46

that the investigation into barriers to Geography learning and teaching in secondary schools

(FET) in the districts is a great concern. It is a serious concern; because Geography is a

Geoscience that characteristically uses specific technical concepts and language, which

challenges second-language learners in various learning contexts. Learners’ problems will

become more serious if the learner does not command the meaning of Geography-specific words

(Van Rooyen, 1990:25).

The research study views the question of the comprehension of words used in textbooks to be

very critical for the targeted group to use in the learning content. The accessibility of the learning

material to the learner, therefore, lies squarely upon the shoulders of the teacher, who must be

skilful in handling/manipulating and analysing the textbooks’ difficulties – in order to simplify

them for the challenged learners, so that they can learn with ease.

Van Rooyen (1990:105), in view of the existing experienced learning and teaching

problems/challenges in subjects, emphasizes the following quote:

“Teachers should be trained to be aware of the special language needs

of the content subjects the children will have to follow in later years, so

that they can prepare the children to cope with the content subject

language demands, which will be made on them” (Marland, 1978:93).

Bloch (2009:13) emphasises the view that many subject teachers have low morale and subject

contact, which fails their learners to optimise at an expected level. Stoddard, Pinal, Latzke and

Canadayir (2002:664-688) accentuate the quotation above. Their view is that the acquisition of

the language of learning and teaching/English enhances the learning of science/Geography

realisation; because the language acquisition integrates with Geography inquiry-acquisition skills

(Stoddard et al., 2002:664). The scholars imply that proficiency in English is a prerequisite for

learning Geography. The researchers acknowledge and lament that second-language (English)

learners do not have to access to rigorous Geography curriculum instruction, or the opportunity

to develop English second-language skills. The lack of access to instructional help in the content

results in challenges for Geography learners to understand, conceptualise, symbolise, discuss,

47

criticise theories, or read and write competently about topics in English. A Geography-specific

linguistic register is deemed essential to the practice of a science discipline. It is so because a

science register uses technical language features that include skills for formulating hypotheses,

formulating questions about phenomena, proposing alternative solutions, describing, classifying,

using time-spatial relations, interpreting data, inferring from data, evaluating hypotheses through

experimenting, predicting, observation and measurement, generalising and communicating

findings or writing reports scientifically on projects or scientific phenomena.

These scientific explorative observations involve hands-on activities, which provide

opportunities for language use/active thinking and discourse around activities (Stoddard et al.,

2002:665,667).

Macdonald (1990:177) subscribes to the view held above by advising that:

“Textbook and writers should also take cognisance of the limited vocabulary the children

possess, and use as many familiar words as possible in the text. It is important not to use

obscure vocabulary unnecessarily”.

Lanhan (1981) acknowledged by Macdonald (1990), gives an example to concretise how the

difficult vocabulary can impact on the understanding of the used content by the learners.

Macdonald (1990:178-179), advances convincing scenarios, based on some authors’ written

subject textbooks intended for use by second-language (English) learners: For example, he says,

consider this sentence: “Plants need wet ground, so that they can grow. In this sentence, the

meaning is not obscure to learners. Plants need [the] water in wet ground, so that they can grow.

In this sentence, the meaning is obscure to the learners; and they cannot discern it with ease.

Clearly, where English makes liberal use of synonyms for the interest of reading, this practice

would have to be held in check. A text, which is cohesive and coherent is more comprehensible

than a text which is not (Macdonald, 1990:179). The authors must make sure that the referents

for the cohesive elements are easily retrievable. Macdonald (1990:179) provides the following

example to clarify the argument above:

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a) Leaves make food for the plant. They can only make food if they are in the sunlight.

b) How do chickens reproduce and what happens to make sure that as many eggs as

possible hatch and grow into adults?

The scholar simplifies for learners the complex and incomprehensible (b) sentence as follows:

How do chickens reproduce?

How does the hen protect her eggs?

How does the hen protect her chicks? (Macdonald, 1990:180)

The author has broken the long confusing sentence into three manageable, legible,

comprehensible sentences for the second-language learners to follow with ease and arrive at the

expected answers to the questions.

2.3.5 Learners construct knowledge through active learning

According to Balderstone (2000:114-115) and Kelly (2011:2), learning is an enquiring process

characterised by learners’ active engagement in the learning content. Phye, Robinson and Levin

(2010:68) attest that the learners’ engagement in the learning material enables the learner to

construct meaning from the content culminating in acquired knowledge. The acquisition of

knowledge is effected by the application of acquired learning skills. The acquired learning skills

enable the learner to identify learning problems, for which s/he generates answers to solve the

problems in the learning situation (Duminy & Sohnge, 1981:2).

Kruger and Adam (1998:154) view knowledge and meaning construction as meta-cognition.

They define meta-cognition as follows:

“Meta-cognition involves an awareness of one’s (learners’) own thinking and being able

actively to monitor and direct it.”

“Metacognition entails the learners’ ability to do a learning activity, how to learn,

construct [one’s] own learning activity, and handle/tackle tasks in the learning process in

the learning environment.”

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Ashman and Conway (1997:41) say that: “Cognition has to do with knowing, and thinking

critically of perceived information in the learning environment.” From cognition, there emanates

meta-cognition, (Davis, 1993:180; Vrey, 1979:262).

Looking at the three quotations above, the researcher finds that Kolb (1996:31), Fraser (2001:2-

3), Brown (1994:126) and Moreno (2010:298) advocate experiential learning to be practised in

the teaching and learning classroom. The experiential learning approach emphasises the notion

that individual learners learn differently. That dictates to the subject teacher to heed that every

learner in the classroom should be granted opportunities, space and time to learn effectively and

meaningfully without restraint, favour and prejudice. Each learner should be optimally engaged

in verbal learning or thinking in the specific curriculum to construct knowledge, new ideas and

theories independently, in order to grow holistically (Wisker, 2008:69).

Collinson (1996:82-88) attests that curriculum area teachers should develop their learners by

dispensing the learning content appropriately, in order for them to develop optimally and

individually.

The enquiry approach rejects passive learning and rote-learning. Rote learning, according to The

World Book of Encyclopaedia E Volume 6 (1994:90-95) is rejected; because it promotes the

dependence of learning on the teacher – without learning independently from the teacher.

Brown’s model (1994:126-127), attested by Kolb (1996), focuses on reflective/experiential

teaching practice, which says that the subject teacher should plan, organize, initiate, monitor and

assess the learner activities in the learning situation. The teacher should aim to develop in the

learners the relevant learning abilities: listening speaking, reading and writing skills (Bears &

Barone, 1998: 18, Skehan, 1999:246).

The acquisition of these abilities develops learners’ contextualisation ability.

Contextualisation/conceptualisation is the ability that enables the learner to construct knowledge

in a broader spectrum, and to communicate and share it with others meaningfully, pertinent to

Geography curriculum learning and teaching in view of what Geography scholars, Welton and

Mailan (1981:77) and Beets and Le Grange (2005:194) have to say about constructivism. They

50

view learners as thinkers and constructors of meaning and knowledge. They are supported by

Brown (2000: 266-267) and Capel, Leask and Turner (1995:230), who assert that enquiring

learners seek, probe, and process data from their learning environment. Davis and Davis

(2000:85) and Davis and Reed, (2003:101,112) uphold the constructivist approach, which is pro-

mental language development in learners for content interpretation and analysis purposes. Meta-

language development is underpinned by the active language of the curriculum learning in

English or the language of learning and teaching (LoLT).

The World Book Encyclopaedia E Volume 6 (1994:90-95) advocates guided problem-solving

skills development in learners, in order to solve problems themselves in mathematics, science

and geography. Guided problem-solving class teaching and learning activity/process manifests,

firstly, in how the teacher explains to the learners the general principle needed to tackle a

particular problem. Secondly, the teacher demonstrates each problem-solving step on the

chalkboard to the class. Thirdly, the teacher gives learners similar problems to try out. Fourthly,

the teacher demonstrates again each initial step. Fifthly, the teacher presents to the learners some

different problems to learn to work out on their own. Meanwhile, the teacher is monitoring the

engagements or activities offering assistance to individuals who might need it. Sixthly, the

guided problem-solving learning approach helps learners to solve problems that are not exactly

similar to the ones the teacher provided solutions to in the classroom on the chalkboard

beforehand.

Related to the approach, finally, the teacher employs a diagnostic, teaching method, whereby

s/he presents problems to the learners to solve in whatever way they are capable of solving them.

After the learners have worked out the problems by themselves, the teacher commits them (the

learners) to explain logically how they arrived at their answers. As they are explaining, they are

executing meta-language skills (The World Book Encyclopaedia E Volume 6, 1994:90-95).

According to Driscoll (1994:209), this theory is that of Brunner’s (2000:230-234) cognitive

development. The geography teacher does come into the picture for assessing whether the

learners’ answers are reasonable, or not, by showing them which steps they have got wrong in

51

solving the problems. The teacher finally explains how to correct the facts (The World Book

Encyclopaedia E Volume 6, 1994:90).

Chaille (2008:4-5) adheres to the constructivist approach in the teaching and learning situation.

This scholar says that the constructivist approach posits that learners construct knowledge

through interaction between their own ideas and their experiences in the social and physical

world. The scholar mentions the critical view that learners come to each experience with a rich

background and ideas of their own. As they engage in interactions, they develop new theories

and ideas of learning. Learners are driven by their intrinsic motivation to learn conversely, as

opposed to the traditional practice of knowledge transmission/passive learning held by extrinsic

motivational learning adherents/behaviourists, who are not in favour of active learning.

Chaille (2008:5) indicates that constructivists’ classroom characteristics manifest in teachers

honouring learners’ ideas in learning, teachers granting time and space to learners to put into

practice their own ideas, teachers encouraging and creating co-operative and experiential

learning opportunities for their learners to learn effectively (Alexander, 2000:17).

The constructivist approach is viewed by Tierney, Readence and Dishner (1995:394-396) as

enabling the learner in the learning situation to predict, organise, rehearse, practise and evaluate,

in order to develop meta-cognitive skills. The significance of the acronym PORPE strategy is

that it helps learners to read tasks with understanding; it enables learners to identify the

important aspects of a message; it enables learners to focus on the major content versus trivia; it

enables learners to monitor the occurrence of comprehension in on-going activities; it enables

learners to engage in self-questioning to define the learning purpose; and finally PORPE assists

learners to redress identified failures affecting their comprehension.

The PORPE strategy of Tierney et al. (1995:394-396) manifests as follows in the learners’

application of their meta-cognitive skills.

Prediction: Learners develop the potential to predict essay questions for assessment.

Organise: Learners develop knowledge to organise key information to answer the

predicted questions.

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Rehearsal: Learners rehearse key ideas in their memories for later use during

examinations.

Practice: Learners use their plan to sketch an outline of the answer to the question before

writing actually begins. Learners must be able to rephrase the question at the opening

sentence/statement, when answering the given question. The main points should be

included in the answer.

Evaluate: Learners must be able to evaluate their answers, in which it can be verified that

the question was answered directly; the introductory sentence is question-specific; and

they must be able to rephrase the question, give the major points made to cue the reader

and the content must make sense. Learners use these abilities for application in their

Geography-learning environment.

The abilities are individually profiled as follows:

a) Translation: It is the ability whereby learners of Geography should put some

communication skills into other forms. For example, interpreting a diagram, telling the

meaning of a political cartoons’ geographical orientation, stating intelligibly problems in

their own words (Tienery et al., 1995:394-396). Possible question: In your own words,

describe what happens in Figure 2 (hypothetical). In responding to the question, the

learners would demonstrate their cognitive and meta-language or meta-linguistic

capacity, as attested by Kruger and Adams (1998:168), to communicate completely how

s/he thinks and perceives the learning activity. Possible task: Identify at least six

characteristics / indicators of commercial and subsistence farming.

b) Synthesis: It is an ability to rearrange component ideas into a new whole; for example,

plan a programme or a panel dimension, or write a comprehensive ten-page paper on a

Geographical project run by learners. Possible task: Devise a plan that might avoid the

negative consequences that result from the lack of environmental education/awareness in

the residents of rural areas.

c) Deliberating: In deliberating, the learners should be able to use resources on the past

natural carrying-capacity level in comparison to the current state of affairs, resulting from

human behavioural attitudes and the values of today.

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d) Interpretation: This has to do with the ability to record ideas; for example, gathering data

from a variety of sources, when preparing an organised report. Possible question: What

actually happened to x in Figure 2.3 (hypothetical)? In responding, the learner should

shed light on what happened in the process of the shaping of a phenomenon developing

to the level/stage where it currently is.

e) Extrapolation: This is the ability to go beyond the given data. It has to do with what sort

of extrapolations would the teachers and learners need to make from the facts. For

example, the learners should be able to theorise about whether they will be able to draw

conclusions from the given datasets/predict the trends. Possible question: What do you

think happened to the vegetation after the discovery of gold on the Reef in the 1800s? Or,

what happened to Platinum in the Lepelle and Tubatse areas in the 1900s to 2000s? Or, in

the Mokopane areas in Waterberg Limpopo? Very vividly, the learners should be able to

project their imaginations onto the activities of industrialisation impacting on the

virginity of nature to the level of denudation visible now through the photographs

reflecting the past.

f) Application: It is an ability to apply principles to actual situations. It has to do with what

sort of application the learners would need to make. For example, apply the principles of

Geographical practices to current human activities in rural settlements. Possible question:

By assessing a previous study of attitude that begets changes/what idea have we studied

that explains the settlement after-effects to the environment’s natural vegetation?

Learners’ argument should reflect a relation to extrapolation above manifesting her/his

cognitive ability driven by language competence development/growth.

g) Analysis: It is a capacity to distinguish and comprehend interrelationships; it makes

critical analyses of facts or phenomena. That is, it has to do with what kind of analysis

the learners would have to make; such as, for example, discuss how commercial farming

differs from traditional farming; be able to detect logical dissimilarities influenced by

political dimensions in the South African context. Possible task: Identify at least six

characteristic indicators of commercial and subsistence farming.

54

h) Evaluation: This comprises the ability to make judgements based on internal evidence or

external criteria: for example, evaluate a work of art produced by your group on contours

and the development of your field of study or detect inconsistencies in the speech of a

politician on environmental issues in your area, etc. Possible question: Were the farmers

right in doing what they did to the environment in question? (Welton & Mallan,

1981:186).

Balderstone (2000:114-115) says learners are by nature active constructors of meaning in their

learning situation. The scholar advocates that teachers must create learning opportunities for

learners, in which knowledge is actively constructed to optimise their learning. Geography-

curriculum teachers must apply verbal learning and real understanding, guidance and discovery

skills, thinking in Geography in their Geography learning, and employing effective Geography

teaching techniques, like using oral lessons. Kruger and Adams (1998:165) and Gardner

(1993:79) emphasise using textbooks and atlases. The employment of the techniques

successfully is dependent on professional competence.

Balderstone (2000:114) goes on to indicate that curriculum development manifests in Geography

teachers’ ability to plan lessons and execute them, to use meticulously selected textbooks

intended for learners’ use. The skilful Geography teacher would be able to produce valid

supplementary material to simplify difficult textbooks for second-language (English) learners to

learn easily (Rodseth, 2002:109; Howell & Lazarus, 2003:5).

From what has been deliberated on, the research study is informed by that knowledge, and the

knowledge of specifics should be dispensed to learners by knowledgeable Geographers, in order

for these learners to optimise their learning. Learners should command knowledge of

terminologies/technical terms, symbols, knowledge to interpret and analyse tables, for example,

nature of Evolution, changes in altitudes, attitudes, etc. in Geography (Welton & Mallan,

1981:195-196). This should enable learners to reason out why things have shaped up the way

they are in the area of existence. Therefore, this calls for the teachers to command knowledge of

methodology, or of what sorts of methodology their learners would need to master, in order to be

successful Geographers.

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2.3.6 How can Geography curriculum teachers use textbooks better to benefit their

learners?

The researcher attempts to deliberate on how teachers can use textbooks better in the teaching

and learning of Geography across the curriculum. The researcher’s attempt is geared to

redressing the problem of barriers to Geography learning and teaching, resulting in poor pass

rates in grade 12 Geography examinations during the period under review in the district. Naish

(1992:178) and Beets and Le Grange (2005:190-197) point out that it is up to the ingenuity of the

teacher of Geography to realise that some textbooks are too difficult to be read by the learners

for whom they are intended. This view is pertinent to second-language learners, whose linguistic

ability is not commensurate with that of the textbook.

These scholars advocate that the teacher should be able to supplement or soften the difficult

textbook to be user-friendly to the second-language/English learners; so that they can grow in the

subject and as learners.

The textbook is viewed by Howell and Lazarus (2003:5) as the most difficult problem to the

teacher and s/he should be able to meet it satisfactorily; because the teacher and the textbook

should supplement and reinforce each other. However, the textbook should be subservient to the

teacher and not a substitute for the teacher. The teacher, superseding the textbook, therefore,

should manage the textbook to benefit the learners. However, the opposite seems to be

happening, as demonstrated in poor performance in Geography in grade 12 in all the districts in

the Limpopo province.

Leat (2002:109-111) is concerned with those teachers of Geography who do not live up to the

challenges in Geography teaching. Their weak subject knowledge causes them to over-rely on

the textbooks. They are ignorant of the unsuitability of textbooks in English in relation to the

language level of the second-language learners. The scholar is further concerned with the

teaching of Geography at secondary schools by non-specialists. As a result, the expectations of

teachers’ teaching Geography are lost; and the learners’ future/career paths are, consequently,

negatively affected.

56

Naidoo (2006:9) suggests an effective teaching approach for using difficult textbooks to benefit

learners. The scholar suggests that where learners cannot use the textbook independently, the

teacher should work with them on the text to ensure that the learners manage to identify the main

ideas and concepts being presented. Teachers should develop through reading references and

other literature related to geography, and by learning the content themselves. The advantage of

reading widely on Geography literature is that it introduces teachers to new areas of Geography.

It provides the potential for classroom adoption of new approaches to the management of

teaching and learning. It provides classroom application techniques, as well as the quantitative

techniques needed for explaining individual perceptions of different environments. They assist

learners to interpret texts, which underpin the attainment of independent learning (Naish,

1995:189; Beets & Le Grange, 2005:194, The World Book Encyclopaedia E, 1994:90-95;

Morgan & Neil, 2001:147).

Teachers should develop awareness that they are aides to the teaching and learning process.

Therefore, curriculum teachers are obligated to work together to help learners to analyse

textbooks critically. This practice would help learners to grow in the dimension of cognition,

manifesting meta-cognition and conceptualisation (Kruger & Adams, 1998:165-168). This view

underpins the fact that the teacher should interpret the textbook to benefit each learner. Mothata,

Van Niekerk and Mays (2003:81-99) emphasise the fact that subject textbooks are very critical

tools for the teacher and the learner. There are factors that must be borne in mind by the subject

teacher, when textbooks are selected or chosen for the learners to use.

According to Bloch (2009:11), developed teachers, specifically in their curriculum areas, become

effective in evaluating respective curriculum areas, in order to improve learner performance and

learning attainment (Naish, 1992:189; Beets & Le Grange, 2005:194; The World Encyclopaedia

E, 1994:90-95).

The question of the user-friendliness of the language (English) of the textbook must be critically

examined because the textbooks’ language must suit the linguistic level of the second-language

learner – in order to construct meaning and knowledge – and to grow in the subject. Therefore,

the subject teacher must be able to interpret the textbook thoroughly, bearing in mind the type

57

and level of the curriculum language. The learners must have the use of the textbook. Where

there are language difficulties, the subject teacher must be able to supplement the book to be

used by her/his learners, in order to optimise cognitive development.

This would invariably benefit the learners; because learners learn differently, in accordance with

their learning styles, underpinned by their inherited intelligence. It is incumbent upon the

curriculum-area teacher to provide for learners’ intelligence by applying varied teaching

approaches/strategies to effect quality learning in the learners. Beets (2007:578-589) says quality

teaching ensures/begets quality learning; quality teaching begets quality assessment, which

similarly produces good learner performance. Quality teaching and learning are required for

learners to develop the capacity to construct knowledge, rather than merely reproducing

information.

Other indispensable learning skills are the application of knowledge to obtaining life situations.

Developed learners manifest acquired knowledge through constructivism, by demonstrating self

and peer assessment in experiential learning. The manifestation of the learning skills ensures

learners self-sufficiency in their future career path, which is the core business of the DoE.

The researcher considers the views of Tshibalo and Schulze (2000:230-234) very pertinent to the

problem of barriers to Geography learning and teaching in grade 12 in the districts under study.

The assertion is on the grounds that if the university students experience such serious learning

challenges in map learning, the root cause of the students’ problem emanates from poor

background teaching in secondary schools, where these students learned Geography. The

students’ poor performance is indicative of the teachers’ inefficiency in teaching geographical

literacy to learners.

These scholars, Tshibalo and Schulze (2000:230), advocate teaching and learning activities in

map-work to improve learner/student achievement. Active map-work learning goes hand-in-hand

with co-operative learning methods, which are very useful (Brufee, 1999:8).

58

Väyrynen (2003:39) agrees with the view of Tshibalo and Schulze (2000:230) that learners

construct knowledge through engagement in learning activities facilitated by subject teachers /

teachers of Geography. The method uses small groups of learners who are easily manageable for

the teachers to facilitate the learning activities. The significance of the co-operative learning

approach is that learners can learn from each other. The learners interact through talking,

discussing what they know, sharing their challenges with each other. Also successful learners in

the small groups help to motivate other group members to be successful in their learning. It is of

importance with co-operative learning that learner-centeredness or constructivist practice is

enhanced.

Constructivist theory manifests in learners’ capacity to construct meaning and knowledge; as

they are acquiring experiences in the learning content (Balderstone, 2000:114-115).

2.3.7 Map-work teaching and learning: Quantitative literary challenges

Kent and Smith (eds.) (2002:128-130) advocate the employment of fieldwork in Geography

teaching and learning, in order to enable the learners of Geography to grow their understanding

of Geographical scientific investigation to ensure the attainment and sustenance of their career

paths. Learner involvement in fieldwork would expose them to practical Geographical situations

to discern information through the application of their conceptual skills. The first-hand

information and knowledge would enable learners to answer, and interpret the data analytically

in examinations (Tierney et al., 1995:394-396).

Jacobsen, Eggen and Kauchak (1993:40-45) say teaching and learning Geography content results

in the learners’ acquisition of cognitive skills. The scholars describe content as the concepts of

the cognitive domain. They call these concepts, abstractions, which are the ideas people use to

describe, understand and simplify the world around them. They are the mental templates we use

to perceive and understand our immediate surroundings/worlds. The abstractions form an

important part of the linguistic development level of the learner, whereby the learner can

construct new ideas, thoughts and theories of facts in learning, and the exploration in life

situations. The scholars are succinct that concepts are interconnected with abstractions; in that

concepts are ideas that refer to a class or category of facts.

59

Concepts are interconnected with abstractions. A practical example of a class or category is a

noun or adverb and an adjective. The concept of animals comprises birds, mammals and reptiles.

The animals are seen in the conceptual hierarchy. Once animals are referred into in a category,

the knowledgeable learner would be able to visualise the concept of ‘animals’.

The same applies to generalisations, as a relational concept in learning for practical purposes. In

life-orientation, learners are taught about smoking as one of the causes of cancer of the throat,

lungs etc. The learners realise automatically in their cognition that smoking has a real chance of

causing cancer. Therefore, abstractions have a value in language learning; in the sense that

instead of using large amounts of information in a statement, the learner uses abstractions in

summary function to describe amounts of information. In illustrating this point, the researcher

cites an example of temperature highs and lows forecast by the weather bureau in a region. One

area or town/city in a region represents the whole region, as opposed to plotting/charting every

town’s temperature. The knowledgeable reader will still know that the representative information

overlaps through the whole area/region.

In summary, the researcher would term meta-linguistic learning as the process of the whole

learner’s growth in language. This growth through language is a feature of the personal linguistic

growth model. The learner’s growth in linguistic acquisition is manifested in applying the

acquired language pertinent to social interactions. The researcher asserts that the learner’s

linguistic growth is promoted by listening, speaking, reading and writing.

Butt (2002:16-17) says that maps and photographs are critical to learners in the learning of

Geography. Maps and photographs pose perceptual and conceptual problems for learners;

because they are complicated in nature, demanding artistic, appreciative, observational,

interpretative analytical or quantitative skills, or applications, in order to construct and deduce

meaning from them. Therefore, map-work needs to be handled by masterful and skilled teachers,

in order to benefit the learners, and enable them to grow their knowledge to understand and

comprehend Geographical features and phenomena, and how they impact on those natural

resources on which man is dependent on for survival.

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Learners’ growth in knowledge acquisition is essential for their preparation for career paths. The

functions of maps and photographs are varied; maps and photographs function in finding the

location of places or as a way of getting to a place. Scale street maps, for example, A-Z or

geographical town maps, that is, route maps showing the distance between towns, survey maps

for geographers’ careers; and such maps function to store and display information. There are

specialised functions of maps. There are thematic maps compiled for specific purposes, for

example, television, newspaper, weather, maps and planning maps.

Land use maps, for example, for urban and rural areas, function to inform learners to locate

settlements and commercial activities like farming, transportation, etc. Maps provide information

in the form of words, numbers and symbols. The learners deduce or construct meaning from

numbers and symbols by using words in interpreting and analysing the given abstractions. The

researcher uses tasks based on Figure 2.2 and Figure 2.3 to demonstrate how maps can bear vital

information to be observed, labelled, interpreted, manipulated mathematically, analysed and

deduced from, to provide answers to administered/posed questions on phenomena, features and

activities. The prime purpose of using maps is to acquire language competence.

Viewing the figures above, the researcher detects a sense of pessimism evoked by the view held

by Leat (2002:109-111) on the teaching of geography at secondary schools by non-specialists.

Tshibalo and Schulze (2000:230-234) and Wilmot (2003:313-318) support Leat that the teachers

of geography need to be qualified in geography teaching; or they would fail to attain the DoE’s

vision and mission to realise self-sufficient citizenry. According to Serrao in The Star (2010:6),

“Poor literacy and numeracy levels in our schools are well-documented; but the scary

part is that many teachers cannot pass the tests they set for their own pupils.”

The depicted scenario above is ghastly to contemplate, and diabolic to quality teaching and

learning realisation in Geography in the districts of the Limpopo Province. Serrao (2010:6)

agrees with Bloch (2009:61), when he refers to the five main causes of the crisis facing

education as: “teachers, departmental support, poverty, the model C system and language”.

Bloch (2010:12) re-emphasises the fact that teacher’s inefficiency and ineffectiveness emanates

from their poor training.

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Challenges in map-work faced by teachers of geography emanate from their dearth in

quantitative literacy. The researcher’s assertion is based on the fact that the geography

curriculum, according to Beets (2007:578) is an integrative applied science subject qualified to

be taught to learners by a quantitatively literate teacher (Van Driel, Reijaard & Verloop, 2001:

137-140). It implies, therefore, that if a teacher is not mathematically literate, the results would

be disastrous. This suggests that non-specialist teachers of Geography would skip

mathematically challenging themes in favour of user-friendly sections, at the expense of the

future of the vulnerable learners. Steyn and Maree (2003:47-56) reflect on the question of

quantitative literacy.

The study was carried out targeting fresh engineering and science students at the University of

Pretoria. The research study views the article as being significant to the barriers to Geography

learning and teaching; because the University of Pretoria investigation focused on the question of

the conceptualisation of mathematical content. The study focused specifically on “individual

diverse thinking preferences” underpinned by learner’s content competencies (Steyn & Maree,

2003:48). Students’ thinking preferences, according to Steyn and Maree (2003:48-49) and Howie

(2005:175-178) manifests as follows: There are four quadrant categories of learners’ learning

capabilities symbolised as: A-quadrant (bestowed learners), B-quadrant (organized learners), C-

quadrant (preference learners) and D-quadrant (characteristics learners).

The four diversified quadrants enable the respective learners to conceptualise and operationalize

the learning content cognitively and meta-cognitively differently in the learning situation

(Kruger and Adam, 1998:154). The learner in A-quadrant is capable of critically and logically

analysing the learning content in the learning activity; a learner in B-quadrant displays organised,

planned and detailed information deduced from the learning material and involving the

application of superior meta-cognitive skills. The C-quadrant preferences indicate interpersonal

skills command by the learner of the learned content. The quadrant manifests in personal growth

to harmonise human and physical relations in learning. Co-operative learning in Geography map-

work demonstrates practically how interpersonal perceptual and conceptual abilities are

manifested; because Geography learning involves more peculiar concepts than any other

subjects, except for mathematics (Steyn & Maree, 2003:49).

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The researcher deduces from the inputs by the scholars that learners learn effectively where the

learning tasks and activities are varied. The view is advocated in Sternberg’s model (2001,

22:26), Fraser (2001,1-4) and Fontana (1995:82) that learners fall into varied intelligence

categories. There are those who fall under the visual category, comprising theories; and there are

those who are aurally inclined. There are those learners who are practically pragmatic in

functioning/learning. The view expressed is that for all learners to learn maximally, teachers

should put into use all means available to them (learners); since a particular teaching method of

the textbook would not necessarily suit, cater for and meet the needs of all the learners during a

class activity.

The use of many terminologies in Geography calls for a proficient curriculum teacher, who can

manage, handle and dispense to learners the learning content in the learning context. Steyn and

Maree (2003:48-49) imply that conceptual structural development in learners is very critical in

Geography. Subject teachers should help learners to engage with constructing new ideas to

succeed in meaningful learning. Therefore, the optimisation of the A-quadrant, B-quadrant, C-

quadrant and D-quadrant in the four learner-categories grants equal opportunities for learners to

grow in their respective career paths, subsequent to effective and efficient teaching and learning

(Steyn & Maree, 2003:49).

The teacher remains the prime provider of optimal learning for learners – by providing them with

indispensable learning skills to graduate into self-sufficient citizens.

According to Bloch (2011:10), the question of quantitative illiteracy interlaced with the language

of learning and teaching (LoLT) illiteracy is a worrying factor in South African educational

institutions. In the same vein, Howie (2005:115-186) conducted an edifying research by

evaluating learners’ performance with a special focus on the curriculum language (English)

related to second-language learners in mathematics achievement in grade 8 (Nkomo 2011;15).

Howie (2005:176) is succinct about the problem:

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“The aim of the study was to describe, [and] explore [the] main factors affecting the

performance of the South African pupils in the mathematics test of, the third international

mathematics and science study-report (TIMMS-R).”

Govender (2010:4) puts it starkly that grades 8 and 9 are rock foundations to good results in

grades 11/12, on which practitioners should focus. Surty (2011:100) attests to the view in

conceding to the dismal results of Annual National Assessment, which spelt disastrous results in

grade 12 if left unnoticed. Rice (2010:13) advocates primary school teacher training

enhancement on language and maths to redress the problem. Bell (2011:18), Metcalfe (2011:5)

and Howie (2005:177) say that the study had two objectives to attain. The first objective alluded

to above was to be informed of the pupils’ performance in the mathematics test, the pupils’

proficiency in English as the language of the curriculum for second language learners, and to

describe the background characteristics of learners, and to apply the third international

mathematics and science study-report (TIMMS-R) to teachers to verify the extent of effective

mathematics teaching. The second objective was to:

“…Explore the factors… relating to pupils’ performance and to language proficiency in

relation to the background information that was collected from the pupils to teachers and

[the] principals of the schools included in the study.”

The two quotations are pertinent to the researcher’s study investigating barriers to Geography

learning and teaching. The researcher asserts in the research study that the suspected factors,

which are contributing to poor performance in Geography are similar to those advanced by

Howie (2005:175-186) in the quotations above. They are stated as the question of the teacher’s

proficiency in English as the language of the curriculum and curriculum subject; the teacher’s

efficiency in Geography with a specific function to handle, and manage to supplement difficult

textbooks’ in English with ease for the second-language learners to use the content easily, the

latter coupled with the teacher’s ability to select and use appropriately geography textbooks; and

finally, the geography teacher’s tendency to code-switch from English into the mother tongue

(MT), when the teacher has run out of ideas to explain to the learners the learning content in

English – because of the teachers’ lack of command of the subject matter and its terminologies

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(Plüddemann, 2002:55). Howie’s study was accentuated by Mtshali’s analysis of the 2011 annual

national assessments in terms of the staff of numeracy and literacy in South Africa (Mtshali,

2012:8). They were attested by Jansen’s (2011:102-103) opinion on all national and regional

tests of comparison on the basic competencies of literacy and numeracy/mathematics, as it was

demonstrated in the third international mathematics and science study – report (TIMMS-R)

(Howie, 2005:175-186).

Howie’s (2005:175-186) key findings in the study are as follows: The language of the curriculum

(English) was found to be a critical and significant factor for learners across the medium of

instruction and the racial divide. That is, the impact of English literacy/competency was

noticeable in the learners’ performance between English speakers whose scores were higher than

those of the African-languages speakers – whose scores were lower in the third international

mathematics and science study – report (TIMMS-R). Of remarkable significance, following the

English-language - first language (FL) speakers were the Afrikaans-speakers, whose

performance too was reported as significantly higher than the African learners’ scores. The

language of the curriculum factor is at interplay here. The Afrikaans learners took the third

international mathematics and science study – report (TIMMS-R) test in their home language,

like the English speakers, a language in which they can communicate. This left the African

language groups vulnerable to underperformance, due to their illiteracy in English as the medium

of instruction (Mahlalela-Thusi & Heugh, 2002:241).

The skewed graphs of performance were attributed to the factor of curriculum teachers’

proficiency in English in dealing with the content learning challenges of the second-language

users in learning the content. Hence, Vithal (2011:3) questioned the wisdom of administering

maths tests in English to African learners, as to native-language speakers/English speakers.

Howie (2005:178) claims that the African learners dipped in their performance because they:

“… have trouble with the interpretation of tables, figures and illustrations. They struggled

with questions requiring more than one step and appeared unable to articulate their

answers in writing English. When faced with multiple-choice questions, the pupils

resorted to guessing the answer … pupils could not communicate their answers in the

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language of the test; and they lacked the basic mathematics knowledge expected at the

grade 8 level.”

From the quotation above, the researcher can deduce that the home-language conceptualisation

factor is believed to have had an influence on the mathematics overall results; since the African-

language speakers scored 100 points less than the other groups: English- and Afrikaans-speakers,

respectively. The African-language speakers did poorly in the English competency test. The

overall score in English by the African learners was 17 out of 40, which is well below par

(Enslin-Payne, 2010:1; Hazelhurst, 2011:16). In response to the dismal performance of African

learners in the third international mathematics and science study – report (TIMMS-R), Ntlakana

(2011:13) strongly advocated the development of African languages in terms of their

terminologies in specific subjects, in order to redress their poor performance. Ntlakana’s view is

similar to De Klerk’s findings from practical experience in Grahamstown (De Klerk, 2002:1-3).

The investigation into barriers to Geography learning and teaching in grade 12 in the districts is

informed by Howie’s (2005:175-186) findings on the impact that English competence (and

incompetence) has on learners’ performance in the subjects related to Geography. Howie

(2005:180) goes on to shed light on curriculum performance by sketching a further scenario with

particular reference to performing and underperforming provinces, regarding the language

proficiency of the learners:

“The average score is very poor in terms of the pupils’ language proficiency. Pupils from

the wealthiest and most urbanised provinces, Gauteng (20, 86) and the Western Cape (21,

96), attained the highest overall scores. Pupils from the poorest province, Limpopo,

displayed a very low proficiency in English (on average 13.8) pupils from the African-

language group clearly struggled with the test; and the lowest average scores reflect that.

The other second-language groups (Afrikaans and other languages) performed relatively

well in comparison with the English group.”

The researcher reiterates that the pursuit to investigate poor performance of grade 12 in

Geography in the Education Districts in Limpopo is justifiable; since all the factors militating

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against good performance come to the fore in Howie’s research: Learners performed badly in the

third international mathematics and science study – report (TIMMS-R) because of their poor

English command; since they are not native speakers of English; and they had a poor basic

knowledge of mathematics. The learners’ poor performance in English as a subject and medium

of instruction and the learners’ poor performance in mathematics is indicative of the fact that

subject teachers in Limpopo, particularly African-language speaking teachers, are inefficient

across the school curricula (Plüddemann, 2007:55, Delonno, 2010:2).

The teachers’ poor performance in subjects like mathematics, applied science (Geography) does

not augur well for learner development across the curriculum divide. The assertion held by the

researcher is that efficient teachers of mathematics are desperately needed in schools to handle

the quantitative Geographical sections. For example, map-work consists of mathematical areas

by nature, which ordinary teachers of Geography cannot handle without the assistance of the

teacher of mathematics at the school (Figures 22 & 23, 2.4.5).

2.3.8 Administering assessment in Geography teaching and learning

Kent and Smith (eds.) (2002:15) advocate fieldwork practice, improving the quality of thinking

in the Geography classroom, and improving oral communication and written tasks administered

to learners. David, in Smith (Ed.) (2002:15) says that scientific investigation must be embarked

upon because of its usefulness for increasing conceptual understanding and personal experience

in learners of Geography.

2.2.9 Reflecting on pass rates in grade 12 Geography in Limpopo DoE during 1999-2009

Needless to say, the core function of the DoE is to realise the vision and mission of the

government, which is measured in terms of producing literate and numerate citizens, who can

fend for themselves in all the respective spheres of life. The realisation of the vision and mission

of the DoE should be in line with South Africa’s Constitution (1996:814-829), which is to

improve the life of all citizens and actualise the potential of each person. The responsibility of

equipping learners with literacy, numeracy and scientific ability lies squarely on the shoulders of

the teachers – to develop learners optimally – In the learning and teaching situation.

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However, Bloch (2009:17) paints a bleak picture of the underachievement of South African

learners in literacy, numeracy and science ability tests in comparison with the rest of the world.

Particular reference is to better the achievement of the Southern African region (Bloch, 2009:17).

The researcher uses Bloch’s findings to emphasise Howie’s (2005:175-186) findings, which are

concerned with learners’ lack of literacy, numeracy and scientific abilities. The researcher views

Howie’s (2005:175-186) findings and Bloch’s findings very seriously regarding the third

international mathematics and science study – report (TIMMS-R), with specific reference to

Bloch’s (2009:60) stark question: “Is schooling achieving what it is supposed to?”

Having directed this question to the reader, Bloch laments the performance of the South African

educational system by indicating that South Africa is on record for being the worst performer in

maths and language (English) literacy in the world, particularly with regard to African-language

speakers. Bloch’s posed question is pertinent to this research study; since Geography is an

applied science in its own right, underpinned by the need for literacy in its dispensation and

acquisition in terms of numeracy/quantitative exploration and manipulation (Sapa, 2008:12).

Secondly, being a quantitative/numerate and qualitative subject, Geography’s performance is

bedevilled by underachievement, as evidenced in the test scores at various levels (Bloch,

2009:60-61). This is illustrated, furthermore, in response to the stark challenges by Bloch above,

that the South African schooling is undoubtedly not achieving what it is supposed to achieve.

Therefore, it is implied that it will be a difficult task for teachers of Geography to produce

qualified Geographers in view of the mirrored educational circumstances in which learners are

learning.

The assertion is borne in the research evidence that South African learners happen to find

themselves languishing in a learning and teaching situation, which is poorly managed and staffed

by unqualified and under-qualified under-performing teachers across the specified curriculum

areas. It is evidenced in Bloch (2009:62), according to the Third International mathematics and

science study analysis published in 2003, where South Africa fared the worst out of 46 countries

surveyed for maths results.

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The national barometer of performance in the South African educational context is benchmarked

by the Western Cape Province – which is regarded as the best-performing province in the

country (Bloch, 2009:63). The results of the Western Cape Province regarding Grade 6 Learner

Assessment Study in maths in 2004 yielded regrettable results; where 35% performance was

registered for white schools, and 4% for Africans! The performance contrast between the two

racial groups is incompatible. Therefore, the picture does not augur well for the country in the

eyes of the international world. This is confirmed by Howie (2005:175-186). Bloch (2009:63)

describes the 1999 monitoring Learning Achievement (MLA) study designed by the United

Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) and the United Nations

Children’s Fund (UNICEF) of Grade 4 learners in South Tunisia, Mauritius, Mali, Niger,

Zambia, Uganda and Botswana.

South Africa performed dismally – with a score of 30% versus Tunisia with 60%, Mauritius with

59%, to mention a few maths-pass rates. The same happened with literacy tests, in which South

Africa scored 48% versus Tunisia’s 78% and Mauritius’ 61%. Ramphele (2011:4) is concerned

that the citizenry is rendered vulnerable to self-sufficiency attainment, and that they are at the

mercy of their self-sufficient African counterparts in terms of competing for job opportunities.

The gist of the matter is that in various tests, South Africa scored below par perennially in

literacy, numeracy and science in general at various levels (Bloch, 2009:63-64). The depicted

picture of underperformance above implies that our worst performance in these must-subjects

dooms our learners’ future; as they are essential for learners’ future foundation. Bloch (2009:66)

emphasises the opinion of Nick Taylor (2006) that maths passes are performance-indicators of

school/DoE efficiency across related curricula, in which this scholar indicates that 79% of high

schools in the country fell into the poorly performing category. A stark performance contrast

shown by Taylor (2006) and Bloch (2009:66) is that, generally, African matriculants have a

0.1% A-aggregate pass.

Johnson, Bornman and Alant (2010:34-36) and Cremer (2011:9) advise parents to lay a strong

educational foundation for their children at home to enhance their literacy and maths

performance in the future, in order to circumvent the disaster alluded to. Tabane (2010:12)

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decries the lack of literacy and numeracy foundation at the school level, resulting in poor

performance in learners. Mtshali, Smillie and Sapa (2011:1) maintain the stance that many

learners in South African schools lack the proper foundations, leaving learners educationally

vulnerable. The demonstrated evidence above impels the researcher to delve into the grade 12

Geography pass rates from 2005 to 2009 in the Limpopo province by virtue of the status of

Geography as a natural science. That is, the weakness of teachers in maths and science abilities

dovetailed by their linguistic non-proficiency/LoLT incompetence compromises learners’

performance in Geography. Figure 2.4 profiles the poor performance of learners in Geography

through the period under the spotlight. This is underpinned by a toxic mix of related factors, as

argued by Bloch (2009:88-98). He singles out the teacher factor as being highly contributory,

and manifesting in the lack of reading literacy and numeracy abilities (Bloch, 2009:102).

Bloch (2009:102) laments that the deficit manifests in learners in all the phases in the system.

Bloch (2009:102) puts it categorically that the compromise lies in “a lack of the core abilities to

teach, even when the will is there”. Suffice it to say that teachers are the captains of the

education ship; and if they are failing to drive and navigate this ship, it cannot brave the violent

and deep waters of the educational sea. Therefore, doom to all on board. Consequently, the

myriad of factors argued by Bloch (2009:88-106) are summed up under 2.4.4 by Johnson and

Uline’s (2005:45-49) advocacy of standards and the need to realise the vision and mission of the

school, driven by effective and efficient leaders and implementers of curricula.

In realising teachers’ effectiveness and efficiency, leaders are expected, according to Bloch

(2009:134-135), to organise for teachers to attend cluster meetings, workshops and specialised

specific curricula workshops for training teachers to acquire all the assessment requirements to

perform optimally. This can be realised by outsourcing subject-specific expertise from local

universities to train teachers in specific curriculum areas (Garden, 2011:9).

Bloch (2009:90-91) maintains that the inadequacies in the three levels of education hold back

performance, as identified below: “A range of issues affect teachers, from poor subject

knowledge and teaching practice, to insufficient numbers in training and little performance

evaluation.”

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What is contained in the quotation? Is it that all teachers’ inadequacies in subjects they are

offering affects the learners with specific reference to barriers to Geography learning and

teaching in the Limpopo Province?

2.3.10 Development of critical-thinking learners in Geography

Attesting to what Bloch (2009:151) says above, this research espouses Incekara (2011:236) and

Makina’s (2010:24) theory of critical-thinking development by specific curriculum teachers of

mathematics. The researcher adopts the theory for mathematical literacy teaching and learning in

Geography focusing on grade 12 learners. The research study’s purpose with the latter learners is

to attain visual perception skills to enable learners to interpret and analyse geographical

phenomena (Butt, 2002:16-17). This attainment would enrich learners’ relational attitudes and

values in their geographical content to ensure and sustain their mutual survival. Learners’

critical-thinking development would close the gap created by the casual teaching of Geography

to learners, compromising the fact that geography is a science subject underpinned by

quantitative literacy skills in learners.

The researcher attests to Makina’s (2010:24-25) advocacy of visualisation / imagery

development in learners by teachers teaching mathematical / quantitative literacy in context

(Jordaan, Jordaan & Nieuwoudt, 1975:315).

The researcher also acknowledges Johnston’s (1996:3-4) theory that learners learn effectively by

forming images of the learned content to acquire the perceived information and to form meaning.

This means that learners learn through concretising facts / images versus learning in abstract

form. According to Makina (2010:26), the attainment of critical thinking is highly desirable for

learners’ independent thinking needed for self-sufficiency and for fending for themselves in life.

Critical thinking in learners manifests in the acquisition of identifying, constructing, evaluating

contentions, synthesising mistakes in content learning in context, solving problems

systematically and practically, seeing relevance in content related to context and selective

communication pertinent to learning content skills.

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The acquisition of the highlighted skills / abilities is earmarked for mathematical / quantitative

literacy mastery in Geography as a science to produce scientifically literate learners /

Geographers.

2.3.11 Expert teachers in relation to barriers to curriculum knowledge

Turner-Bisset’s (2001:159) “knowledge-based profession” paradigm of teaching embraces

concepts, facts, processes, skills, beliefs, attitudes and values. The Turner–Bisset paradigm of

teaching emphasises the fact that knowledge is dynamic. Saying that knowledge is in a state of

flux means that the knowledge of teaching is subject to impartial regular and vigorous change.

This is witnessed by the fact that curriculum knowledge is revised from time to time and

underpinned by teacher training to keep teachers abreast of any new approaches and strategies in

keeping with any new educational challenges. Geography curriculum teachers are no exception.

Turner–Bisset’s (2001:147) theory of knowledge-based profession advocates that expert teachers

of subjects (Geography) should manifest two dimensions of curriculum knowledge. The first

dimension is the command of knowledge of the current national curriculum by teacher’s

specific–curriculum. This dimension has a specific reference to the stated barriers to geography

learning and teaching in grade 12 in Limpopo with particular reference to the 1999 – 2010

examination results presented in Table 2.1. The command of literacy and numeracy strategies or

the absence thereof (Turner–Bisset, 2001:147) impacts on the effectiveness of Geography

teaching across the prescribed sections of the syllabus.

Tackling teaching programmes with effectiveness would enable teachers of Geography to

examine all curriculum/Geography materials. The dearth of expertise in Geography causes a

barrier in the selection of teaching ideas and activities that eventually work counter-productively

(Turner–Bisset, 2001:148). Effective assessment practice is underpinned by the teacher’s

command of deep subject knowledge that would ensure the critical assessment of curriculum

materials. The command of deep-subject knowledge would enable the content teacher to judge

the appropriateness of optimal learning. The teachers’ expertise in the content affects the

teaching of concepts, skills and processes.

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The acquisition of this teaching power would enable the teacher to avoid providing corrupted

images of the subject/Geography.

The second dimension of curriculum knowledge focuses on the command of differentiated

subjects. The teacher’s command of integrated subjects is of critical importance for the

development and understanding of the whole curriculum. It explains how curriculum areas relate

to each other. The teacher, who commands the necessary knowledge of the integrated subjects

masters the key concepts, skills and processes of each subject critical for learners’ logistic

growth. The mastery of integrated subjects across grade curricula enables the classroom teacher

to identify individual learners’ talents across curricula links. The diagnostic teacher can guide

learners relevantly into different careers.

For the purposes of the research study, learners of Geography can be directed permanently in

respect of geography-based careers for their professional growth.

According to Ho (2010:20) and Cavanagh (2007:13), Geography is the one of the Geosciences

that is concerned about the earth, which is a fully integrated system of related sciences. The

concerned sciences are biology, agriculture, and others, which are sometimes taught in isolation.

An informed teacher of Geography can align her/his teaching with the many opportunities in the

Geography curriculum by teaching it across disciplinary approaches. The approach is pertinent to

the varied learners in terms of the activists, reflectors, pragmatists, theorists and the flexible ones

inclined to all learning styles.

Naish (1992:114) says that: “An across-the-curriculum approach embracing practitioners can

cater for the needs and the development of the abilities of diverse learners to optimise them

relevantly”. This suggests that the underperformance of Geography learners in grade 12 in

Limpopo could be attributed to teachers’ lack of expertise in integrated subjects. An acquisition

of geographical knowledge by learners equips them to “understand the earth and evaluate the

environmental and developmental challenges facing us” (Ho, 2010:20). McKay (1993:20) says it

is the expert Geography teacher’s responsibility to conscientise the learners of Geography in

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schools. Learners should know about the opportunities in geo-tourism and geo-heritage, which

could be threatened by vandalism, environmental degradation and neglect.

Cotton (1995) uses Koib’s theory (1984) on learning styles, which is highly relevant to the

research study; it is discussed as follows: Prior to discussing the individual theorists driving our

teaching and learning practices, the researcher indicates that the curriculum of Geography

comprises many geographical phenomena, content features underpinning natural features, or

landscapes, topographical pictures, graphics, etc. For all these facts/data to be meaningful to the

learners of geography, the skilful teaching of Geography is needed to unpack and present this to

the learners.

Cotton (1995:134-135) holds the theory that learners are active participants in learning. This

theorist terms them active learners, who are newly experience-based/ oriented. The learners are

enthused by enjoying involvement in things, as they are happening / unfolding; where they are

taking centre stage. The learners enjoy being involved in the company of other people working

collaboratively. The second group of learners is termed reflective learners. These learners are

characterised as cautious, thoughtful and low-profile learners; as they present themselves in the

learning context they are observing, and they are listening and watching attentively; while the

other peers are actively involved in the learning activities. The reflective learners get engaged in

the learning actively after they have listened to the information. They interact when they are fully

informed of the problem on which they should deliberate (Cotton, 1995:135).

The third group of learners are termed theorists (Cotton, 1995:136-137). This is a group of

abstract thinkers. These learners are enthused by getting involved in investigating

issues/problems; they operate in investigating issues/problems. They operate in accordance with

blueprints or by a set rules governing the game. They logically display their cognitive

knowledge. They employ tacitly relative concepts to tackle the task. The tacit application of

concepts demonstrates their learning development. The theorists employ symbols in their

labelling of the information, as well as general rules or interferences/theorems in their

methodological explorations of ideas, principles and their applications.

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The fourth group is comprised of the pragmatists. These derive their pleasure from learning by

trying out ideas in practice. These types of learners are hands-on or head-on enthusiasts to

challenges. They are experimental learners, who are not shunning at committing learning errors.

Cotton (1995:137) attests Dewey’s (1952) theory’s theme: “The learner works on real-life

problems, and learns from those who have solved the problems already.”

Cotton (1995:137) hastens to advance Dewey’s warning that: “However, there is an important

proviso: If you start from a sound basis of good practice, the student will learn to develop further

sound practice; but if you start from a basis of poor practice and unsound principles, then the

learner perpetuates [your] poor practice.”

The research study attests to the two views of these theorists because Geography results in

Limpopo’s grade 12 matriculants dwindling from 1999 to 2008. The poor performance seems to

be underpinned by the fact that the teachers of geography are somehow incompetent. Lastly,

Cotton (1995:138-139) discusses the theory of flexible learners. These learners are associated

with the acquisition of all the learning styles on which the researcher has deliberated. The

learners inclined to this theory are viewed as mature and independent. They are multi-skilled or

multi-blended. They combine activists, reflectors, theorists, and pragmatists into one. The

researcher could term them curricula geniuses. The guess is that these are a rare breed.

The frameworks for teaching held by Dale, Ferguson and Robin (1988:23-24) are relevant to the

investigation of barriers to Geography learning and teaching in Limpopo. Their quotation is apt

to the research study’s problem: “If teachers do not understand what learning is, and how it

happens, they are as likely to hinder as to help; and unless their intervention is timely, and their

exhortations are appropriate to the learner, they will be unhelpful.”

This quotation aptly highlights the theory of constructivism with particular reference to how the

teacher of Geography can provide opportunities for the learners of Geography by virtue of the

teacher’s command of deep knowledge of the subject to benefit the learners, so that they can

learn meaningfully. On the contrary, the teacher who does not command deep knowledge of

Geography becomes a barrier to the learners of the subject. The teacher becomes unhelpful to the

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learners, who are yearning to learn the subject, so that they can grow to be Geographers in the

future. These scholars (Dale, Ferguson & Robin, 1988:24-31) hold the view that the prescribed

material should be connected to the learner, who is looking for an answer to a question that

matters to the well-being of the learner. Dale et al. (1988:24) point out a challenge: Learners who

are helped by the ineffective teacher feel threatened. The threat of failure stops learners from

learning from the teacher, because the subject teacher does not live up to the learners’

expectations of the subject Geography. Learners are receptive in the learning of the subject,

when the subject teacher creates conducive opportunities for them. Obstructive and non-

conducive learning environments switch off the learning desire in the learners to learn the subject

(Dale et al, 1988:25, Hergenhahnn & Olson, 1997:2).

Dale et al. (1988:25) highlight in their theory of learning that effective teaching and learning

realisation is dependent on the subject teacher’s knowledge and using the learning material for

what it is intended for, as the theorist Cotton (1995:134-139) alluded to earlier on. Both Dale et

al. (1988:26) and Cotton (1995:134-139) emphasise the view that certain ideas and skills

presuppose benefits to some learners; while others disadvantage the learners. That means there

are ideas and skills that are not easily grasped and mastered by some groups of learners; while

others do benefit. Put simply, the activist–pragmatist learners do not enjoy equality with the

theorists from similar learning materials presented in the same teaching styles by the same

subject teacher.

The subject teacher can benefit all the learner types when his/her approaches, methods, and

styles are applied flexibly to suit all the learners holistically.

If the teacher of the subject does not take cognisance of the existence of multi-talented learners

in the classroom, that teacher is doomed to fail in teaching the learners. Dale et al. (1988:28)

hold the dictum that: “Whatever you are teaching, you are teaching yourself”.

The quotation reveals a deep educational philosophy. It implies that the teacher is part and parcel

of her/his learners; it means the learner is a replica of the teacher that produced the very learner.

The learner is learning about the teacher and from the teacher. Therefore, if the teacher applies

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efficacious teaching strategies in relation to the curriculum, this would result in producing

competent learners. The good product would uphold and perpetuate the good name of the

teacher. The bad product, on the contrary, would haunt the teacher perpetually. The question of

teachers’ self-development is in principle subject to the life-learning process. Self-development

in the curriculum equips the teacher with the relevant skills and strategies to redress curricular

shortcomings/barriers to teaching that subsequently impact negatively on learning. The end-

result thereof is poor performance in grade 12 Geography results. Dale et al. (1988:29) quote

Albert Einstein who said:

“The only rational method of educating is to be an example! If you can’t help it, be a

warning example.”

Einstein’s words simply mean that a balanced teacher/professional produces well-prepared

learners. The learners produced by a competent teacher manifest skills; and they demonstrate the

skills when life-situations arise. Conversely, learners who happen to be taught by ineffectual

teachers would show an inadequacy of the appropriate life-skills. Therefore, a capable teacher

protects, promotes and markets her/himself through the learners s/he produces. Teachers who are

excellent themselves in their teaching deserve to see excellence in their learners. They are

leading by example. Jude’s (2005:64) dictum sums it up: “Set the example that you want others

to follow, and sit back and reap the rewards.” Learners sing the praises of excellent teachers and

denounce the names of underperforming teachers. Consequently, learners are living testimonies

of their teachers outside the classroom.

Naish’s (ed.) (1992:177) theory on textbooks and users is as follows: “… textbooks, like any

tool, can only be as effective as the skill of their users, whether these be teachers or pupils.”

Naish (ed.) (1992:177) attests to Graves and Murphy’s (2000:229) theory on textbooks and

users. This theory puts it aptly, when it claims that a tool is grafted for an intended purpose to be

used by a skilful user to realise its objective. Sawyer (ed.) (2006:2-3) holds the view that there

are educational principles of which teachers should take cognisance, when it comes to learners

learning the basic facts. They are, firstly, the importance of a deeper conceptual understanding to

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be acquired by learners in the learning activity. The acquired expert knowledge would help the

learner to apply their knowledge pertinently to life situations; as they would pertain in various

ways (Sawyer, 2006:2). Secondly, it is a basic fact that focusing on learning, in addition to

teaching (Sawyer, 2006:2) necessitates that learners must not only learn deeper conceptual

understanding from teaching; but the learners must actively participate in their own learning. It is

incumbent upon the curriculum teacher to provide learners with the necessary techniques to

explore their learning. Thirdly, the teacher is obligated to create learning environments. The

teacher and managers of the school should provide the full range possible of learning to their

pupils. It is in good opportunities and facilities that learners would be able to apply expert deeper

conceptual understanding to the real problems of the world (Sawyer, 2006:2).

Fourthly, the teacher should recognise the importance of building on a learner’s prior knowledge

(Sawyer, 2006:2). It is critical to teachers to be conscious that learners come to their classes with

preconceptions of some facts, not empty-headed. Their preconceptions about the world are either

positive or negative; and therefore, classroom learning builds on the existing knowledge to

correct misconceptions and promote correct knowledge, in order to sustain learners’ survival in

the world. Fifthly, it is necessary to value the importance of reflection. The teacher must know

that s/he engages the learners in conversations and presentations to practise the acquired deeper

conceptual understanding in real-life situations on how to fend for themselves in facing life’s

challenges.

Quintana, Shin, Norris and Soloway (2006, in Sawyer [ed.] 2006:137) focus on the learner’s

understanding and thinking in their acquisition of knowledge. Learners are naturally inquisitive

in learning or the pursuit of knowledge. Learners, according to these scholars, pursue conviction

within themselves; and that is why they are eager to learn the facts. They should be convinced of

the meaning of the learned material. They should be able to convince an interlocutor about what

meaning they have derived from the content, and what value it has for their lives. The scholars

emphasize the fact that learners should discern the connectivity the learned content has in

relation to their context or environment. In whatever a learner is engaged, s/he should strive to

make sense or strike a balance with her/his environment, in order to survive mutually.

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That forms the essence of the learners’ cognitive construction in relation to the learned facts in

the learning situation. The learned facts should effect in learners conceptual changes to grow.

The cognitive constructions assist learners to assimilate and accommodate the concepts in the

schema construction and reflective abstraction level. The learner acquires knowledge of the

world through knowledge skills, in order to learn the subject – due to the lack of efficacious

strategies. Therefore, it is conclusive that unskilful teachers of Geography cannot create learning

opportunities for learners to learn independently and co-operate to benefit from the content in a

constructivist approach to optimise learning appropriately in the subject.

Kent, in Naish (ed.) (1992:178), goes further to deliberate critically on textbooks on any

prescribed curriculum of the DoE. This scholar holds the view that textbook knowledge can be

outdated or irrelevant to the lives of today’s learners. The view advocates that prescribed

material must cause the learners to assimilate and accommodate it in themselves. The acquired

knowledge finally is consolidated by the learners to form part and parcel of their being. Mutual

interaction promotes sustenance between the knower and the known (Quintina et al., 2006:137).

The acquired knowledge is used in the future when situations arise through appropriate

knowledge transfer pertinent to the current life situations.

The second view held by Kent, in Naish (ed.) (1992:178), is that the language of the textbook is

difficult to be read. The textual problems have do to with the concepts, long sentence or phrases,

the readability of the textbook and other complex features unfriendly to the learner/user of the

material (Naish, 1992:183). The implications are that second-language learners cannot cope with

difficult language compared to the ease of using a simpler language. Another learning difficulty

emanates from difficult learning passages. Learners cannot discern key points from chunks of

information borne in long sentences in a broader passage (Naish, 1992:186). The solution to the

learning barriers is dependent on the instructional help of the teacher. The teacher works with

learners on the text to overcome the experienced barrier (Naish, 1992:187). This strategy is not

without teaching and learning challenges, because its success depends on the expertise of the

teacher.

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The teacher should consequently command the necessary expertise to discern and identify any

barriers in the material in relation to the learning barriers of the learners. If the teacher is not

competent to handle the challenge, the learners are the losers and victims of the teachers’

shortcomings in the subject; and the learners would effectively become poor performers in the

subject. The question of literacy comes into the picture.

According to Sawyer (2006:300), the term literacy is defined as: “a repertoire of practices for

communicating and accomplishing goals in particular social and cultural contexts, which are

pertinent to [the] teaching and learning activities”. Teaching and learning activities are executed

and facilitated through the use of language to effect the knowledge acquisition in learners. Riet

and Heimburge (2006:199) state that literacy embraces reading, writing and oral language. For

the learner of any curriculum, in the applied sciences in particular, such learners must

demonstrate literacy in engagements to actualise deeper conceptual understanding of the realised

knowledge. Therefore, for the purposes of the study – on barriers to Geography learning and

teaching in Limpopo – It is critical that literacy mastery must be viewed as one of the

imperatives to be looked into. It is viewed as one of the suspected barriers to the attainment of

good performance by learners.

The theorists in Sawyer (ed.) (2006:302) propose three dimensions of literacy; but the

operational literacy is preferred for being pertinent to the research study; and this is defined as

follows: “Operational literacy, which includes competence with the tools, procedures, and

techniques involved in handling written language proficiency in communicating information to

be intelligible to the listeners and readers. .

The researcher views the quotation as significant to the study in relation to its characteristics.

These are defined as follows (Sawyer, 2006:302-303): The operational literacy underlines the

process of how the learners interpret new information, as well as how the learner assimilates and

accommodates the information/knowledge into her/his memory structures or schemata (Sawyer,

2006:303).

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It suggests, as Radnor (2002:14) and Seligmann (2011:13) maintain, that the use of the language

(English) as the medium of communication, forms one of the critical barriers to the learning and

teaching in grade 12 classes in Limpopo and beyond to the tertiary level. The learners are

obligated to command an understanding of the complex concepts of geography. They should be

able to operate in geographical situations in those concepts. They must be able to interpret and

infer information from passages of the textbooks. The interpretation is underpinned by the skills

needed to recognise words that form links in the learning activities. The learners must

demonstrate the ability to read between the lines and come up with the facts, and how those facts

relate to the learners in a clear manner to the reader/listener in the presentation or conversation.

The conviction effected by the learner would demonstrate that the learner interacts meaningfully

with the learning content in the learning situation (Sawyer, 2006:303).

Focusing on language in education, Vermeulen (2000:15) agrees with Vygotsky (1995:181), who

stated that: “Language gives us the control of our actions by breaking the stimulus-response

chain; it helps us to distance ourselves from the experienced reality and reflect upon it on a

conceptual level; and finally, the literacy skills that we acquire in school open up a whole new

world of dialogue, ideas, experiences and possibilities – beyond the space and time limitations of

our physical existence … A limited knowledge of the language of teaching and learning

undoubtedly contributes to a lack of academic involvement (Feuerstein, 1979:51); because

language as a means of communication carries the whole teaching procedure.”

The intellect is formed at school in the first place, by securing learning with insight. For Gaunter,

Estes and Schwab (1995:97), to know a subject is to participate in a specific way of thinking, to

become disciplined in thought with other people, whose thought processes are no different from

one’s own. In order to learn with insight, the learner requires from the teacher an accurate

explanation of the concepts and the problem-solving skills. In the process of concept

development, learners learn to think about their own thinking; and they understand how concepts

originate.

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The researcher holds the view that the quotation used above forms the basis for the justification

for the investigation of the existence of barriers to Geography teaching and learning in grade 12

in Limpopo. The researcher views the quotation as embracing all the pertinent factors impacting

on expert teaching and effective learning of Geography. The focus is on how information or

content knowledge is conceptualised through the language of teaching and learning. James

(2010:34) says that a quality teacher effects quality teaching. Quality teaching produces

knowledgeable learners. The expert knowledge of the subjects forms the core of teaching and

learning. The curriculum teacher’s mastery of the language of the curriculum/Geography enables

the teacher to implement effective and efficient teaching strategies that effect meaningful

learning in the learners.

In the same vein, the language competence commanded by the teacher of Geography enables the

teacher to enrich the learners with the necessary skills and strategies to learn independently to

acquire some knowledge of geography. The skilled learners would be able to participate actively

in co-operative learning activities. The learners can manage to put ideas and experiences

intelligently across to their peers through the appropriation of listening, speaking, reading,

writing and, mathematical literacy skills. Through the employment of explanatory and

interpretive abilities, learners can solve geographical problems in real-life situations.

Krajcik and Blumenfeld, in Sawyer (ed.) (2006:317), subscribe to the theoretical framework of

project-based learning. Project-based learning was initially advocated by John Dewey (1959) and

supported by Bransford, Brown and Cocking (1999). Krajcik and Blumenfeld (in Sawyer,

2006:318) build on active construction, situated learning, social interactions, and cognitive tools.

They hold the view, firstly, that the learners’ optimal deep understanding takes effect when they

(learners) actively construct meaning evoked by experiences and interactions in the learning

situation (Sawyer, 2006:318). Theorists (such as Sawyer, 2006:318) attest to Cotton’s (1995:134-

135) view that learners are active participants in their learning.

The active construction theory is the opposite of the Instructionist theory that is underpinned by

the subjection of learners to passivity in the learning situation. The Instructionist approach

accords teachers a central role to dispense information (Sawyer, 2006:318). The active-

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construction approach promotes learning opportunities for learners by exposing learners to real-

life situations and challenges. The learners in facing the challenges appropriate existing

knowledge in their memory structures or schemata, in order to survive the challenges; as the

learner is grappling with the experienced challenges. The learner learns extensively how to use

the acquired skills or competencies pertinent to obtaining experiences in real-life situations

(Sawyer, 2006:319).

The active-construction theory is relevant to this research; since Geography education or learning

and teaching are practice-based or practice-oriented. The curriculum is environment-based from

the physical, social, cultural, economic, political, ecological perspectives in learning Geography.

The immediate surrounding is a learning object or material to be observed and mutually

interacted with – for the realisation of a balanced survival. Learners learn co-operatively and

experientially; when they are exploring the real-life situations connected to their wellbeing. Their

connected learning with the environment develops and enriches their interrelationship with the

environment. The learners develop a caring attitude to the immediate world; and they learn to

value it by keeping it clean and conserved. The learners acquire and develop skills and strategies

to keep nature in a good state, in which the learners’ life is guaranteed and safeguarded.

Secondly, Krajcik and Blumenfeld (in Sawyer, 2006:319), go on to say that optimal learning

occurs in a pertinent real-world context. The view is phenomenological in its inclination – in the

sense that learners learn geography practically in a suitable geographical environment rich in

observable geographical phenomena. Situated learners interact with geographical reality. The

reality presents to the learners its value and meaning borne in the learning tasks performed by the

learners. Once the learners of Geography derive value and meaning from the content in the

learning situation, they can transfer it whenever related or similar situations in real life arise.

Therefore, the researcher can say newly acquired geographical knowledge is generalised

appropriately to related geographical situations. Skilful learners can relevantly relate their prior

knowledge and experiences to new situations (Sawyer, 2006:319).

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Thirdly, these scholars highlight the social interaction idea, which signifies the importance of co-

operative learning. Co-operative learning is useful in the learning of Geography; where learners

embark on tasks or projects in a collective way. Learners construct shared understandings

through debating ideas in a community of learners (Chaille, 2008:4-5). The learning incorporates

the principles of learning Geography by focusing on striking mutual relationships and respect for

international communities politically, economically, culturally, and legally (Sawyer, 2006:319-

319).

Fourthly, cognitive tools (Sawyer, 2006:319-320) are critical in learning deeper conceptual

understanding; and their acquisition broadens the scope of learning in children. Learners rich in

geographical knowledge can manipulate and handle data at their disposal in the research

situation; they can evaluate, interpolate, and synthesise data by the appropriation of pertinent

tools to arrive at solutions to the targeted problem.

The aspects of motivation and cognitive engagement in learning environments form, according

to Blumenfeld, Kempler and Krajcik (in Sawyer, 2006:475), an educative basis for learning

sciences; as far as the learning and teaching of geography are concerned. The scholars argue that

the effect of cognitive engagement is underpinned by the application of cognitive, metacognitive

and volitional strategies to promote learners’ understanding of the content. In the employment of

the metacognitive strategies of the curriculum, the learner is able to set learning goals, plan how

to attain the goals, come up with own self-monitoring strategies, ensure that s/he monitors

effectively her/his learning; and lastly evaluates the effectiveness of own learning, whether there

is any desirable progress made.

Having evaluated the level of progress attained, the learner employs redress to the challenges

necessary to improve or sustain the acquired learning knowledge.

These scholars indicate that the key to learning is the effective level of motivation in the learner.

Motivation is viewed as the driving force to realise learning in learners in Geography, or other

related curricula. The Geography learner must have a sense of value to engage in the subject. If

the sense of value is not obtained, it becomes a barrier for the learner to continue to engage in

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learning Geography. The same motivation underpinned by value for the curriculum encourages

enthused learners to concentrate on particular lessons on a particular topic in the learning

environment. A Geography learner must be captivated by a topic in time and in space. The level

of captivation enhances the level of understanding and assimilation and accommodation of the

knowledge in the cognition of the learner (Sawyer, 2006:476). The acquisition of knowledge

through cognitive engagement is effected by the conception of value that begets competence in

Geography.

The acquisition of geographical competence is effected by expert teaching in the

subject/Geography. It is the proficient teacher of Geography who can provide the learners with

the learning competencies borne in teaching/instruction strategies and the skills that result in

deeper conceptual understanding and development. It is the expert teacher who masters the

ability to break down learning content to the most understandable level of activities – in order to

be learner-friendly and to thereby optimise the learners’ knowledge in Geography (Sawyer,

2006:477).

The aspect of relatedness or co-operative learning boosts learning in the learning community or

society and in the learning environment. Learners’ learning of Geography is underpinned by the

adoption of the principle that geography promotes the sense of expressions of respect, caring,

well-being, development in learners’ as committed members to the global community. The

realisation of the sense of relatedness in learners enhances in them the concept of autonomy as an

opportunity. The opportunity is nurtured by teachers by employing efficacious teaching

strategies towards the learners. It is the competent subject teacher that promotes learning

autonomy or independent learning skills in learners (Sawyer, 2006:477). Effectively taught

Geography learners, according to the scholars (Sawyer, 2006:477) respond to real-life challenges

by displaying skills that provide solutions to the geographical challenges to sustaining life.

The accomplishment of autonomy or independent learning by learners of the curriculum of

Geography should enable them to carry out any set goal for inquiry into any problem of concern

in Geography. Informed learners would be able to demonstrate their skills to analyse and

interpret geographical data with great effect in learning situations via scientific methods. They

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ably demonstrate literacy and numeracy in their data manipulation and analysis (Sawyer,

2006:450-482). If the converse to literacy and numeracy in geography learning exists, it would

be indicative of the existence of barriers to Geography learning and teaching.

The constructivist theorists view map analysis or interpretation as part of practical Geography

teaching and learning. Of importance is the issue of map language, which, according to Burton

and Pitt (2000:2), must be taken care of in the learning situation. In their foreword, these scholars

emphasise the acquisition of geographical/knowledge, skills, attitudes and values in Geography

learning and teaching by the teacher and the learner for practical purposes. The teacher must be

knowledgeable in map teaching and analysis interpretation (Campbell, 2001: 2-3).

The teacher of Geography must provide the learners with the pertinent curriculum-learning

skills, such as logic manifested in language use at complex levels of learning. Learners must

apply critical and creative thinking in interacting with the facts or the learning content. They

must be able to follow instructions, predict, analyse, compare, organise the learning aspects or

activities tasked to perform with insight and comprehension. These scholars maintain that

mastery of the skills or activities mentioned above is critical for learners to manage the daunting

and complex tasks of map-work learning. Map work literacy and numeracy command in learners

manifests in the ability to find data, and measuring, recognising and interpreting data

independently in collective, learning groups (Burton & Pitt, 2000:1).

The learners are expected to read types of maps very intelligently with regard to the symbols in

respect of buildings, beacons and wind pumps in the commercial corporate world. Furthermore,

literate and numerate learners would be in a position to identify and indicate line symbols

signifying transport networks, such as roads, railways and power lines; enterprises area symbols

will be pointed out revealing cultivation, woodlands and water pans. Underpinning the

information-bearing features advanced above, is learners’ knowledge of colour groups, which are

part and parcel of geographical knowledge.

Proficient learners would be effective and efficient in the use of the language of teaching and

learning (English). The informative learners would be able to tell or inform their teachers on how

86

contours are identified or viewed – characterised by the brown colour. Secondly, rivers, marshes

or vleis, reservoirs and canals are designated by the blue colour. Thirdly, the green colour

symbolises vegetation for different purposes, like golf courses and woodlands; black signifies

construction features, and in particular, bridges, telephone lines and mass-dumping areas, like

mines, as well as dam walls. On the other hand, symbols of grey would be identified as fences

and built-up urban areas. Finally, the red and pink colours bear national, arterial and main roads,

marine lights and light houses. They are intended to signify international boundaries, as well

(Burton & Pitt, 2000:2).

Figure 2.2 bears map analysis/interpretation with specific reference to practice of manifesting

barriers to Geography learning and teaching in grade 12 in Limpopo.

Figure 2.2 Map analysis/interpretation of map-work

1. Conversion of scale: In South Africa, we make use of topographical maps, based on a scale

of 1:50 000 and orthophoto maps, based on a scale of 1:10 000. Learners are taught to

memorize the conversions of the two scales, e.g. 1mm represents 50m; or 1cm represents

500cm. These conversions are spoon-fed to the learners. Learners need not be given

formulae; but they should be guided to derive their own interpretations.

2. Interpretation of map references: Map references are displayed on the maps supplied by

the Government, e.g. 2826BB VIRGINIA, where 28 stands for 280S and 26 stands for 26

0E

(latitude and longitude, respectively). BB stands for 0’S latitude and 45’E longitude. The

shaded reference is where Virginia is situated.

3. Magnetic Bearing: Magnetic declination is displayed alongside or below the supplied

topographical map. Mean magnetic declination 190o 32’ West of True North and mean

annual change 6’ westwards. These are the words that always accompany the magnetic

declination. The teacher may pose a question such as: “What will be the magnetic declination

for 2007?” The answer should be like this:

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Difference in years = 6 years

Magnetic declination for 6 years (6 x 6’) = 36’ West

Magnetic declination for 2007 = 19o 32’ W

36’ W_____

20o 08’ W

Many educators cannot convert degrees to minutes or minutes to degrees. When moving

eastwards, there is always subtraction. When moving westwards, there is always addition.

2826AA

2826AB

2826BA

2826BB

2826AC

2826AD

2826BC

2826BD

2826CA

2826CB

2826DA

2826DB

2826CC

2826CD

2826DC

2826DD

4. Gradient: Measurement of the slope depends on the horizontal distance and the vertical

difference. Two places, which are 8cm apart are given with the following altitudes: 1320m

and 1344m.

Horizontal distance = 8cm x 500m = 400m

Vertical difference = 1344m – 1420m = 24m

Gradient = 24/4000 = 1:167

(Burton & Pitt, 2000:6-7).

26E

27E

29S

26E 151 30

1 45

1

451

301

151

28S 27E 45

1 30

1 15

1

451

301

151

29S

28S

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Figure 2.3 Distance Calculations

Table 2.1 provides contrasting performance levels of grade 12 learners in Geography higher

grade in Limpopo. Firstly, from 1999 to 2006, the results were disastrous in the subject. The

performance average was 29.9% in the period under review. Secondly, in the subsequent three

years, the pass rate was 60.3% in 2007, 77.0% in 2008, and 64.9% in 2009. For all the years in

the spotlight (1999-2009), the performance can be collectively quantified at the average of

37.4%. This performance is below par, according to the set DoE’s National Standard of 60%

pass bracket level. The Figures 2.3 and 2.4 bear testimony to the provincial performance. The

researcher assumes there must be underlying factors at play regarding the teaching and learning

practices and approaches to Geography in Limpopo classrooms.

It is assumed that the poor performance in the period in the spotlight was influenced by the

teachers’ approach to instruction. The instruction was coupled with learners’ rote learning of the

subject Geography. The teaching and learning activity of the subject was the converse to the

principle that:

Geography teaching and learning activity is outdoor context-based. “Geography is supposed to

be a live subject” (Kent, 2002:4). Geography teaching and learning activity affect every walk of

life, be it dressing, business setting, residence setting/establishing, airport building, etc. The

latter activity is dictated by the wind directions and the levels conducive to flight networks.

On the one hand, the researcher could argue that based on the performance of the last three years

in the time-line (2007-2009), it would seem the Geography teachers were teaching effectively. It

1344cm

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would seem that the teachers have employed effective data interpretation practices regarding

diagrams, as opposed to mere rote learning. The teachers skilled the learners on drawing-based,

map-work learning by using a technological approach in the laboratory and home-based TV sets

during weather forecast. If would seem that learners were taught to use calculators to store

information to retrieve for use in the classroom for practical purposes, instead of mere rote

learning. The learners, through the work done by the Geography teachers, could apply practically

ratios, degrees, kilometres/grams – numeracy skills to interpret the data. The acquisition of

numeracy skills appears to have been applied successfully during 2007-2009. The performance

indicates that the principle that the wisdom of Geography being a touch manipulation-based

subject was realised.

The question of numeracy skills is very critical to Geography teaching. Teachers must not

memorise mathematical calculations; but they must master them. They must pass the

mathematical skills to learners, to be able to apply the knowledge appropriately to map-work

type questions, in order for them to be able to perform well. Learners who command maths

literacy can answer questions based on ratios, degrees, kms or graphs, contrary to those ones who

use mere rote learning. Such learners cannot approach questions framed differently by the

examiners, as is the case in learner assessments designed to test their understanding. On the other

hand, the researcher assumes that the conceptual barrier that seems to have marred teachers’

teaching and learners’ learning seemed to have eased in the period 2007-2009.

The numeracy for the subject Geography is characterised by the use of many concepts and

phrases, which need to be mastered and appropriated pertinently by the teacher and the learners.

Setati (2011:11) accentuates that English literacy and mathematical literacy are critical to the

learner, if they want to perform optimally in maths and Geography. Therefore, it is incumbent

upon the teachers to present and administer the subject (Geography) practically/experimentally

in the classroom-learning environment, as opposed to the theoretical presentation of the subject.

Learners must learn Geography through field excursions, during which relevant questionnaires

about the touched/visualized phenomena like caves, dongas, rock features, cloud formations, etc.

must be classified and identified. Learners must be engaged in practical activities where, over a

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specified period, they record the weather patterns of a city, regional temperatures and wind

directions, rainfall patterns and ranges.

Such practical lessons would remain in the learners’ minds by virtue of the meaning they draw

from the live phenomena impacting on their real-life experiences.

Over and above that, the acquisition of practical skills would enable learners to answer questions

on factors affecting the question of rural settlements, as well as urban settlements (Swanevelder

et al., 2004:211). Well-trained teachers would be able to teach learners to provide evidence from

given map(s) to show that a certain place is dysfunctional: learners would be able to answer the

question to name and explain a dominant settlement pattern in another place provided in a given

map. They would be able to go further to describe discerned physical factors, which influenced

the choice of a particular/site for another place in question.

Further, the learners would be able to foresee environmental problems associated with arable

farming in the named place in the map, using the data provided on the map. The learners would

be able, by their commanded linguistic literacy, to put their thoughts across intelligibly to the

reader. They would be successful in their communication by virtue of their command of the

related Geography-based conceptual abilities. Therefore, it seems to the researcher that the poor

performance registered in 1999-2006 examinations seems to have been as a result of a lack of

language literacy, among other critical factors, in teaching and learning. The converse

performance of the years 2007-2009 justifies the above argument.

The assertion will be confirmed or rejected in Chapter 4, when the collected data are interpreted

and analysed in terms of the problem under investigation.

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Figure 2.4 on the time-line of performance is presented next.

Figure 2.4 Time-line of performance

According to the figures in Figure 2.4, from 2000 till 2007, Geography learners in Limpopo were

underperforming. The pass rate was below average (50%) for all these years. For the period 2008

- 2010, there wa a significant improvement in the grade 12 results for Limpopo province. For

these years, Limpopo managed to score above average.

The average pass rate for 2011 was = 411.8 = 37.44%.

4


The researcher explored the literature to acquire knowledge on Geography learning and teaching

underpinning grade 12 learners’ performance in the Limpopo Province. The scholarly literature

and specific researched works on the question provided critical data, which comprised the

pinnacle of the study, as shown in Figures 2.3 and 2.4. The literature findings will be confirmed

or rejected in Chapter 4 by the responses of the respondents to the individual barriers under

investigation.

X = Time in years

Y = Student pass rate annual (year)

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CHAPTER 3

THE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 OVERVIEW

The researcher undertook to investigate barriers to Geography learning and teaching in grade 12

classrooms in the Limpopo Province, because of the decline in pass rates during the period 1999

to 2011, as evidenced in Figure 2.4. In pursuit of investigating the problem of the study, four

critical questions were addressed. They are as follows:

Do Geography teachers have the relevant expertise/proficiency in the subject and the LoLT

to accomplish the desired teaching and learning?

Do learners have enough skills to use the LoLT in their learning of Geography?

Do the English and Geography textbook levels encourage learners to learn?

What influences Geography teachers to code-switch from the LoLT into the MT; and what

consequences does this practice have for the learners?

The reviewed literature partially addresses these questions. Essien (2010:32-34) states that code-

switching by Geography teachers and their learners is regularly used in the classroom/learning

environments. The practice is a consequential barrier to the curricula of second-language learners

(English). This barrier is also reflected in the learning of Geography in the Limpopo Province.

The second-language learners’ hurdle in learning geography is characterized by constraints, such

as Geographical concepts underpinned by difficulty of the language itself, whereby the concepts

are conveyed (Essien, 2010:34). Essien (2010:34) claims that learners underachieve in matric

examinations (mathematics), with Geography as a case in point in this study, because the LoLT

serves as a constraint to second-language learners. Essien (2010:34 aptly puts it this way:

“…underachievement in matric examinations

(Mathematics) in South Africa has been found to be

more prevalent amongst [those] learners, whose

English language [is used] less frequently at home

(SimKMS in Taylor, Muller &Vinjevold, 2003) than in

areas where English is more frequently used at home.

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Mathematics educators dealing with learners, whose

first language is not the language of instruction, thus,

need to be conscious of the complex process of not

learning a second language (Cuevas, 1984); but also

the even more complex process of learning

(mathematics) in a foreign language”.

Essien’s informative quotations relate precisely to the learning constraints to Geography

learning, with specific reference to learners’ underachievement in grade12 Geography

examinations in the Limpopo Province (Aldous, 2004:65).

The researcher was prompted to carry out the research having observed the ongoing poor

performance in the subject. The researcher’s concern was based on the fact that the researcher

had an interest in Geography teachers’ practice – and specifically in Geography classrooms. The

focus was on teaching behaviours linked with the learning of Geography in context (Merriam,

1998:7). In order to observe teachers’ practice, the researcher had to do fieldwork in Limpopo’s

rural classrooms, in order to witness teachers teaching practically in context for data-gathering

purposes. The researchers’ exposure to live-classroom practice in depth enabled the researcher to

describe in a non-biased manner their attitudes of teaching and learning the subject.

That subsequently would yield the results relavent to the question of the poor performance

pursued in the investigation (Lichtman, 2010:41-42).

The researcher’s ultimate objective for investigating the barriers to Geography learning/teaching

was to acquire new ways of teaching learners Geography, in order to realize good learner

performance in Geography in the future (Magare, Kitching & Roos, 2010: 52-63). Having stated

the objectives of the research, the researcher considered the choice of research design and

methodology; this enabled the researcher to gather the data specifically focusing on answering

the research questions (Drew, Hardman & Hosp, 2008:21).

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3.2. RESEARCH DESIGN AND PURPOSE

The researcher considered the choice of survey design, which is qualitative, explorative and

descriptive in approach (Mertens, 2010:177, McMillan, 2000; 272). According to Vanderstoep

and Johnston (2009:165), this type of qualitative research serves to enable the researcher to

articulate qualitatively the question of barriers to Geography learning and teaching in grade 12 in

the Limpopo Province. It is clear that the Geography teachers are at the centre of the problem of

barriers to learning and teaching. The researcher asserts that Geography teachers cannot be

isolated from the pass-rate expectations, which are cardinal to their professional roles and

accountability to the public.

The researcher had to ask Geography teachers whether they (the teachers) believed in the

benefits of supplementing the difficult English and text level for the second-language learners to

learn with ease, in order to optimize their performance. The researcher also had to ask whether

they (the teachers) embrace code-switching from LoLT into MT in the teaching and learning in

Geography classrooms with the intention of assisting the learners to understand and perform, as

expected of them in examinations. Did the teachers value the implementation of pedagogical

knowledge and assessment strategies to realize better learners’ pass rates in Geography

examinations? Do Geography teachers have the conviction that they should create opportunities

for learners to acquire Geographical knowledge and skills, to enable them to attain better pass

rates in examinations?

Before looking into the questions posed above, the researcher consulted the literature on research

designs used in education. Vanderstoep and Johnston (2009:165) say:

“Qualitative research focuses on the meaning of the

experiences by exploring how people define,

describe and metaphorically make sense of these

experiences.”

These scholars sum up the core of the qualitative method as focusing on understanding in depth

the view point of participants to shed light on the question the researcher pursues, in order to

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arrive at a scientific conclusion/ answer to the research question (Vanderstoep & Johnston,

2009:167, Barrow & Micburn,1990: 236). The final stage of the research used the quantitative

method, to express the participants’ responses mathematically; since it is handy in the data

analysis and interpretation stage (Gall, Gall, & Borg, 2010:115).

According to Gorard and Taylor (2004:47), the literature is the most used approach, which

combines evidence from several sources/studies. This approach considers using previous works

in the same field as the researcher’s problem. The researcher used the relevant evidence gathered

through the literature, in order to shed light on the problem under investigation. Gorard and

Taylor (2004:47) state that:

“All researchers read and use the research of others.”

The principle is that researchers use peer-reviewed papers, books, previous reviews and face-to-

face communication with the experts. They read sources on theory, practice and methods, as well

as the evidence available to them (Gorard and Taylor 2004:47). The reason for pursuing the

pertinent literature and viewing television, listening to experts deliberating on specific

educational issues, is to equip the researcher with strategies to answer the questions, and to

ensure that the investigation is pursued relevantly and comprehensively.

Vanderstoep and Johnston (2009:166) highlight the bottom line of the qualitative researcher as

follows:

“A qualitative perspective assumes that knowledge

is constructed through communication and

interaction; as such, knowledge is not ‘out there’,

but within the perceptions and interpretations of the

individual. In short, knowledge is constructed or

created by people. A qualitative perspective

assumes that you cannot analyse and understand an

entity by analysis of its parts; rather, you must

examine the larger content, in which people and

knowledge function.”

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Analysing inductively, the purpose of qualitative research from the quotation above, is to

understand in-depth the feeling/attitudes of the research participants on the question of the

researcher (Vanderstoep & Johnston, 2009:138). It is contrary to a preconceived idea held by a

researcher going into a research project – expecting what to find from the content in context. On

the contrary, Vanderstoep and Johnston (2009:168) say that the qualitative research

advocates/holds the view that:

“Let the data ‘speak for themselves’; and try to

avoid going into the study with a preconceived idea

of what to find.”

Pertinent to the questions underpinning assumed barriers to Geography learning and teaching

stated in Chapter 1 and the overview of this chapter, it is in principle scientifically unacceptable

to take barriers as assumed to be holding weight – without having subjected them to scientific

tools for gathering the targeted data and analysing them by applying appropriate scientific

techniques. Peculiar attitudes displayed by the sampled participants were observed in context –

as displayed authentically without the researcher’s manipulation or hindrance thereof.

3.3. SAMPLING PROCEDURES

The researcher was granted permission to conduct the research study in the Limpopo province,

and was provided with statistics and results regarding Geography candidates. The researcher has

used the purposeful sampling procedure in the five districts constituting the Limpopo Provincial

Government Department of Education, in order to reach larger population representation. The

districts are: Capricorn, Mopani, Sekhukhune, Vhembe and Waterberg. With respect to their

locality, most of the learner population use their mother tongue and experience the LoLT

(English) as a learning barrier.

The five districts that constitute the Limpopo Department of Education are as follows:

Capricorn district consists of 33 circuits; Mopani district comprises 24 circuits; Greater

Sekhukhune consists of 33 circuits; Vhembe district consists of 27 circuits; and Waterberg is

formed by 18 circuits. There are 135 circuits across the 5 districts in the province (Figure 2.1).

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The targeted Geography learning area’s population during the period under review (1999-2009)

was 442 732, who wrote Geography higher grade (1999-2007) and 2008-2009 National

Curriculum Statement (NCS), respectively at 1700 Geography-offering secondary schools in the

province. According to the small-size sampling technique of Kreicie and Morgan (1970:607-

610), 407 learners and 16 subjects teachers from 16 Geography-offering secondary schools were

sampled. From each representative school in each district, 76 learners were targeted (Mulder,

1982:191).

The purpose of choosing purposive sampling is that the researcher wanted to understand on a

large scale the conditions under which learners are taught Geography – and specifically in rural

schools in Limpopo. The researcher wanted to understand, through observing the teachers,

teaching practically in Geography classrooms; while the learners participated in those lessons in

which they were involved. The overriding rationale was to experience particular

behaviour/attitudes occurring in context that influence learner’s performance in Geography in

grade 12 examinations.

The emphasis of site selection was that the researcher was interested in observing teachers of

Geography teaching their learners in classrooms applying their methods and teaching strategies,

coupled with respective assessments and recording procedures. The researcher was interested to

know the teachers’ attitudes during teaching, and the learners’ reaction to the teaching. The

teachers’ and learners’ interaction would inform the researcher of how the teaching and learning

constraints, as outlined in the overview of this chapter, impacted on their teaching and learning

context. That is: Did teachers find it difficult to simplify the LoLT to learners during the lesson?

How did learners respond using the LoLT? Did the teacher code-switch? Did the teacher

simplify geographical concepts embedded in difficult English (McMillan & Schumacher,

2001:433-434)? Through applications of the constructed tools to respective participants, the

researcher was able to determine which would saliently emerge at the analytical stage of the

gathered data concerning the question under investigation.

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3.4. DATA-COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS

Griffiths (2008:35) says methodology functions to help the researcher to go out there in targeted

or focused contexts to get specific knowledge from specific participants on the specific

questions. The researcher applied this particular technique to gather the data to study teacher and

learner participants’ behaviour in Geography classrooms. The aim of the study was to observe

their behaviour and enquire of them how they felt about their learning in Geography. The

researcher used questionnaires for teachers and learners, respectively, and interviews to

supplement the questionnaires intended for the teachers of Geography. The aim was to ensure the

validity and reliability of the tools for gathering the intended data, and to close any gaps that

might have been created during the administration of the questionnaire (Cangelosi, 2000:67,

181).

The observation technique was employed on-site, in order to guarantee the validity of the data,

and also as a means of triangulation that would supplement the data gathering during the

employment of the first two techniques. Documentary analysis was another critical technique

that was applied to inform how the subject teachers kept their details and portfolios regarding the

finer details of their professional assessments and evaluations in class. According to Mertler

(2009:106-107), during observations and documentary analysis, teachers are obliged to

constantly observe, take notes on their learners’ learning behaviour in context. The adopted

approaches/techniques of research above are collectively termed research methods/triangulation.

This is a way of combining methods (Gorard & Taylor, 2004:43).

Mertens (2010:293) quotes Tashakkori and Creswell (2007:4), defining mixed methods as:

“Research in which the investigator collects and

analyses [the] data, integrates the finding[s] and

draws inferences, using both qualitative and

quantitative approaches or methods in a single study

or program of inquiry.”

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The mixed methods were adopted to answer the research questions that the researcher was

pursuing to solve his (single) study problem of barriers to Geography learning and teaching in

grade 12 in the Limpopo Province. The researcher employed the mixed-methods approach;

because this provided richer opportunities for the researcher to gather the data. The opportunities

were to incorporate pertinent techniques, which were from both the quantitative and qualitative

research approaches – and to thereby answer questions that a single method could not answer

(Mertens, 2010:294). The researcher chose to employ unstructured/semi-structured observations

to collect the data on teaching and learning in rural contexts. The researcher used the technique

of note-taking to collect the qualitative data. This type of technique for data gathering from

actual learning behaviour is crucial for data gathering. This is because the researcher had the

opportunity to write down what actually took place in the specific contexts without prejudice.

The researcher did not put oral questions to the learners; as this would have been

disadvantageous; because the learners could not report on themselves. The researcher recorded

what he saw – without being critical of the observations – lest this would unduly influence the

observations (Mertler, 2009:109).

Merriam (1998:7) views the researcher as the primary instrument or initiator for the data

collection and analysis. The view is based on the fact that it involves the researcher’s physical

ability to do fieldwork and collect the data needed. In compliance with the advocacy of Merriam

(1998:7), the researcher physically went to the subjects in their operational contexts, in order to

observe their actual behaviour and attitudes. The researcher employed the inductive strategy to

build abstractions and to construct concepts, based on the classroom acts in relation to the

teaching and learning behaviours of teachers and learning in Geography. In the final analysis of

the research product, the researcher used the descriptive methods in supplementing the inductive

approach.

The reason for this was that in qualitative research, the qualitative method comes in handy to

interpret the participants’ responses expressed in degrees mathematically. The mathematical

expression makes sense to construct a bigger picture of the consequences of the displayed

behaviour regarding the barriers/constraints in Geography learning and teaching. The

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mathematical expressions of occurrences of responses to the items in the questionnaire probing

the profiled, expressed the degrees of prevalence of each barrier. It elucidated the holistic

existence of barriers to Geography teaching and learning, resulting in learners’

underachievement in the examinations.

According to Punch (2009:290), the rationale for using the mixed-method approach is as follows:

“The fundamental rationale [in] mixed methods

research is that we can learn more about our

research topic if we can combine the strengths of

qualitative research with the strengths of

quantitative research, while compensating at the

same time for the weakness of each method. This

has been called the fundamental principle of mixed-

method research” (Johnson & Onwueg-Buzie,

2004:18).

The quotation is apt; in that the mixed-method employment granted the researcher opportunities

to gather critical data comprehensively on the identified problem, and to arrive at a solution. The

application of triangulation methods could only be used through the use of all approaches and

techniques addressing all the underpinning research questions stated in the overview.

Newby (2010:651) attests to Punch (2009:290), by advancing a constructivist view regarding the

researcher’s question as follows:

“…A theoretical perspective that presents learning

as a process, in which we build an understanding of

the world (our reality) out of our experiences of

functioning in that world. In terms of research, it

implies that we should adopt an interpretivist

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……approach to understand the world within which

people operate.”

In gathering the desired data, the researcher had to observe how learners reacted to lessons

presented by teachers in LoLT; and also how teachers responded to the LoLT when teaching

Geography. This was categorised into professional, material content, language level, MT

interference, and learners’ perception, as well as meaning realization of the content in a rural

context.

3.5. THE DATA-COLLECTION PROCESS

The data collection comprised a process of planning, designing and sampling, which resulted in

the collection of raw data on the problem. It was the way whereby the researcher came into

contact with real people operating in the context of the activities and attitudes displayed. All of

these were executed central to the research question, in order to answer the research questions.

That is, the designed instruments were specifically meant to focus on the inquiry, and to gather

the data on what the researcher wanted to know and understand as constraints/barriers to

Geography learning and teaching in specified contexts – resulting in learners’ underachievement

in the subject.

The instruments used identified earlier on comprised questionnaires, in-depth interviews (face-

to-face question-and-answer process), observations, documentary analysis, and teacher journals,

school journals and learner journals; they were dealt with individually at this level.

It was incumbent upon the researcher to obtain approval from the authorities in the Limpopo

Department of Education to conduct this research in their schools. The approval was sought in a

letter issued by the research unit of the University of Limpopo – introducing and sanctioning the

researcher as a bona fide research student of the Limpopo Department of Education (LDE). The

researcher was then introduced by letter to all the relevant provincial levels of education. The

researcher’s questionnaires were accompanied by a letter assuring the principals of compliance

with the rules and regulations of the LDE, regarding research ethics.

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The researcher informed the respective participants on the aims, purpose and likely publication

of the research data contributed by them. Another critical point was that the participants gave

their consent, before they participated in the information sharing. The aim of informing

participants in the undertaking was in compliance with the research principle that the participants

have a right to withdraw from participating; or they have a right to remain anonymous (Lowe,

2007:19-20). According to Lichtman (2010:54-55), the participants’ privacy, confidentiality and

anonymity were guaranteed by getting them to sign an informed consent form that explained

these ethical issues.

Over and above the said principles above, the researcher was obliged to inform the participants

of the nature of the study; so that they could choose whether or not to participate (Lichtman

2010:55). It was critical of the researcher to maintain and sustain rapport and friendliness, in

order to ensure the disclosure of information from the participants. Intrusiveness by the

researcher into personal matters of the participants was avoided at all costs, to circumvent any

withdrawal of the participants from providing the needed responses to the focused questions of

this research study (Lichtman, 2010:56-57).

3.5.1 The Participants

Based on the previously mentioned barriers to Geography learning and teaching in grade 12 in

the Limpopo Province, the questionnaires were prepared and distributed to 407 representative

Geography learners and 16 Geography teachers in five different districts of the Limpopo

Province. The teachers and learners voluntarily agreed to participate in the research. The

questionnaires were developed in three parts predominantly for the teachers. The questionnaires

sought biographic, academic and professional information from the teachers. The statement

section was designed to investigate the teachers’ implementation/ manifestation of the content

and pedagogical knowledge in the grade 12 classrooms in the Limpopo Province. The learners

were asked to provide their experiences, feelings and attitudes towards the problems of learning,

and how they were taught the subject by the teachers.

A 19-item questionnaire was administered to the learners, asking them about their experiences.

The questionnaire focused on the English and the content level. They were further asked:

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whether they believed in the benefits of using code-switching from LoLT into MT in their

learning activities; whether the geography teachers simplified for them the difficult textbooks

and content to ease their learning; whether their subject teachers granted them opportunities to

learn independently/ cooperatively; and whether learning geography was worthwhile for their

lives.

A 26-item questionnaire was administered to the Geography teachers probing their conviction

regarding the manifestation of the concepts of barriers in their learners and their lives? The LoLT

(English) level was probed, to discover if it was a barrier to learners’ attainment of effective

learning; if the lack of Geographical knowledge and skills formed a barrier to learners’

performance in examinations; if the texts level constituted a barrier to learners’ learning; if the

code-switching practice from LoLT into the mother tongue (MT) was advantageous to the

learners’ learning, and subsequently impacted on their performance in geography; if the teachers’

employment of flexible pertinent teaching strategies provided skills and learning opportunities to

learners to perform positively in geography; whether the teachers’ proficiency in the medium of

instruction and the curriculum underpinned effective teaching and learning, culminating in

realizing optimal performance in the examination.

The questions were based on a five-point Likert scale: (1= strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3=

neutral, 4 = Agree, 5=strongly agree). The questionnaires for the teachers were supplemented by

interviews, observations and documentary analysis, and backed up by conducting interviews

with the Geography examiners in the Limpopo Province. The purpose for interviewing the

examiners was to validate the prevalence of barriers/problems manifesting themselves in the

learners’ performance in examinations. Another reason was to reconcile the responses of teacher

respondents with barrier-oriented questions; because the examiners’ assessment focused on the

subtle and specific weaknesses of Geography teachers manifesting in learners’ performance

across the curriculum and all sections of the content.

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3.5.2 Interviews

While a total of 16 teachers at public secondary schools offering Geography in Limpopo were

given closed questionnaires, unstructured interviews were administered to 10 geography teachers

and two Curriculum Advisers in the province.

3.6. INSTRUMENT ADMINISTRATION

3.6.1 Questionnaires

The researcher employed measures that were valid and reliable at all times. This is in accordance

with Leedy (1984) and Mertler (2009:114), who both maintain that the researcher’s tool must

measure what s/he thinks it is measuring (validity). Secondly the researcher’s tool should

measure accurately at all times and places (reliability).

Two questionnaires for teachers and learners, respectively, were constructed, focusing on the

problems of Geography learning and teaching. For teachers, they were requested to give

biographical information regarding their qualifications in Geography. In addition, they were

asked to provide information on their teaching experience in Geography. The sought information

would be analysed to determine the teachers’ suitability and proficiency factor for teaching

learners the subject. The instruments were first tested for the purpose of verifying their validity

and reliability in terms of compliance with prescriptions of measuring what they (the tools) were

purported to investigate. The first test enabled the researcher to redress any flaws in the

questionnaires that might have occurred in the initial stages of the construction of the tools

(Mertler, 2009:115).

Sixteen (16) teachers were given a comprehensive 26-item questionnaire, which asked them

about the concept of curriculum; how the concept manifests in the learners’ comprehension of

their relationship with their immediate environment and beyond; the subject’s learning

techniques and skills; learners’ thinking and knowledge construction; learners’ ability to convey

meaning in the learning context, as active and inquiring participants. The teacher participants

were asked about their practices to determine the possibility of producing good geographical

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citizens, who would be able to cater for the maintenance and sustenance of a balanced state of

the environment – necessary for their survival.

The 19-item questionnaire was administered to seventy-six (76) learner participants in the

representative schools offering Geography in each district (Kreicie and Morgan, 1970: 607-610).

The probe was aimed at their levels of understanding of the value of the subject Geography in

their lives. They were also asked to provide their insight regarding their roles in maintaining and

sustaining the unpolluted environment for their survival. The learner participants were asked to

provide their experiences acquired, and the problems they faced, in their learning of Geography

in their learning environments. The problems focused on LoLT and subject-literacy competence,

the Geographical concepts embedded in LoLT, the difficulty of the language (English) of the

textbooks, and what their subject teachers did to help them to understand the difficult textbooks.

The tool focused on the impact of the compromise of the LoLT by practising code-switching into

the MT. Code-switching has far-reaching consequences to the realisation of LoLT literacy, as

needed by the learners. The focus on the tool was to determine whether teachers employed

experiential learning/co-operative learning, or rote learning in their Geography classrooms. The

application of participative or rote-learning practice would inform the researcher of the learners’

performance in the subject of Geography. The experiential learning approach gives opportunities

for discovering facts on their own, and articulating their discovery in reports and verbal

presentations on their academic understanding in Geography.

Conversely, the rote-learning approach does not grow learner’s knowledge, insight and meaning

in the subject.

3.6.2 On-Site Participant Observation

The researcher followed the ethical protocol of qualitative study by seeking permission of the

sampled secondary schools and participants involved at the schools. The researcher ensured

anonymity and confidentiality of the participants to protect the identity of the schools, teachers

and learners. A relationship of trust was established between the teachers and the researcher by

virtue of maintaining a cordial interaction. The researcher was allowed to audiotape the

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interactions, which complemented the researcher’s hand-written notes in the classroom without

the researcher interfering in their activities. The researcher was able to spend a minimum of fifty-

five minutes on average in a classroom. The researcher focused on the live interaction of the

teacher and learners with a particular focus on the constraints of LoLT used in the interactions

and learner involvement in the learning environment (McMillan Schumacher, 2001:437).

The researcher’s particular focus was on the teacher’s constant observation of his/her learners in

action manifested by taking notes of the world around them (Magare, Kitching & Roos, 2010:52-

63). The researcher did not participate in any way; while the teacher was conducting the lesson.

He merely gathered the data on what he saw and heard, without being critical – lest he unduly

influence the data collection. The teacher’s proficiency in the subject of Geography served to

inform the researcher of his/her essential Geography curriculum experiences; inter alia, the

researcher observed how the geography teacher made Geography teaching easy for the second-

language learners (English) learning.

The emphasis was on what the teacher did to simplify and supplement the difficult geographical

concepts embedded in English. Secondly, the researcher observed how the learners’ prior

knowledge was recognized and turned into learning opportunities. This was realized by allowing

them (the learners) to construct information at their own linguistic level to attain meaningful

learning (Naidoo, 2006:9).

According to Jacobsen of the Mlambo Foundation (2011:18), the teacher’s proficiency in

English is a focal point. One of their major objectives is that they are eager to develop teachers in

English proficiency, to enable them to express themselves and explain respective subjects’

concepts in the LoLT (English). The Mlambo Foundation focus attests to the researcher’s

question as a national concern. Thirdly, the researcher observed the teachers’ compliance with

the marking of the subject of Geography – to ensure the effectiveness and efficiency of the

teaching and assessment criteria employed. The aim was to determine the learner’s performance

in Geography. The researcher wrote notes on how the marks were allocated, by reconciling the

actual teacher’s allocation with the memoranda’s allocation. This was done to ensure the validity

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and reliability of the teacher’s assessment/test; because the criteria for testing learners’

knowledge through a test were to actualise educative teaching and meaningful learning.

3.6.3 In-Depth Interviews

The researcher employed interviews as an instrument to gather deeper data on the understanding

of Geography teachers’ experiences, thus complementing the participants’ observation

technique. The respondents were interviewed on practical Geography teaching and learning

experiences concerning problems around the use of difficult textbooks, coupled with grappling

with English as the medium of instruction for second-language learners. The researcher wanted

to know more about other peculiar barriers experienced in each context – by conversing at great

length with the practitioner interviewees. As the interview progressed, the researcher taped the

proceedings to transcribe for analysis at a later stage.

The researcher employed the instrument, as advocated by Creswell (2005:231), and attested to

by Van Putten, Howie and Stols (2010:25) for its “bottom-up approach.” This is an approach

whereby the researcher drew/gathered the data from those practitioners who provided the first-

hand experiences needed to confirm the prevalence of barriers to Geography learning and

teaching for answering and resolving the research questions (McMillian & Schumacher,

2001:42, 433).

3.6.4 Documentary Analysis

On-site participant observations and in-depth interviews, interlaced with documentary analysis,

which complemented one another, to gather comprehensive data on the participants’ attitudes,

feelings and experiences on learning Geography in an English context. Documentary analysis

was a tool for gathering the data from records on past events that were written in the form of

notes during teachers’ constant observation in the classroom. In addition, there were letters based

on learners’ experiences in context, learner diaries extracted by the subject teacher, and other

critical related documents on classroom/learning environment activities (McMillian &

Schumacher, 2001:42,451-452).

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Official documents on learners’ assessment, including internal and external question papers,

were accessed and perused, in order to determine whether the assessment criteria of learners in

Geography, as prescribed by the Limpopo Department of Education (LDE), were adhered to by

the teachers to determine whether the teachers’ compliance was in agreement with the learners’

achievement and learning in Geography. Learners and subject teachers’ files were read, in

conjunction with the prescribed programmes, which also provided information on the barriers to

Geography teaching and learning in Geography classrooms in Limpopo.

In relation to the records, the researcher did not get hold of graphs of monthly and quarterly or

continuous learners’ performance. Finally, for annual examinations’ statistics in Geography,

such were not found in some institutions. Reports to parents on learners’ performance were

significant documents kept in the teachers’ files, in general. Other critical documents the

researcher went through and wrote notes on were teacher and learner journals on the subject of

Geography. The teachers kept data journals on classroom activities and policy directions on the

teaching and learning of the subject. For learner journals, information on homework, learners’

daily thoughts/experiences on Geography in the classroom were provided. Furthermore, teacher

journals contained the professional reflections on practice, regarding teachers’ feelings on

practice and their observations on learners’ experiences with Geography concepts.

Classroom journals provided information on learners’ experiences, which bore learners’

thoughts, ideas and perceptions of Geography learning (Mertler, 2009:107-113).


The researcher realised the purpose for consulting the literature through which the required

specific data were gathered in terms of the barriers under investigation. This chapter used the

relevant literature to outline in depth the research methodology process. The research paradigm,

the research design, the research instruments are commented on in detail. The manifestation of

the knowledge gained from the consulted scholars’ works will become clear in Chapter 4, in

which the results of the study were scientifically gathered, analysed, interpreted and presented.

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CHAPTER 4

DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

4.1. INTRODUCTION

The focus of this chapter is on, firstly, examining in detail how the Barriers to geography

learning and teaching in grade 12 in the Limpopo Province were investigated. Secondly, it

analyses the data, whereby the existence, prevalence and consequences of the barriers regarding

the performance of the grade 12 learners driven by the subject teachers’ teaching are revealed.

The findings were obtained by scoring the responses of the respective respondents to the specific

questions, focusing on the respective barriers/objectives under investigation. Thirdly, the scores

of the participants need to be interpreted in terms of their correlations to equivalent questions –

as well as the contrasts to corresponding questions across the spectrum of the set diagnostic

questionnaires addressing the questions of the study. The purpose of the scoring of the responses

is to verify the significance level of the link between the objectives of the study and the barriers

under investigation (Henning, Van Rensburg & Smit, 2004:103).

The four barriers investigated were:

Teacher’s proficiency in English as a language of instruction,

Teacher’s proficiency in the content/geography,

Level of difficulty of English in textbooks for second-language learners, and

The use of code-switching from the language of learning and teaching (LoLT) into the

vernacular languages.

The four barriers were underpinned by four objectives. learners responded to Objectives 2, 3 and

4, which had a particular bearing on their learning of Geography in terms of the difficulty of the

language of Geography, as well as the second language, as the medium of instruction. The

teachers responded to Objectives 1, 3 and 4. These objectives were Geography-specific; because

they probed their professional proficiency in teaching Geography. Each objective was

underpinned by its respective statements; and the responses were reflected in respective figures

for analysis and interpretation.

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The researcher analysed and interpreted the data, on the basis of the responses yielded by the

respective respondents. In the analysis of the data, the researcher investigated the specific

responses to specific statements, which were related to the pertinent surveyed literature. The

purpose for surveying the literature on the study question was to verify the respective

statement(s) underpinning the relevant barrier/objectives. Each objective was addressed by a

varied number of statements – specifically probing a particular barrier.

The four barriers focused on were addressed as follows:

For the first barrier, in-depth inquiring questions were directed to the participants, probing their

experiences and feelings about the impact that the difficult textbooks had on the second-language

(English) learners. This was in terms of the suitability of the textbooks to the learners and the

readability of the textbooks by the learners. For the second barrier, the focus of the pertinent

questions was specifically on the language of learning and teaching (LoLT). The LoLT

manifested in the reading of the textbooks, the reading of resource sheets, the reading of library

books, the reading of the work sheets, and the use of LoLT in written work with comprehension

and insight of learners of geography.

The subject teacher always used the LoLT to describe, explain, instruct, and ask questions, to

which learners responded verbally in English. Therefore, the objective of LoLT also featured in

learners reasoning in the language of geography in this context. The learners needed to develop

in their use and understanding of geographical terms, in order to positively influence their

learning. Furthermore, the Geography teachers used English to encourage and motivate the

learners to learn maximally; and they also used English to discipline the learners, so that they

could perform well in the subject – to attain the vision and mission of learning and teaching. That

is, the skills of listening, talking, reading, and writing were vital for classroom activities. As

such, the attainment thereof was critical to the learners.

For the third barrier, the researcher enquired into the question of their professional proficiency in

terms of Geography and English, as the subject and the LoLT. In pursuit of professional

proficiency, the researcher earmarked the perusal of pertinent handy documents expected for use

by the subject teacher to complement the tool already administered in collecting the data. The

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perusal of work-books and portfolios was to ensure that all the relevant documents, programmes,

the curriculum of Geography, the governing principles, the directives driving departmental

policies and the procedures pertaining to content dispensations were observed and applied

accurately by the subject teachers.

For the fourth barrier, the practice of code-switching from English into the local African

languages in the Geography learning and teaching environments was examined. The examination

was through the employment of the semi-structured interviews with exclusive subject-teacher

interviewees, together with the curriculum advisors (CAs). The researcher sought to interview

these subject specialists particularly for their expertise. The purpose was to determine and verify

the prevalence of code-switching, as already outlined in the preceding chapters.

The researcher applied those multiple methods to interact with the teachers; because they were

the significant role-players in the teaching of the learners. The researcher also wanted to tap the

reader’s memory in tracking the researcher’s framework of this study, which was mapped in

Chapters 1 and 3 of the study. The adoption of the constructivist approach was specifically for its

focus on the learner as the central figure in learning and teaching. This focus manifested in the

fact that Geography, being one of the geo-sciences, involves many practical lessons in which

learners were to be engaged. That needed skills of expert teachers to teach and supervise as

learners were engaged in practical activities.

The purpose of the practical lessons was to demystify the impact of theoretical teaching and

learning in Geography that compounded the fear of abstract concepts to learners. The practical

application of reality should solidify the learner’s experience of concrete reality (Watkins,

2012:24-25; Van Schie, 2012:12).

The researcher’s justification for choosing the constructivist approach in probing the problem

was based on the principle of learners taking the centre-stage in the learning situation. Therefore,

in administering the tools for gathering the data on the problem, the researcher encompassed

broad core expectations. The probe was whether the learner respondents were made to

understand geographical processes through undertaking scientific investigations into facts and

phenomena in their learning environments through the use of the LoLT; whether they were

actively engaged in doing the learning of Geographical facts/reality; whether they had acquired

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the conceptual skills to grow their personal experiences and mental connections, additional to

their previously acquired mental connections to broaden their geographical knowledge; whether

they had grown first-hand conceptualized knowledge to apply in their assessments; and whether

they were exposed to their immediate world to learn concrete reality (Van Schie, 2012:12;

Sawyer, 2006:38-39; Watkins, 2012:25-25).

Prior to analysing and interpreting the responses of the respondents to diagnose and verify the

threats to learning and teaching Geography, the researcher thought it worthwhile to reconcile

learner and teacher participants’ respective responses to the same barriers, together with the

interviewees’ responses. The researcher interviewed (n=10) subject teachers and (n=2)

curriculum advisors (CAs) from two (2) districts of the five (5) districts in the province. The

interviews took place with the selected teachers after the researcher had observed in situ the

teaching and learning activities of the respective prepared lessons on their specific topics. The

researcher summarized the focus of the investigation, as ranging from the practice of non-subject

team teaching, non-exposure of the learners to practical opportunities (landforms and

landscapes), a culture of using one or a few textbooks, a culture of neglect or compromise of the

prescribed sections of the Geography curriculum, as a manifestation of professional

incompetence, and finally the practice of code-switching from the LoLT into the local African

languages because of the teachers’ lack of linguistic competence in the LoLT.

Having profiled the type of data the researcher anticipated to be underpinning the objective of

the study, and underpinning the existence of the barriers, the researcher arranged pertinent tables

and respective charts on each item of the respective questionnaires on the study problem, which

addressed the specific objectives, according to the four objectives of the study.

4.2 THE RESEARCH FINDINGS

4.2.1 Introduction

The purpose of seeking information on Section A of the questionnaire varied. Firstly, it was a

matter of principle to number information in terms of the biographical data, in order to maintain

the logical sequence of the facts, which were considered critical in terms of determining their

contributory effect/value to the barriers to the research question under investigation. The

biographical data differed in value and weight from one another. The biographical data ranged

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from gender to teaching experience and qualifications, as regards the relevant subject teachers.

Finally, all the biographical information was presented in a tabular form; it was allocated a table

number, followed by its chart number. Both representations communicated the data intelligibly

in terms of how the data represent the facts.

From the biographical data, the researcher started making use of charts only, which elucidated

the respective statements discerning specific barriers and their reference to the respective

objective. The researcher’s analysis and interpretation of each chart led to drawing inferences or

deducing a logical conclusion in terms of the barrier through the lens of the research

problem/inquiry.

The researcher’s premise for conducting interviews with Geography subject practitioners was

centred on the four objectives of this research under investigation. The objectives central to the

research problem focused on the teachers’ professionalism regarding his/her proficiency in

Geography, the impact that the LoLT had on the second-language learners in terms of the

difficulty of the language of teaching and learning (English), the difficulty of the prescribed and

selected textbooks for learners to use – in terms of the level of the language to the level of the

learners’ linguistics as second-language speakers; and lastly, the impact of code-switching from

English to the LoLT in the African languages..

In order to elucidate the objectives in terms of their prevalence and impact on the performance of

learners (in Geography in grade 12 classes in the Limpopo Province), the researcher addressed

each specific objective in the entire research process. The reason was to verify the validity of the

existence and the impact of the profiled barriers to Geography learning and teaching in grade 12

classes in the province. The researcher selected the very significant and weighty questionnaire

items, in order to identify them with the objectives underpinned by the barriers/factors, which

have been under scrutiny in the research. The pertinent questionnaire items, with respective

responses, were statistically analysed to depict the accurate valid results in terms of the specific

objectives in the problem of the study.

In the view of the researcher, every depicted result was critically analysed; as it would impact

immeasurably on the future livelihood and wellbeing of the grade 12 Geography learners in the

province. The researcher considered, or had the expectation, that every learner would benefit

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from learning Geography maximally. The researcher’s consideration of the premise was viewed

as the core business and mandate of the Department of Education (DoE) and the parents.

The researcher focused on the respective objectives in their chronological order. Objective 1

centred specifically on the factor of proficiency in terms of the Geography subject teachers

responsible for teaching grade 12 learners/classes in the Limpopo Province. The proficiency

factors were measured by the respective tools, whereby the academic and professional

determinants/factors to good learner performance were measured. In terms of objective 1, in-

depth analysis revealed the subtle factors implied in the percentages of the respondents’ scores to

the specific practices and perceptions peculiar to teaching.

4.3 BIOGRAPHICAL DATA

4.3.1 Biographical data of the learners

Table 4.1: Gender

Frequency Percentage Valid

Percentage

Cumulative

Percentage

Male 198 48.6 48.6 48.6

Female 209 51.4 51.4 100.0

Total 407 100.0 100.0

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Figure 4.1: Gender

Table 4.1 and its equivalent Pie Chart 4.1 provided information on the learners’ gender in terms

of the respective numbers. The provided data had no research impact at that level, except to

indicate that a total of 407 learners of both females and males had responded to the item.

4.3.2 Learner’s Age

Table 4.2: Age


Percentage

Cumulative

Percentage

16 - 17 years 22 5.4 5.4 5.4

18 - 19 years 153 37.6 37.6 43.0

> 19 years 232 57.0 57.0 100.0

Total 407 100.0 100.0

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Figure 4.2: Age

For both Table 4.2 and the Pie Chart 4.2 might have had a bearing on the part of the subject

teachers’ (geography) proficiency in terms of the geography learning effect. One would have

argued that the only frequency indicating that there was only one learner of 21 years of age

would be considered as a consequential factor on performance.

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4.3.3 Data for schools/teachers

Table 4.3: District of schools


Percentage

Cumulative

Percentage

Capricorn 4 25.0 25.0 25.0

Mopani 2 12.5 12.5 37.5

Sekhukhune 4 25.0 25.0 62.5

Vhembe 4 25.0 25.0 87.5

Waterberg 2 12.5 12.5 100.0

Total 16 100.0 100.0

Figure 4.3: District of schools

The implication of the situation of the schools will be examined in the light of Pie/Bar Chart 4.10

amongst teachers.

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4.4 TEACHER QUALIFICATIONS

Table 4.4 – Qualifications

Highest educational qualifications


Percentage

Cumulative

Percentage

Matric/ Std

10 7 43.8 46.7 46.7

Degree 3 18.8 20.0 66.7

Honours 4 25.0 26.7 93.3

Masters 1 6.3 6.7 100.0

Total 15 93.8 100.0

Meaningful learning and effective teaching in Geography are governed by teacher expertise in

the content/Geography and the second language (English), which is the medium of instruction.

Dale, Ferguson and Robin (1988:23-24) maintain that a teacher who does not command an

adequate knowledge of Geography – and how to teach it – becomes a barrier to the learners’

learning of the subject (geography). The teacher becomes a hindrance to the learners’ growth in

the subject. Naish (1992:177) focuses on the lack of expertise of the teacher in terms of failing to

handle Geography textbooks for the benefit of the learners for whom the books were intended.

Turner-Bisset (2001:147) feels that Geography teachers who are not knowledgeable of

Geography must surely fail to impart knowledge.

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Turner-Bisset (2001:147) asserts that the command of literacy and numeracy strategies bring

about effective teaching in Geography across the prescribed sections of the syllabus. According

to Cotton (1995:80-87), teachers are trained to remove or minimise learning barriers for learners

through effective teaching methods. However, Howell and Lazarus (2003:5) identify content or

curriculum as “… the most significant barrier to learning is [the] curriculum itself … this

includes: What is taught; the language/medium of instruction …”

Butt (2002:200) holds a similar view, by proclaiming that “language provides the medium for

learning Geography in every classroom; and it should, therefore, be a major consideration in the

planning and preparation of lessons”. The quotes by Howell and Lazarus (2003:5) and Butt

(2002:200) bear evidence that the Geography teachers themselves can be barriers to learners.

They (the teachers) can form insurmountable barriers in terms of their lack of knowledge of the

content, as well as their lack of the command of the language of instruction, with regard to

second-language learners. The literature quoted above formed the premise upon which Table 4.4

Figures 4.4, 4.5 and 4.6 were analysed.

Figure 4.4 Highest educational qualification

The given table and chart provide critical information regarding the under-qualification and the

absence of any adequate qualification of the Geography teachers. The fact that 7 of the 15 (16-1)

teachers had matric/ grade 10 (43.8%) evoked a concern that there were many subject teachers

who were not qualified in Geography. This did not bode well for the competency levels in

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Geography teaching and learning. This was further worsened by one dissenter who did not

provide the necessary data requested. Nevertheless, four frequencies for Honours and one for a

Master’s degree served as an encouragement in terms of the qualifications of Geography teachers

and the potential of this to boost good performance in the subject.

4.4.1 Major Subjects

Figure 4.5 Major Subjects

The researcher wanted to establish whether the subject teachers had competency/proficiency in

Geography. Proficiency translated to the teacher having a certificate in Geography and English,

respectively; a Diploma in geography; a Diploma in English; a Diploma without geography and

English, respectively. The data were gathered in this manner, so that they would be barrier-

specific with respect to the necessary qualifications, as they are depicted under 4.5.1 - 4.5.6

below.

The actual gathered data indicated that seven teachers (43.8%) had geography plus African

languages; four teachers (25%) had geography and English; one teacher (6.3%) was qualified in

Geography and History; and lastly, four teachers (25%) were qualified in Geography and other

subjects. This meant that only four teachers had a good combination of Geography and English.

The rest had irrelevant combinations with respect to the teaching and learning of Geography.

And these issues are discussed under 4.5.1 - 4.5.6 below.

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Figure 4.6 Professional Proficiency

Initially the researcher wanted to know the combinations of specific major subjects: Geography

+ African languages; Geography + English; Geography + maths; Geography + others; and non-

geographical qualifications. The same qualifications mentioned above would apply to expected

certificates in Chart 4.5. The researcher had expectations that this would assist subject teachers to

effect good performance in learners, or the converse. The actual yielded responses by the teacher

respondents in terms of administered statements were registered as follows:

Only one teacher (7.692%) held a professional Geography certificate; ten teachers (76.92%) had

a diploma in Geography; two teachers (15.38%) had a diploma without English. This was a stark

contrast; in that there was no mention of a combination of Geography and English, Geography

and maths; or non-geography combinations. The implications of this are reflected in Chart 4.6;

and these would be consequential to teaching and learning Geography. It may be concluded that

subject teachers without essential combinations of Geography plus English, Geography and

maths; and teachers without Geography at all; or without Geography with African languages

would impact seriously on learners’ performance in Geography. Such teachers could create

serious problems for learners; because of their lack of effectiveness and proficiency in their

teaching. The latter qualification shortcomings would be manifested in the deliberations on the

specific objectives under 4.5 below.

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Professional Proficiency

Figures 4.4, 4.5 and 4.6 refer to this issue.

The researcher deduced from Table 4.4 and Figure 4.4 critical information, which implied that

some teachers were under-qualified or unqualified for offering Geography to the learners. This

evidence was deduced from the data on the major subject combinations, and in terms of

knowledge-based profession, would impact negatively on second-language learners’

performance in Geography (Turner-Bisset, 2001:147).

According to Van Rooyen (1990:105), attested by Bloch (2009:90-91), highest qualifications and

major subjects enhance one’s professional proficiency, which influences second-language

learners’ performance. The researcher probed professional proficiency with the objective of

establishing the effectiveness of the combination of Geography and English. According to Serrao

(2010:6) and Setati (2011:11), a combination of Geography and maths would promote learners’

performance in literacy and numeracy. Statements 1 to 4 and Figures 4.16 to 4.19 bear evidence

to this effect. The evidence deduced from Figure 4.6 was contrary to the views held by Van

Rooyen (1990:105), Setati (2011:11) and Bloch (2009:90-91).

In reconciling the claim by the researcher, based on the evidence highlighted from the data in

Figure 4.6, the Geography and vernacular combination had far-reaching teaching and learning

consequences for Geography learners.

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Figure 4.7 Teaching Experience

Their teaching experience was depicted as follows:

Three teachers (20%) had 1-10 years’ experience; one teacher (6.67%) had 11-15 years’

experience; six teachers (40%) had 16-20 years’ experience; while five teachers (33.33%) had 21

and more years of teaching experience. The professional implications that can be drawn from

this picture would imply that in view of the lack of qualifications and under-qualifications of the

teachers informed by Charts 4.4 and 4.5, this would impact on their learners in terms of optimal

learning.

The concept of teaching experience was viewed as a critical factor by the researcher, based on

the views of Howell and Lazarus (2003:5). Howell and Lazarus (2003:5) assert that experience is

very consequential to teaching and learning; because it minimises or removes barriers to

learning, especially those linked with a second-language as the medium of instruction. This is

interlaced with lesson organisation and management, methods selection for teaching and

selection of learning materials, and the assessment of learning. Sibanyoni (2009:3) confirms the

views of Howell and Lazarus (2003) that a command of the content competencies by the

content/Geography teacher, interlaced with personal experience in the content enhances learners’

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performance. Butt (2002:201) also agrees with Howell and Lazarus (2003); and Butt says that

the proficient and efficient Geography teacher successfully directs learners’ talking, writing and

reading in Geography in the second language.

‘Talking in geography’ means the learner can communicate in complex geographical terms in

class. The teacher’s experience in Geography can remove any existing barriers in Geography;

because the learners are in command of Geography-specific concepts/literacy. The geographical

literacy and mathematical literacy/skills are sorely needed in the teaching and learning of map-

work. The teacher’s command of literacy skills was probed under Objective 1 regarding the

Geography teacher’s professional proficiency.

Bloch (2009:90-91) advises that teachers’ effectiveness and efficiency enhances performance in

curriculum but this is not related exclusively to teaching experience. Bloch (2009) says

performance in curriculum is affected by poor geography knowledge, ineffective teaching

practice, insufficient training the teacher has had, and little performance evaluation. Therefore, it

could not be deduced from the data on experience that performance could be ensured by many

years of experience, as explained by Bloch (2009:90-91).

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Figure 4.8 Staffing

Number of Geography Teachers

The staffing was described as follows:

There were seven teachers (58.33%) who indicated that they were solitary subject teachers at

their schools. The implications in such a scenario would mean that such teachers could not cater

for all the sections of the prescribed curriculum. The issue of textbooks will be dealt with under

Objectives 1, 2 and 3 of the study – with presupposed implications for Objective 4. The second

scenario presented a fair practice at some schools. Two teachers (16.67%) share the various

sections of the curriculum. The implications would be beneficial for both the teachers and

learners; because teachers would have better chances of selecting sections of the curriculum in

which they are more effective. Lastly, three teachers (25%) shared the subject; the implication is

that this would assist in producing good performance of teachers in the classroom.

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The concept of staffing is considered critical by Skehan (2005:31), and by Uline, Johnson et al.

(2005:44-52). They advise school managers to create support structures for curriculum teachers.

They recommend school-based instruction for colleagues in a curriculum to help one another

with their specific curriculum challenges that need specific expertise to improve their

performance. Uline, Johnson et al. (2005:4) advocate collective staff development to enable

professional teaching to take effect across the curricula. The collective staff development

approach would help the staff to grow to accomplish the vision and mission statement of the

school, resulting in the production of knowledgeable citizens in Geography.

Bloch (2009:11) maintains that professional development is ensured by the effective evaluation

of all the curriculum areas. Collective teacher development, in terms of the curriculum areas,

should address the teacher’s lack of knowledge in some sections of the Geography curriculum.

Geography is characterised by specialised sections, which need specialised teachers to handle

them; map-work is a case in point. The concept of staffing was examined under Objective 1,

which probed the teacher’s professional proficiency in the teaching and learning of map-work.

Figure 4.9 Area in which you are teaching

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This statement was allocated four rating scales, namely, urban, semi-urban, rural and semi-rural.

However, only the semi-urban and the rural scales were chosen with two teachers (12.5%) and

fourteen teachers (87.5%), respectively. Upon interpreting the values, the researcher considers

the question of rurality, as a major contributing factor to the learners’ learning. The learners’

learning in rural areas is always affected significantly in terms of their linguistic level

development as second-language learners (English). Their learning of geography would be

impacted by the rivalry of the home languages that would preoccupy their cognition as a

principle of psychological premise. In most cases, the learners’ social background would not be

conducive for effective learning in the LoLT. This is due to the lack of development

opportunities for the LoLT.

The families are generally poor in terms of affording technological facilities and literature

provisioning to enrich the learners with vocabulary acquisition in the LoLT. Over and above this,

the scarcity of the learning material level of illiteracy in parents compounds the problem. The

underlying factor on the part of parents would be their failure to guide and develop literacy in

their children.

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Figure 4.10 District in which your school is situated

Firstly, Chart 4.10 above reconciles with Chart 4.3. Secondly, Chart 4.10 and Chart 4.9 are

linked with each other; as they indicate that many of the districts are found situated in rural areas.

The implications thereof have already been pointed out. The concept of ‘learner situatedness’ has

been central in the educating of the learner; as the learner is viewed as inseparable from the

environment. It would mean that a conducive environment benefits learners. On the contrary, a

non-conducive learning environment yields negative results in the learners.

4.5 TEACHER PERFORMANCE

The researcher has a considered view that a Geography subject teacher would be influenced by

many aspects in terms of professionalism. The aspects concerned were: Academic qualifications,

which embraced professional proficiency; major subjects interlaced with the respective LoLT;

teaching experience; curricular staffing; and school area (location). These educational aspects

were deliberated on in Charts 4.4, 4.5, 4.6, 4.7, 4.8, 4.9 and 4.10. The deliberations could be

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consolidated by the fact that for curricular teachers to be effective and efficient in teaching, they

should command specific-curricular discipline at all times and in all situations. From this

premise, the researcher analyses logically both teacher and learner respondents in terms of how

they reacted to the administered statements addressing the individual Objectives 1, 2, 3 and 4.

The respondents’ responses indicate the possible effects of teacher performance on the learners’

performance in Geography in the province.

At this juncture, the researcher examines teacher and learner performance at three-year intervals

(with the exception of 2011) from 1999-2011.

4.5.1 Teacher Performance 1999-2001

Figure 4.11 Teacher Performance from 1999-2001

Chart 4.11 reflects the following data:

It should be pointed out that the initial rubric for assessing the performance had a five-point

rating scale, which comprised: Poor, below average, average, good, and excellent.

The performance indicated below used only below average, average and good rating scales. One

teacher (10%) performed below average; four teachers (40%) performed at average levels; while

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five teachers (50%) indicated a good level of performance; but six teachers did not complete the

questionnaire. Looking at the difference between the average and the good performance, there is

a 10% difference. This margin was narrow, thereby implying that the performance in broader

terms was average. There were six abstentions, which could have been either poor or excellent.

This implies that the demonstrated performance was concentrated in the middle of the rating

scales, thereby implying average performance.

4.5.2 Teacher performance 2002-2004


Chart 4.12 had the same format of rating scales as that in Chart 4.11. Two teachers (20%)

performance was below average; two teachers (20%) performed average; six teachers (60%)

performed well. The extreme rating scales of poor and excellent had no scores; but six teachers

abstained for reasons unknown to the researcher. The researcher would not pre-empt any

implications on the effect of this. However, a combination of below average and average

performance did not augur well for a provincial performance bracket/category in terms of quality

results. On the other hand, good performance by the given number of teachers was considered a

minimal requirement by the researcher in view of the learner population in the province.

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4.5.3 Teacher performance 2005-2007


The performance scores depicted in Charts 4.10 and 4.11 repeated themselves for the 2005-2007

cycles, with some horizontal shifts in the existing/prevalent rating scales. Only one teacher

(10%) performed below average; four teachers (40%) performed average; and five teachers

(50%) showed good performance. Six did not respond. From the researcher’s viewpoint, the

implications were that the prevalent scenario continued during the period under review. This did

not have any positive implications in terms of the learners’ educational welfare.

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4.5.4 Teachers Performance 2008-2010


The picture shows a decline in performance, as can be seen in Chart 4.14 above. One teacher

(9.09%) performed below average; six teachers (54.55%) performed average; four teachers

(36.36%) had a good performance. Again, it was difficult to trace in which category any one of

the five teachers who abstained from scoring fell. A similar scenario was found for the previous

cycles. The researcher could not allocate them with certainty to any of the three other categories.

Therefore, the implications would be that there had been a decline in performance, thereby

implying a mediocre performance by the subject teachers.

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4.5.5 Teacher Performance 2011

Figure 4.15 Teacher Performance 2011

Chart 4.15 showed a more comprehensive reflection of the categories on the rating scale

compared to all the other charts in this category. It covered the poor, the average, the good and

the excellent rating scales. One teacher (7.692%) indicated poor performance; six teachers

(14.65%) had average performance; four teachers (30.77%) had a good performance; and two

teachers (15.38%) had excellent performance; however, three teachers abstained from the rating-

selection process. For the first time, the chart reflected some performance in the excellent

category. This is usually a normal principle of a professional performance spread norm. The

implication of the spread norm augured well for learner performance in a normal learner/teacher

community set up in terms of professional weaknesses and strengths.

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4.6 FINDINGS FROM THE TEACHER QUESTIONNAIRE

The constructed teacher questionnaire was intended to gather the data from Geography subject

teachers to determine how the subject was taught to learners. The questionnaire consisted of

statements with the particular purpose to address the specific objectives underpinning specific

barriers. The barriers were investigated as being contributory to the poor performance of grade

12 learners in the province during the period under review. The responses to statements evinced

findings emanating from the specific barriers to reconcile them with their objectives. The

responses either agreed or disagreed with the statement(s), and were situated on a four-point

Likert scale. The responses to the statement were expressed in rating scales ranging through

strongly disagree and disagree, to strongly agree and agree.

The three Objectives 1, 3 and 4 were addressed by the teacher respondents, together with the

learner respondents. The latter took part in addressing Objectives 2, 3 and 4. The statements were

presented in respective charts, where their values were depicted as percentages. The researcher

unpacked the values in terms of the respective implications to the performance of the learners in

Geography. Finally, the teachers’ attitudes reflected in the values on the statements would inform

the reader of the effectiveness and the efficiency of subject teachers’ teaching, or of the

converse. Collectively, these findings would reflect the implications on the learners’

performance in Geography. Lastly, each objective underpinning their respective barriers was

analysed. The same procedure was adopted with the learners, with regard to Objectives 2, 3 and

4, in order to ascertain the effect of the barriers on the performance of the learners in Geography.

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4.6.1 Findings from teacher questionnaire statements on Objective 1

Statement 1:

Teaching synoptic weather maps increases learners’ understanding of the weather forecasting.

Figure 4.16 Teaching synoptic weather maps

The respondents responses were 75% for strongly agree, and 25% for agree. Both positive

responses mean that all the teachers in the study knew the significance of the knowledge of

synoptic weather maps and its teaching to the learners. The implications would be that the

learners would acquire the knowledge and respond in a practical way to such teaching. Firstly,

the learners could choose suitable attire for school, based on their interpretation of the weather

forecast. Secondly, the learners would be on the alert to confront or avoid unfavourable weather

conditions during their daily travel; since such unfavourable weather conditions could

compromise their road safety.

This could also be relevant to other daily travel activities, such as flights – where safety is of

paramount importance. On the question of map-work teaching, Tshibalo and Schulze (2000:230)

0.00% 0.00%

25.00%

75.00%

strongly disagree

disagree

agree

strongly agree

missing

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advocate co-operative and experiential learning methods/activities. The significance of the co-

operative and experiential learning approach is that it benefits the learners; because they

articulate the facts at a peer level in a simple way.

Statement 2:

Compromising map-work teaching deprives learners of vital knowledge of their environment or

of the world.

Figure 4.17 Knowledge of the environment

The responses on the value scale in Chart 4.17 tilted in favour of the statement, with 25% of the

respondents indicating agree, and 43.75% strongly agree. On the other side of the scale, 25% of

the respondents favoured strongly disagree, while 6.25% disagreed. The implications of this

wide range of responses are that generally, there is a neglect of map-work teaching at some

stage. The consequences thereof would be that learners would perform poorly in examinations.

The long-term implications would be that the learners would be disadvantaged in their choice of

careers, for example in fields such as meteorology.

25.00%

6.25%

25.00%

43.75%

0.00%

strongly disagree

disagree

agree

strongly agree

missing

137

Any deviation from the educational obligation by some subject teachers was viewed by the

researcher as a professional fraud. The researcher views and considers every learner to be

deserving of quality teaching and learning, in order to attain self-sufficiency in their future life

and careers. Therefore, the value of map-work was viewed by the researcher as a tool to liberate

learners from perpetual ignorance of their immediate world and its reality.

Baldstone (2000:114-115) and Kelly (2011:2) maintain that learning is an enquiring

activity/process, whereby learners engage actively in the learning content. The end of the process

results in learners’ construction of their own knowledge about their world of existence. The

constructed knowledge helps the learners to co-exist with the environment, and to sustain their

relationship with the world.

Statement 3:

I have sectional challenges in realizing learners’ expectations for learning Geography.

Figure 4.18 Sectional challenges of the teacher

12.50%

37.50% 43.75%

6.25%

0.00%

strongly disagree

disagree

agree

strongly agree

missing

138

The Chart 4.18 revealed a challenging 50/50 scenario, which suggested two divergent

consequential educational results for the learners of Geography. The reader would expect a

competent teacher to teach learners to optimize their knowledge of Geography. The 12.50% and

37.50% agreement demonstrated the argument above. However, a 43.75% and 6.25% agreement

representation of the teachers conceded that they could not meet the sectional requirement of

their syllabus, as mandated by the Department of Education (DoE). The implications would be

that many learners of Geography entrusted to such teachers and schools would be doomed to

failure. It provides evidence that some school managers and head teachers had limitations in their

vision of teaching and learning (Johnson & Uline, 2005:45-51).

Half of the teacher respondents conceded they had challenges with sections of the curriculum of

Geography. This confirms the assertions of Bloch (2009:11) and Uline, Johnson et al. (eds.)

(2005:4).

Statement 4:

I teach my learners about landscapes, according to the textbook.

Figure 4.19 Teaching Landscapes

25.00%

37.50%

25.00%

6.25%

6.25%

strongly disagree

disagree

agree

strongly agree

missing

139

It must be emphasized that Geography is one of those practical subjects, whose learners need

exposure to practical aspects, in order to practise it. Any deviation from the set principle would

spell disastrous results to the learners. Two issues are pertinent here: the first is the importance of

accurate facts in relation to landscapes; the second is the practical purposes of teaching

landscapes, that is, learners must be able to identify them in reality. This implies that this

teaching needs to be followed by practical activities.

For this statement, four teachers (25%) went for strongly disagree; six teachers (37.5%) indicated

disagree. Four teachers (25%) agreed; and one teacher (6.25%) strongly agreed. The responses

provided for this statement implied that for strong disagree (SD) and disagree (D) values,

teachers did practical work with their learners. For the agree (A) and strongly agree (SA) values,

the teachers taught the learners theoretically. The latter response implies a violation of practical

teaching and learning of landscapes, which should be observed outside the classroom in terms of

the real phenomena. In view of theoretical teaching and learning activities, the researcher

concludes that the teachers in question were ignorant of the significance of teaching on physical

landscapes to illustrate this geographical phenomenon.

It was argued at the outset that the study was framed on the theory of constructivism. It is based

on learners learning by exposure to reality. Learners would be able to conceive of how

phenomena existed in reality – only by exposure to such phenomena. It is the job of the

Geography teacher to create learning experiences that promote exposure and discussion on

scientific construction in relation to the geographical areas. In this way, learners would be able to

learn about features in their natural forms or constructed forms, e.g. tunnels, roads and dams in

mountainous areas. It is the exposure of learners to these scenarios that would involve

mathematical calculations and measurements, in which they could apply, analyse and interpret

reality – through their acquired scientific skills.

The researcher’s view is that it is at this level that the learners can understand, explain scales and

distance, measure distances on a map, calculate travelling distances and times, measure altitudes

and calculate gradients (Burton & Pitt, 2000:6).

140

The interpretation of the data from this figure was based on the constructivist approach held by

Skehan (1999:246). Skehan (1999) says that by using the constructivist approach, a geography

learner constructs knowledge in a broader spectrum. The learner communicates and shares this

knowledge with other learners meaningfully. Beets and Le Grange (2005) claim that learners

interact practically with the relevant phenomena in their learning environment, as thinkers and

constructors of meaning and knowledge.

Statement 5:

I prefer practical teaching to theory, when it comes to capturing rivers.

Figure 4.20 Practical teaching versus theory for river capture

The overwhelming positive response affirms the statement. The affirmation was quantified as

five teachers (31.25%) for agree, nine teachers (56.25%) for strongly agree; while only one

teacher (6.25%) was for strongly disagree; and one teacher (6.25%) disagreed. The researcher

would argue that 6.25% for strongly disagree (SD) and disagree (D) respectively posed a serious

concern; since many learners were denied good opportunities to learn the subject.

6.25%

6.25%

31.25% 56.25%

strongly disagree

disagree

agree

strongly agree

141

The figure was interpreted based on the constructivist approach held by Brown (2000:266-267)

that says learners are enquirers and seekers of knowledge in their learning; that means that they

probe the data from their learning environment to broaden their knowledge about their

environment. Davis and Davis (2000) maintain that the learners interact with ideas through the

process of mental language development for content (geography) interpretation and analysis. In

learning Geography practically, learners develop their meta-cognitive language, which is the

active language of the curriculum (David & Reed, 2003:101-112).

Statement 6:

Our learners are given assignments on the compilation of geographical terminology.

Figure 4.21 Compilation of geographical terminologies

For this statement, the researcher noted that the varied responses had critical implications. One of

the teachers (6.25%) for strongly disagreed (SD); and six teachers (37.5%) for disagree (D)

rejected the statement. On the other hand, eight teachers (50%) agreed (A); and one teacher

(6.25%) for strongly agreed (SA), thereby confirmed the statement. The contrast constituted by

strongly disagree (SD) and disagree (D) against agree (A) and strongly agree (SA) posed a

6.25%

37.50%

50.00%

6.25%

strongly disagree

disagree

agree

strongly agree

142

concern for the researcher. This meant that the subject teachers comprising 43.75% of the total

sample did not expose their learners to project exercises. It did not matter to them that their

learners should acquire and command a geographical vocabulary that was needed in the teaching

and learning of the subject. This deprives learners of independent learning opportunities. The

learners would face challenges in interpreting case studies, in which geographical terms are used.

Figure 4.21 was based on the concepts of conceptualisation and contextualisation held by Skehan

(1999:246), which underpinned the constructivist approach. David and Reed (2003:101-112)

encourage Geography teachers to engage their learners actively in the language of the curriculum

(meta-language). The aim is to grow learner’s geographical vocabulary to be able to articulate

their ideas and experiences in their learning environment.

Statement 7:

We take our learners out of the classroom to conduct practical work on pollution.

Figure 4.22 Practical work on pollution

The contrary teacher attitudes and practices to the statement above imply critical outcomes to the

future of the learners. The opposing attitudes and practices manifested as follows: Two of the

12.50%

18.75%

50.00%

18.75%

strongly disagree

disagree

agree

strongly agree

143

teachers (12.50%) strongly disagreed (SD); three teachers (18.75%) disagreed (D). Their

combined percentage (31.25%) had implications for the learners’ performance; since learners

would be deprived of knowledge of their immediate surroundings from a health point of view.

This deprivation would affect their realization of the vision of the learning statement that all

learners should learn geographical concepts and skills necessary to sustain their mutual

relationship with the environment. As such, the implications would be that the environment

would become vulnerable to learner polluters; and the accumulated litter would threaten the

quality of water and food production from their immediate environments. However, the rest of

the responses contained positive teacher attitudes and practices, with a combination of 68.75%

who agreed and strongly agreed. This would benefit the learners; since the teachers would

encourage the learners to acquire knowledge of their local environment, from which they would

benefit throughout their lives.

The responses to the statement were deliberated on from the perspectives of Baldstone

(2000:114-115) and Phyed, Robinson and Levin (2010:68), which advocate enquiry-based

learning. This approach enables learners to construct meaning from the content. The acquired

knowledge would be transferred or applied to obtaining learning situations through learning

skills. Kruger and Adam (1998:154) talk of metacognition that manifests in the learner by

demonstrating an ability to construct their own learning activity and succeeding in tackling tasks

in the learning environment.

144

Statement 8:

We/I orient the learners to doing tasks on measurements and the calculation of distances on maps

Figure 4.23 Orientation to doing tasks on measurements and distance calculation on maps

For this statement, five teachers (31.25%) agreed and ten teachers (62.50%) strongly agreed. The

responses affirmed the statement. This implies that the Geography subject teachers had a vision

to grow knowledge in their learners regarding map-work. Such knowledge acquisition was

critical to learners regarding their future geography-related careers, such as meteorology, piloting

ship, transport logistics, and more.

Views on map-work held by Butt (2002:16-17) are that maps and photographs pose perceptual

and conceptual challenges for learners. The reason for posing challenges is because of their

complex nature. For learners to comprehend maps and photographs, they should command

artistic, appreciative, observational, interpretative, quantitative and application skills. In order to

grow those skills in the learners, the Geography teacher should be competent in map-teaching.

31.25%

62.50%

6.25%

agree

strongly agree

missing

145

Statement 9:

My learners are grouped to do assignments on how to be ozone-friendly.

Figure 4.24 Assignments on ozone-friendly

According to the responses, one teacher (6.25%) disagreed (D); while nine teachers (56.25%)

and six teachers (37.50%) agreed (A) and strongly agreed (SA) respectively, thereby confirming

the statement. The implication for the respondents who agreed was that they were caring for the

atmosphere and learning about pollutants that might harm the ozone layer. As a matter of

principle, human beings need to support the prevention of damage to the ozone layer; as this can

pose a threat to our very existence as a species. The converse implication is that, by not giving

group tasks/assignments, some teachers do not cater for co-operative learning in their Geography

classes. The learners in such a classroom are deprived of sharing ideas and skills that are

manifested in team work and team teaching.

Furthermore, the significance of co-operative learning enhances the growth of learners in social

relationships; that is, learners should grow towards one another a mutual understanding, the spirit

of tolerance, peer respect, assertive attitudes, the cultivation of compromising attitudes and the

acceptance of individual character differences. Such holistic development of learners alluded to

6.25%

56.25%

37.50% disagree

agree

strongly agree

146

above would mould learners into indispensable citizens in their respective careers, where they

would be able to serve their respective communities meaningfully.

The statement is constructivist-oriented; since it enhances co-operative and experiential learning.

The statement was framed, in accordance with the advocacy of Tshibalo and Schulze (2000:230)

for co-operative learning as an instructional method, whereby learners can work together under

the teachers’ facilitation. Moreno (2010:298) says the experiential approach caters for individual

learners, whereby they are equally granted opportunity, space and time to learn to maximise their

learning without restraint. The constructivist approach enriches/grows in the learners’ multiple

abilities to perform tasks such as to predict answers to states of affairs, organise plans/projects to

curb dangers to natural resources; and to acquire knowledge skills, such as translation, synthesis,

deliberating, interpretation, and extrapolation skills (Tierney, Readence & Dishner, 1995:374-

396).

These skills would be needed by learners, in order to relate in a mutual way with their

environment.

Statement 10:

Learners must be provided with skills to read temperature fluctuations.

Figure 4.25 Skills to read temperature fluctuations

50.00% 50.00% agree

strongly agree

147

The responses for this statement were: Eight teachers (50%) agreed (A), and eight teachers

(50%) strongly agreed (SA). The implications of the results were that teachers recognize the

importance of dispensing geographical skills to their learners. It would mean that the Geography

subject teachers are aware that their learners would need to employ these skills in future careers

in different fields, such as agriculture, weather services, tourism, and more.

According to Butt (2002:16-17), there are specialised functions of maps: For example, weather

maps, which function for specific purposes, such as the impact of temperature fluctuations. The

temperature fluctuations can alert car owners about the hail that might hit their area; it could

affect a person selling ice cream on the street corner; rain/weather could affect the sales of a car

wash business; the lack of, or too much, rain can affect farmers in terms of their crops.

Temperatures have an impact on tourism; people travel to places in travel-friendly weather

conditions, e.g. people do not travel to the east in November/December – for fear of tornados.

Statement 11:

Our learners study geography to be environmentally compliant/friendly.

Figure 4.26 Learners study Geography to be environmentally compliant/friendly

56.25% 43.75% agree

strongly agree

148

The respondents responded in the following manner: nine teachers (56.25%) agreed (A); while

seven teachers (43.75%) strongly agreed (SA). This implies that all the sampled Geography

subject teachers knew what they were mandated to teach their learners to perform, according to

the expectations of the curriculum. The subject teachers were aware that their teaching should

promote knowledge of the environment, in which their learners live. The wellbeing of the

environment would sustain the learners’ lives by providing quality water and a balanced

atmosphere. That balanced atmosphere and quality water would yield good crops and livestock

for their nutrition, in order to sustain their lives.

Sawyer (2006:319) says that Geography teachers should engage their learners in active

construction to promote learners learning opportunities in real-life situations and challenges.

Sawyer (2006:319) goes on to say that teaching and learning in Geography must be practice-

based or practice-oriented. The Geography curriculum is environment-based from the physical,

social, cultural, economic, political, ecological perspectives. The learners’ connection with their

environment is the prime objective for learning geography; so that they would be able to develop

a caring attitude to the immediate world. They should value their immediate environment by

conserving it and keeping it clean.

149

Statement 12:

I prefer teaching using local map to foreign ones.

Figure 4.27 Teaching using local maps

Prior to interpreting and analysing Figure 4.27, it was deemed necessary to look into the

constructivist approach in terms of practical teaching and the learning of maps. Kent and Smith

(ed), (2002:128-130) advocate engagement in deeper fieldwork in map-teaching and learning.

The purpose is to enrich and grow learners’ abilities in geographical scientific investigation. The

acquisition of these abilities is to ensure the attainment of their career paths. The first-hand

knowledge and skills gained would enable learners to answer, interpret, extrapolate the results,

and synthesise the data analytically.

For this statement, one teacher (6.25%) strongly disagreed (SD), three teachers (18.75%)

disagreed (D), four teachers (25%) agreed (A), and eight teachers (50%) strongly agreed (SA).

The researcher noted the contrasting views held by Geography-subject teachers; although the

6.25%

18.75%

25.00%

50.00%

strongly disagree

disagree

agree

strongly agree

150

majority agreed with this statement. From this, the researcher deduced far-reaching implications

concerning the future of the learners in terms of relevant and irrelevant knowledge imparted to

them. A few teachers preferred foreign map teaching to local map teaching. This could mean that

these teachers were not in favour of promoting local (South African) knowledge acquisition in

their learners. This attitude is manifested in the non-exposure of their learners to opportunities in

their immediate learning and teaching environments. Such learners would be deprived of

drawing on their knowledge of the facts of significance to tourism in their local environment.

They would also not be afforded the opportunity of doing practical work in their immediate

environments on real phenomena.

In such learning contexts, the learners are fed with theoretical facts detached from their daily

lives. The other group of teachers promoted South African map teaching before foreign map

teaching. They demonstrated local education acquisition for their learners. The latter learners

would be capacitated to promote their country in the international market, like the places of

interest depicted on the local maps for tourist attraction. That could result in the promotion of

economic growth, which would benefit the learners and the entire nation.

Statement 13:

It is self-fulfilling to realize that the learners are doing practical field projects.

Figure 4.28 Practical field projects

12.50%

56.25%

31.25% disagree

agree

strongly agree

151

Van Schie (2011:22) says that it is important for teachers to equip learners with knowledge

derived from doing practical projects on geographical phenomena. Knowledge acquisition in

learners enables them to adapt to biodiversity, and to health and environmental policies to sustain

their lives in their environment. The provided data by teacher respondents to the statement above

indicate affirmation or rejection of the claim in relation to the assertion of Van Schie (2011:22).

The responses were as follows: Two teachers (12.50%) disagreed (D); nine teachers (56.25%)

agreed (A); while five teachers (31.25%) strongly agreed (SA). The majority of the teachers were

true to their educational mandate by the Department of Education (DoE) that geography teaching

should be done practically to develop learners’ independent learning in the subject. The

implications of the non-compliant teachers, as expressed by the two teachers (12.50%) to the

mandate of practical teaching in Geography did not bode well for the learners. The outcome

thereof would be the production of illiterate learners in terms of maintaining and sustaining a

balanced surrounding.

Statement 14:

I inculcate in learners skills to interpret reality by reporting on their experiences and observations

of concrete reality.

Figure 4.29 Interpretation of reality skills

18.75%

37.50%

43.75% disagree

agree

strongly agree

152

Three teachers (18.75%) responded with disagree (D); six teachers (37.50%) agreed (A); and

seven teachers (43.75%) strongly agreed (SA). Three teachers (18.75%) rejected the statement;

while 81.25% affirmed the statement. The implications of the two contrasts were as follows:

Firstly, there were teachers who taught their learners theoretically. Secondly, there were teachers

who taught their learners practically. The first group may not necessarily develop their learners

into geographically knowledgeable citizens; while the second group developed their learners into

becoming knowledgeable and self-sufficient citizens in terms of appropriating and relating to the

world of their existence. This has already been highlighted in Charts 4.26, 4.27 and 4.28 above.

Baldstone (2000:114-115), Welton and Mallan (1981:186), and Tierney, Readence and Dishner

(1995:394-395) provide information on how to inculcate in learners of Geography, the skills to

interpret reality and to report on learners’ experiences and observations of concrete reality in

their learning environments. They maintain that the constructivist approach enables learners to

acquire/grow skills to predict, organise, rehearse, practise and evaluate facts, in order to develop

metacognitive abilities. The metacognitive abilities needed in the learners’ learning comprise the

ability to translate facts/data, synthesise ideas into a whole, e.g. ability to write a comprehensive

paper on a geographical learner project, the ability to deliberate on resources on a comparative

basis, the ability to interpret and record ideas on gathering data to write a report, the ability to

extrapolate any given datasets, and come to a conclusion, the ability to apply principles to

concrete/actual situations, the ability to analyse interrelationships of facts of phenomena in terms

of their differences, and finally, the ability to evaluate a work produced by a group on practical

geographical projects and give evidence on the work.

4.6.2 Finding from learner questionnaire statements addressing objective 2 (Learners: The

level of difficult English of Geography textbooks presents as a barrier to teaching and

learning geography in grade 12 in Limpopo province)

The purpose with Objective 2 for the learners was to draw the pertinent data from them to

address the barriers under investigation. The data informed whether there was a critical link in

the level of difficulty of the English of textbooks compiled by using the medium of

instruction/LoLT. The data were critical in investigating the teaching and learning of Geography

in the LoLT, and its effect on learner performance in the subject in the Limpopo Province.

153

In addressing Objective 2, a Geography teacher who is not competent in English cannot use a

difficult textbook when teaching, when using the medium of instruction (Vermeulen, 2000:15).

According to Turner-Bisset (2001:83-84), teachers fail to carry out the professional vision and

mission of considering teaching as “a knowledge-based profession”. Sawyer (2006:302-303) and

Setati (2011:11) say that a content (geography) teacher who has an operational and linguistic

lack in Geography impacts negatively on the teaching and learning of the subject.

Statement 15:

How would you describe your performance in Geography?

Table 4.5 Learner Performance


Percentage

Cumulative

Percentage

Not achieved 0-29% 14 3.4 3.4 3.4

Elementary achievement 30 -

39% 51 12.5 12.5 16.0

Moderate achievement 40 -

49% 83 20.4 20.4 36.4

Adequate achievement 50 -

59% 117 28.7 28.7 65.1

Substantial achievement 60 -

69% 79 19.4 19.4 84.5

Meritorious achievement 70 -

79% 44 10.8 10.8 95.3

Outstanding achievement 80

- 100% 19 4.7 4.7 100.0

Total 407 100.0 100.0

154

Figure 4.30 Achievement in Geography

Looking at statement 15, the considerations of James, Milenkiewiez and Buckman (2008:68) on

qualitative evidence should be noted. They say that respondents may have biases towards the

questionnaire item regarding the intentions of the researcher’s topic. Subsequently, the

respondents may withhold their ideas and feelings. The performance issue is connected to their

affective aspect, which impacts on their sensitive feelings that concern their personal integrity.

The respondents responded as follows: 14 learners (3.4%) did not achieve; 51 learners (12.5%)

had elementary achievement; 83 learners (20.4%) had moderate achievement; 117 learners

(28.7%) had adequate achievement; 79 learners (19.4%) had substantial achievement; 44 learners

(10.8%) had meritorious achievement; and 19 learners (4.7%) obtained outstanding achievement.

The learners’ responses reflected in Chart 4.30 have critical implications for learning and

teaching outcomes in geography; because they indicate the learners’ personal perceptions of their

achievements in Geography. If their overall achievement is good, this implies that the learners

have been exposed to good teaching, as is the case with the students in this study.

To the researcher, the first three learner categories were significant; because they could possibly

point towards their performance as a result of LoLT and the use of English textbooks; these

could be possible learning barriers in teaching Geography. The other category of significance

was adequate achievement, which could possibly demonstrate the presence of subtle learning

155

difficulties. The researcher noted commendable performance manifested in the substantial

achievement, meritorious achievement, and outstanding achievement categories. This is

significant; as it could mean that there were some effective and efficient subject teachers in some

of the schools in the province.

Statement 16:

How would you describe the area in which your school is situated?

Figure 4.31 Location of school

156

The information on this chart is similar to that in Chart 4.3 under Objective 1 in terms of subject

teachers. The purpose for choosing statement 16 was because the learning environment has a bearing

on their performance. The learning environment has an impact on a learner’s level of literacy

development; because the literacy level of their respective parents is related to their own literacy

levels. In a specific environment, this reflects on the teachers’ professional proficiency. Another

consequential factor related to learner performance could be the availability of relevant learning

materials for utilization by learners, in order to enhance their performance. The researcher viewed the

aspect of the rural context as extremely significant to learners’ educational development.

Since 83.8% of the learners came from rural schools, the implication is that learner performance could

also be related to the learning challenges experienced in the rural context. They could be learning in

situations where they have fewer opportunities; for example, the absence of media centres. Such

learners would be vulnerable, because of the lack of literacy-promoting facilities at home/school.

Their development would be dependent on their subject-teachers. However, where their teachers were

ineffective and inefficient, as was demonstrated under Objective 1 (with particular reference to

statements 3, 4, 6, 7, and 12), the learners would be negatively impacted. They would not have any

resources to supplement their educational dearth at home.

Learners residing in semi-rural areas could also possibly suffer the same fate, because of the scarcity

of resources, as in the rural areas.

According to Benson, Heaguey, Hewitt, Crosling and Devos (2013:85), the rural factors of school

location may influence the conceptual framework of concerned learners. The resources in context and

the expectations of the rural community may not be sufficient to provide adequate intrinsic and

extrinsic motivation to the learners to learn effectively. That is, the issue of the parental-literacy level

might well contribute to the desired literacy level, which influences learners’ performance.

Engelbrecht Green, Naicker and Engelbrecht (1999:48) maintain that “the psychological environment

of a school can act either as a barrier to, or as an opportunity for, learning and development.”

This view illuminates statement 16, where the location of schools in the study may be affected by rural

factors in terms of households’ literacy level, which affects the learners’ performance.

157

Statement 17:

How many teachers are responsible for teaching you Geography?

Figure 4.32

The researcher intended to know about the staffing in the curriculum. Teacher proficiency in the

subject was viewed as a critical factor underlying the performance of teachers and learners. The

aim was to look into the problem areas as far as the coverage of and catering for all the

prescribed sections of the subject are concerned. The rationale of looking into the subject

challenges would be evidenced in the statements addressing objectives 1 alluded to above, in

which teacher had shortcomings in teaching their learners. When viewing Figure 4.32, the reader

would be struck by the fact that 74.7% of the learners’ responses disclosed that a solitary teacher

was responsible for handling all the section of the curriculum. This state of affairs would be

disastrous to all the schools concerned. This would be the case in view of the negative responses

gathered on the pertinent statement on Objective 1. This dealt specifically with teachers’ dearth

in teaching learners Geography.

Re-visiting statements 3, 4, 6, 7 and 12 should raise an alarm on the question of the inefficiency

of the Geography subject teachers. The gloomy picture demonstrated by 16.7% would be

perpetuated by teachers who are sharing the subject while they are equally not competent in the

158

subject. Therefore, the question of the poor staffing in schools would be hopeless as far as the

expectation of good results was concerned.

The teacher is an architect of the teaching and learning activities in the Geography learning

situation. In principle, the teacher is to be a knowledgeable lesson planner and dispenser, in order

to attain effective teaching and learning of the content. Vermeulen (2000:15), Sawyer (2006:302-

303) and Setati (2011:11) maintain that a subject teacher, who is lacking in the content and the

language (English) of instruction, would impact negatively on the pupils’ learning. This is

because the teacher would be operationally and linguistically unable to impart the intended

content effectively, in order to maximise the learning of the content (Geography).

Such a teacher would be acting contrary to Turner-Bisset (2001:83-84), who considers teaching

as “a knowledge-based profession.” The staffing scenario depicted in statement 17 is a concern

for authors, like Callanagh (2007:13) and Ho (2010:20), who believe in Geography as an

integrated geoscience that requires expert teachers. Through the employment of discipline-

specific approaches, learners with individual or experiential learning styles can benefit.

Therefore, a teacher who cannot tackle a difficult textbook is a barrier to the teaching and

learning of the subject.

159

Statement 18:

Have you used more than one (1) textbook in your Geography class between January 2012

and this month?

Figure 4.33

Have you used more than one textbook in

your Geography class between January

2012 and this month?

Textbook are considered primary sources of curriculum-based knowledge intended for the

learner to use, in order to optimise the acquisition of knowledge. However, textbooks are

characterised by structural, contextual and conceptual logistical problems that impact on the use

of the textbooks by the learners. Graves and Murphy (2000:229) agree with the above assertion;

as they say that no textbook is deemed perfect/complete/sufficient. Butt (2002:200) says the

language used in the textbook can be a barrier in terms of its difficulty and complexity for the

second-language learner’s linguistic level. According to Naidoo (2006:9), this state of affairs

becomes compounded if the teacher offering the content is linguistically inept.

The rationale behind the question was to obtain information on whether the subject teachers had

exposed their learners to different textbooks on Geography. Exposure to reading many textbooks

160

would help the learners to acquire more knowledge of the subject. It would advantage learners to

acquire knowledge from many sources; as no single textbook can be complete or comprehensive

on all the prescribed sections of the subject. Reading different textbooks would help learners to

augment and supplement the scanty information in some textbooks. Over and above that, it must

be noted that some textbooks are not user-friendly. Some textbooks are written in difficult

English – in a complicated way for the second-language learner to follow logically the thread of

meaning in the text. The results of the two categories of YES/NO answers would imply a bad

picture, as manifested in YES: 2006:50.6% and NO: 2001:49.39%, respectively. The reader

would view NO: 2001:49.39% response a worrying picture. The challenge in the value would be

that no single Geography textbook so far has been found as perfect and comprehensive, as well

as user-friendly. Therefore, the results in the question above had far-reaching implications on

learners’ performance.

4.6.3 Findings from learner questionnaire statements addressing objective 3 (The barrier of

English as the medium of instruction in the learning and teaching of geography)

The focus from the findings of the learner questionnaire was laid on the threats the LoLT had to

second-language learners in their learning of Geography. The medium of instruction and learning

(English) was viewed as very pivotal in the teaching and learning situations. The teacher should

dispense the contents in the learner-friendly medium of instruction (English) without

compromising the meaningfulness and effectiveness of the learning activity. The teacher should

encourage the listening learner to be receptive through the application of efficacious strategies

and skills. In return, the learner should react communicatively and intelligibly during the

teaching and learning exercises.

Radnor (2002:14), Sawyer (2006:30) and Seligmann (2011:13) maintain that English, as a

medium of instruction forms one of the critical barriers to the second-language learner in the

learning and teaching of Geography. The barrier manifests when the learner is challenged by not

understanding complex concepts in Geography. This relates to the struggles of second-language

learners to operate in subject-specific concepts beyond the learner’s conceptualisation of the

content/Geography, and for them to be able to interpret information from passages of the

textbook. The learner’s learning challenges are underpinned by their lack of linguistic skills to

recognise linking words in learning activities in terms of their classroom-based experiences.

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Objective 3 regarding the learners of Geography was probed by statements 19-26, whose data

were presented by their respective Figures 4.34, 4.35, 4.36, 4.38, 4.39 and 4.41.

Statement 19:

Usually, it is frustrating to be taught in English; because I struggle to follow up the rest of

the lesson in English.

Figure 4.34

The learners responded as follows: 94 learners (26.04%) strongly disagreed (SD) with this

statement; while 142 learners (39.34%) disagreed (D). The implications of the responses above

were that learners had not experienced challenges in the use of English as the LoLT. On the

contrary, 103 learners (28.53%) agreed with this statement. The implication was that the learners

had experienced challenges with English in their learning of Geography. The group was backed

up by 22 learners (6.09%), who strongly agreed. The implications confirmed further that English

is a learning barrier to the learners in question. Therefore, this implied that the latter groups

would perform poorly in geography; due to the impact of the LoLT on their learning.

The responses to the statement should be viewed or interpreted, in accordance with the co-

operative and experiential learning approach, which presupposes the attainment of meaningful

learning, whereby the learner should develop optimally in the content, both conceptually and

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cognitively. The above assertion is based on the views held by Radnor (2002:14), Butt

(2002:200) and Govender (2010:4). These scholars complement one another by stating that

English is considered as a critical vehicle in the planning, preparation and execution of lessons in

Geography teaching and learning situations. The teacher of Geography directs the learners’

participation in the Geography lesson through talking, writing and reading in English. Butt

(2002:200-2011) says that the interaction between the teacher and learners happens to be barred

by the use of geographical technical language used predominantly beyond the conceptual

development of the learner.

Statement 20:

The use of big English words confuses me, when learning Geography.

Figure 4.35

The responses were 35 learners (9.46%), who strongly disagreed (SD) with this statement,

followed by 98 learners (26.49%) who disagreed (D) with the proposition. On the contrary, 194

learners (52.43%) agreed (A); while 43 learners (11.62%) strongly agreed (SA).

The implications from the latter responses were that a larger proportion of the learner population

stated they had experienced LoLT challenges in their Geography classrooms. However, it is

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equally important that 35.95% of the learner population did not experience problems with the

English words, when learning the subject; whilst at the same time, as many as 64.05% of the

learner population found this a problem.

Radnor (2002:14) and Seligman (2011:13) view English as the medium of instruction for

Geography teaching as a critical learning and teaching barrier. This is because the second-

language (English) learners do not command an understanding of the complex concepts of

Geography and language (English) literacy/vocabulary to function in their learning

environments.

Statement 21:

I happen to have a problem with the use of many English synonyms in textbooks.

Figure 4.36

The learners reacted to the statement as follows: 45 learners (12.53%) strongly disagree, 115

learners (32.03%) disagreed, 156 learners (43.45%) agreed with the statement, and 43 learners

(11.98%) strongly agreed with the statement. It appeared that the collective of 44.56% rejected

the statement; while 55.44% affirmed the statement. A significant number (11.79%) did not

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respond to the statement. The implications drawn from both contrasts were that there existed two

parallels in the learners’ performances. Ultimately, good schools in the province focus more on

the English abilities of their students. However, due to the remoteness of the province, the

situation in various schools would differ. Schools in remote areas of the province experience

difficulty with English; because they use the local African language most of the time.

Sawyer (2006:302) says that Geography textbooks’ complex/technical/specific language makes

it difficult for second-language learners to function linguistically when articulating ideas. The

textbooks’ technical language problem emanates from the learners’ lack in language proficiency.

Learner’s lack in operational literacy manifests in reading and comprehending meaning from text

passages during Geography classroom activities. The train of the pupils’ learning process in

terms of interpreting new information, assimilating and accommodating meta-cognitively

becomes hampered (Sawyer, 2006:303).

Statement 22:

I become confused when questions are asked in different difficult English words in

examinations.

Figure 4.37

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Learners responded to the statement as follows: 33 learners (8.8%) responded with strongly

disagree (SD), 71 learners (18.93%) disagreed (D). On the other hand, 175 learners (46,67%)

agreed (A) with the statement; while 96 learners (25.60%) strongly agreed (SA). At this juncture,

it is important to mention that in addition to the use of English words, one must also mention the

use of difficult English words; and this scenario in an examination context poses a big challenge

to the learners. The scenario reflected in Figure 4.37 implies that if learners are not

communicative in English, the expected examination performance of such learners would be

poor. This means that the collective 271 (66.58%) learners would experience challenges in

answering the questions – due to the misunderstanding of some keywords in the gist of the

questions. Their results in the subject would consequently be affected.

The statement implies consequential challenges to second-language learners’ conceptual and

literacy development. The challenges emanate from content teachers’ failure to impart to learners

the Geography-specific technical language, as explained by Plüddemann (2002:55). Content

teachers who are lacking in their subject knowledge subsequently disempower the learners

entrusted to them. They are unable to empower them with the specific knowledge to develop into

well-informed future workers (Naidoo & Bloch: 2008:45, Bloch 2010:7).

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Statement 23

I sometimes have a problem in following instructions in English because of the use of words

I am not used to.

Figure 4.38

In response to this statement, 75 learners (20.95%) strongly disagreed (SD) and 115 learners

(32.12%) disagreed (D). Conversely, 132 learners (36.87%) agreed (A) with the statement, and

36 learners (10.06%) strongly agreed (SA) with the statement. The learners’ responses painted a

controversial picture, which was contrary to Figures 4.35, 4.36 and 4.37 above, which confirmed

that the LoLT was a barrier to learning and teaching. Furthermore, the learners demonstrated

inconsistency in their responses, which had questionable implications to their literacy level in the

LoLT.

Naish (1992:186) says learners experience learning challenges because they cannot cope with the

difficult language (English) emanating from difficult passages. As a result, they cannot discern

key points from chunks of information in complex sentences in many passages. The problem

experienced by the learners emanates from the subject teacher, who fails to minimise or remove

the barriers by providing instructional help to the learner. Consequently, the teacher renders the

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learners vulnerable to losing opportunities to grow in both the content and medium of

instruction.

Statement 24

The use of tense in English confuses me; because I usually forget which one to use when

writing in Geography.

Figure 4.39

There was a mixed response to the statement concerning the use of tenses, when writing in

Geography: 65 learners (18.21%) responded with strongly disagree (SD); 143 learners (40.06%)

responded with disagree (D). 132 learners (32.21%) agreed (A) with the statement; and 34

learners (9.52%) responded with strongly agree (SA). The underlying conclusion was that a fair

number of learners (41.73%) adhered to tense use in their writing or communicating. In view of

the contrast pointed out in pie-chart 4.38, this casts doubts on the discerning skills of the learner

population at large in terms of the mastery of the LoLT. Over and above the contrast referred to,

it should be noted that the LoLT is a recognized learning barrier for second-language learners.

Mastery of the operational language is considered critical in teaching and learning in Geography;

because the meaningful message depends on the articulate reporter/presenter in co-operative

learning (Sawyer, 2006:300). James (2010:34) say teachers are obliged to develop

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communicative competence in the content. Mastery of the medium of instruction in Geography,

therefore, entails command of spelling, punctuation and grammar. These competencies are the

means to the attainment of successful reporting.

Statement 25

In most cases, I pick up problems in summarizing a paragraph in a case study; because of

difficult English words.

Figure 4.40

For this statement, 61 learners (16.99%) responded with strongly disagree (SD); and 116 learners

(32.31%) responded with disagree (D). In affirmation of the statement, 138 learners (38.44%)

agreed (A) with the statement; while 44 learners (12.26%) strongly agreed (SA). The responses

in both broad categories indicated an almost-balanced equation. Again, it is evident that a fair

number of learners experience difficulty with use of technical English words. The practical

implications would be that some learners did not comprehend the logistical challenges in terms

of summarizing a case study. If one considers chart 4.20 on statement 6, 49.3% of the teachers

did not develop their learners in geographical terms.

This indicates a gap in knowledge of geographical concepts/ terminologies, which could also be

related to their literacy level in terms of the above statement.

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Cotton (1995:137) says that effective teaching emanates from expert teachers in a content that

begets effective learning in the learners. On the contrary, poor curriculum teachers perpetuate

poor practice in their learners. Summarising a case study is a challenging exercise in Geography.

It is compounded by complex curriculum/Geography-specific language use, with which the

Geography learner has to grapple, to conceptualise and contextualise, in order to realise

meaningful learning. Dale, Ferguson and Robin (1988:23-24) say it is the subject teachers who

hinder educative learning in their learners – due to their lack of teaching skills and strategies to

affect their conceptualisation/contextualisation in the content. Learners taught by a competent

teacher learn skills concretised operationally in identifying key words and points in the passage

in context; and they are thus able to summarise logically and systematically.

Statement 26

It is hard for me to construct sentences in English when answering questions in class.

Figure 4.41

The statement was rejected overwhelmingly by 287 learners, as follows: 133 (37.25%) learners

strongly disagreed (SD); and 154 (43.12%) learners disagreed (D) with the statement. On the

contrary, 56 (15.69) learners agreed (A) with the statement and 14 (3.92%) learners strongly

agreed (SA). The holistic picture was that 80.37% of the population rejected the statement. This

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implies that most of the learners were in command of the LoLT. The learners’ view was contrary

to their teachers’ responses under Objective 3 for statement 27 (chart 4.42); who maintained that

their learners had challenges with the LoLT and in answering questions. In their response,

80.39% of the teachers’ confirmed that their learners had challenges in constructing simple

logical sentences in English in their Geography lessons. Therefore, these responses by the

learners are likely to be untrue or misleading.

Communicative competence entails the ability to construct intelligible sentences and articulate

ideas and experiences flexibly in class. Moreno (2010:298) says it incumbent upon expert

teachers in their specialised curriculum to expose their learners to active and experiential

learning in the medium of instruction. This exposure would develop them, so that they construct

sentences based on context. It is the competent curriculum teacher who initiates learning

activities to develop learners in listening, speaking, reading and writing skills. Moreno

(2010:298) suggests that practising experiential learning in sentence construction on a regular

basis helps learners to perfect their sentence construction through listening to the competent

teacher guiding and directing the use of meaningful practical language.

The competent teacher engages the learners in speaking in English, in order to redress any

syntactical flaws to prefect their writing skills in Geography. Active engagement in all the

activities presupposes the ability in sentence construction (Moreno, 2010:298). Tierney

Readence and Dishner (1995:394-396) uphold the acquisition of meta-language/metacognitive

skills in learners. Metacognitive skills manifest in the rehearsal of key words by the learner –

words, which can be used in sentence construction – to convey ideas in interactive learning in

class. Furthermore, sentence construction is practised and planned by the competent teacher

granting learning opportunities for the learner to develop communicative skills, and to realise

communicative competence in the LoLT.

4.6.4 Findings from teacher questionnaire statements addressing Objective 3

As in the case of the learners concerning Objective 3, the focus of the research for the teachers

was on how the LoLT impacts the learners’ learning in relation to teaching and assessment. Of

significance was the correlation of the learners’ responses and the teachers’ responses. The

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varying points of view that emerged emanated from the teacher’s professional discerning of the

educational exercises, in contrast with the learner’s level of literacy in terms of the command of

the learning content and LoLT. The subject teachers pointed out subtle manifestations of learning

challenges that the learners experienced from the didactic activities. On the other hand, the

learners’ identified the salient challenges, which would have implications on the outcomes of the

study.

Statement 27

Learners generally struggle to construct simple logical sentences in English in Geography

lessons.

Figure 4.42

The teachers’ responses were as follows: Four teachers (25%) disagreed (D) versus the 10

teachers (62.5%) who agreed (A), and the 2 teachers (12.5%) who strongly agreed (SA) with the

statement. These results imply that the LoLT was impacting on the performance of the learners.

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The reader would have realised that the responses of the teachers were in contrast with those of

their learners, as indicated in statement 23 and chart 4.38, statement 24 and chart 4.39, statement

25 and chart 4.40, statement 26 and chart 4.41. In summary, the learners’ responses had

implications for the study; because in some cases, they gave contrasting responses that could

compromise the reliability of the results of the investigation.

Statement 28

Learners do not command mastery of the subject-verb agreement in oral and written

presentations.

Figure 4.43

In response to this statement, 6 teachers (37.5%) responded with disagree (D); while 8 teachers

(50%) and 2 teachers (12.5%) responded with agree (A) and strongly agree (SA), respectively.

Rejection of the statement by most of the learners signified that the learners commanded the

subject-verb agreement well in their oral and written presentations. This implied that they were

intelligible in the presentation of their assessments. However, affirmation of the statement

implied that the majority of the learner population had LoLT command challenges with respect

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to the use of the concord, which would render their presentations vulnerable in terms of

understanding by the reader.

Statement 29

Learners are often unable to differentiate use of geographical words in context

Figure 4.44

The teachers’ responses to this statement were relatively contrasting. They responded as follows:

Two teachers (12.5%) strongly disagreed (SD); 5 teachers (31.25%) disagreed (D); 6 teachers

(37.5%) agreed (A); and 3 teachers (18.75%) responded with strongly agree (SA). Disagreement

with this statement collectively constituted 43.75%; while affirmation of this statement

constituted 56.3%. From the perspective of statements 6 and 30 reflected in charts 4.20 and 4.44,

a significant point was raised. This implies that despite the fact that a fair number of learners had

acquired the geographical terms, they still could not perform well, according to statement 28.

Moreover, 56.25% affirmed that learners had problems with geographical terms, which impacted

their understanding of the subject.

The statement implies that Geography teachers should teach learners Geography-specific

language, in order to maximise their conceptual and contextual frameworks. Vermeulen

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(2000:15) says that a Geography teacher who is lacking in Geography-specific language deprives

the learners’ opportunity to grow their communicative competence.

Statement 30

Spelling poses serious problems for learners resulting in distortions of meaning in the

communication/presentations.

Figure 4.45

Most of the responses affirmed the statement, constituting 75% collectively. The affirmation was

split as follows: 8 teachers (50%) agreed (A) and 4 teachers (25%) strongly agreed (SA). This

implies that most of the Geography learners have spelling challenges in terms of geographical

concepts and the LoLT, in general. The spelling barrier influenced their oral and written

presentations, resulting in underperformance in the subject as a whole.

Spelling influences communication enormously: either positively or negatively. It must be

practised regularly, in order to enhance good written reporting. Therefore, Geography teachers

need to initiate spelling activities (Bears & Barone 1998:18, Skehan 1999:246). On the contrary,

Moreno (2010:298) maintains that some geography teachers deny their Geography learners the

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opportunity to perfect their spelling ability – due to their failure to employ the constructive

approach.

Statement 31

Learners think effectively in their home language, resulting in distortion of the facts.

Figure 4.46

The responses to the statement were as follows: Two teachers (12.5%) strongly disagreed (SD);

six teachers (37.5%) disagreed (D). This collectively constituted 50% disagreement (D) to the

statement. In terms of affirming the statement, eight teachers (50%) agreed (A) with the

statement. The teacher respondents displayed inconsistency in their experiences in terms of

prevalent barriers to Geography learning and teaching. Regarding affirmation of the statement,

consistency was sustained in maintaining that the LoLT was a barrier for second-language

learners in Geography.

The importance of teaching learners Geography-specific language can hardly be

overemphasized; because it is consequential in their cognitive development in terms of their

practice in their future careers. Howell and Lazarus (2003:5) view the language of teaching, or

the medium of instruction, as the most significant barrier to learners in Geography, especially if

teachers do not engage learners to practise this Geography-specific language. Radnor (2002:14)

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and Govender (2010:4) maintain that Geography teachers should teach their learners Geography-

specific language to optimize their language in their cognition or metacognition. Learners can be

developed in their cognitive and metacognitive skills by giving them specific-learning activities.

Statement 32

Learners are quite often unable to follow instructions properly in English, resulting in

answering questions wrongly – even if they knew the facts/ had information.

Figure 4.47

The responses were as follows: One teacher (6.25%) strongly agreed (SA); two teachers (12.5%)

disagreed (D); 11 teachers (68.75%) agreed (A), two teachers (12.5%) strongly agreed (SA) with

the statement. The collective results showed that the statement was confirmed overwhelmingly

by 81.25% against 18.75%. These responses to the statement confirmed the general view that

emerged that the LoLT was considered a barrier to Geography teaching and learning.

Following the instructions is a significant ability underpinned by skills to identify key points and

words/concepts in a given passage or a case study. Campbell (2001:23) says that the ability to

follow instructions presupposes the ability to predict and analyse facts in a given activity or

Geographical undertaking. Cotton (1995:137) says that instructional development in learners

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emanates from the good practice employed by good teachers, who can develop good practice in

their learners.

4.6.5 Objective 4: Teachers: Code-switching from English into vernacular languages in

teaching and learning geography presents as a barrier to second language learners.

The main objective of teaching and learning Geography centres on the provision of literacy to

learners. The literacy in Geography entails the mastery of a repertoire of practices employed by

the teacher in dispensing knowledge to learners in the context, in order for them to acquire

content-specific linguistic competence (Sawyer, 2006:302). Vermeulen (2000:15) says language

literacy enables learners to interact with the world by sharing ideas, experiences and grasping

possibilities. Objective 4, in terms of teachers, focuses on code-switching practice, which is

probed by statements 33 to 40 militating against the development of communicative competence

in the learners. This is because code-switching impoverishes learners’ conceptual, contextual and

linguistic knowledge/development.

Leat (2002:109-111) considers that teachers, who are not able to teach Geography competently

in English to be non-specialist Geography teachers; because they do not aspire to craft

Geography-career paths for their learners.

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Statement 33

I use the home language to explain abstract [geographical] terms.

Figure 4.48

With regard to the use of African languages in teaching their learners, the teachers in the study

responded as follows: One teacher (6.25%) did not use the home language to explain

geographical terms; five teachers (31.25%) rarely used their African language to facilitate their

learners’ learning challenges. Ten teachers (62.5%) often saw it necessary to employ the home

language, where their learners experienced difficulties in respect of the LoLT in geographical

terminologies. Two teachers (12.5%) always cultivated the habit of using an African language as

a parallel vehicle to teach their learners. The implications of the responses is that subject teachers

who have never adopted African languages as an alternative medium of instruction have an

option to present to their learners in relation to the development of their specific curricular

terminologies – resulting in the attainment of a communicative level.

The same benefit is also available to teachers who rarely use an African language, when

explaining the abstract terminologies used in Geography. For the 62.5% of teachers who

frequently practise code-switching as a norm, this impacts on the learners’ growth and

acquisition of linguistics/terminologies in Geography. This may also imply that the teacher lacks

competence in English and in the learning content.

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The statement is examined in terms of the view held by Breidlid (2003:83) that the curriculum-

challenged teacher is tempted to shield his/her curriculum-specific language weakness behind

code-switching into the vernacular language (MT). The use of the MT with the intention to

facilitate the acquisition of geographical terminology is counterproductive for the Geography

linguistic competence of learners. Code-switching is a futile exercise; because, according to

Mahlalela-Thusi and Heugh (2001:24), “there is no, or insufficient, terminology in African

languages” to supplement English for second-language learners in Geography.

Statement 34

I use the home language to translate difficult English words for learners.

Figure 4.49

The teachers responded to the statement as follows: Two teachers (12.5%) responded never; five

teachers (31.25%) responded rarely; four teachers (25%) responded often; and five teachers

(31.25%) responded always. The implications of the responses by the teachers are that learners

are the ones who benefit from this kind of assistance from their teachers. This means that the

subject teachers who teach the Geography subject would develop their learners optimally. Such

development would benefit their future career paths. This also implies that the vulnerable learner

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would not be able to communicate the facts by using specific subject terminologies; and this

would compromise their achievement during the assessment process.

Rodseth (2002:109) attests to the view of Mahlalela-Thusi and Heugh (2001:24) that a dual

medium of instruction in Geography classes is encouraged by teachers who are not competent in

the medium of instruction (English). This means that a competent teacher in Geography would

not be challenged when required to teach effectively in English.

Statement 35

I use the home language to help learners to follow the Geography lesson.

Figure 4.50

In response to this statement, three teachers (18.75%) responded never; eight teachers (50%)

responded rarely; three teachers (18.75%) responded often; and two teachers (12.5%) responded

always. The responses were analysed in terms of the individual implications. The first category

subject teachers never use an African language to remedy the learning challenges of the learners.

That in itself would instil confidence in them to grapple with the LoLT. Subsequently, it is

possible that learners would grow in literacy and mastery of Geography. The same would be

achieved with learners, where their teachers rarely use African languages in their teaching and

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learning. The implications here would be that the teachers would not encourage the use of

African languages; but the LoLT is rather promoted. Teachers who often practise code-switching

influence their learners not to think and communicate in the LoLT, but preferably in the African

language(s). This practice mitigates against their development in the LoLT. The same practice

would apply to learners, whose teachers are always indulging in code-switching; because this

would be detrimental to the attainment of literacy in the LoLT and the subject per se.

Leat (2002:109-111) indicates that Geography teachers who are lacking in Geography linguistic

competence opt for practising code-switching from the LoLT into the MT. This practice

disfavours the learners; because they are unable to achieve communicative competence in

Geography. Instead, they would be impoverished in terms of their mastery of concepts in

Geography, which would deprive them of opportunities in their career paths.

Statement 36

I reprimand my learners for using the home language in the Geography class.

Figure 4.51

In response to the reprimands given to learners by teachers because they use their home language

in the class, two teachers (13.33%) responded never; six teachers (40%) said rarely; and seven

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teachers (46.67%) said often. The implications of the responses indicate that some teachers

reprimand learners and some do not; therefore, this response is not a good indicator of the use of

home languages in the class. This means that the teacher respondents did not stick to their

professional practice and employment of the policies and principles related to the language used

in their classrooms. This also means that teachers did not encourage their learners to use English

orally, or in written form, for assessment purposes. This practice would not remedy spelling,

terminology and thinking in English in the Geography classroom. The approach could affect

their performance in the subject as well.

The teacher in command of geography-specific language would always engage the learners in

learning Geography via English. The teacher should pursue a constructive teaching and learning

approach to grow communicatively competent learners. Such practically taught learners would

ultimately follow Geography-specific career paths. The adherence to the constructivist approach

is considered by Turner-Bisset (2001:83-84) to be “a knowledge-based career” highly valued for

learners to acquire. The endorsed constructivist approach is preferred to code-switching, which

bars learners from growing in knowledge.

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Statement 37

Learners who use the home language in the Geography class can still present good answers

in English in the examinations.

Figure 4.52

The teachers responded as follows to this statement: Three teachers (18.75%) responded never;

three teachers (18.75%) responded rarely; eight teachers (50%) responded often; and 2two

teachers (12.5%) responded always. Most of the teachers were convinced that the use of African

languages did not impact at all on the learners’ performance in examinations – even if they were

not accustomed to the use of English prior to sitting for an examination. The latter responses did

not correlate with the views of statement 21 and chart 4.36, which concluded that learners

struggled to comprehend the content due to LoLT challenges. Therefore, this raises the following

question: How could the learners then cope without thorough practice in answering in English in

examinations? On those grounds, the teachers’ responses lacked conviction for this statement.

Howie (2005:178) says the second-language learners “dip in their performance in Geography,

due to the fact that they struggle with questions… resulting in their being unable to articulate

their answer when writing in English”. Butt (2002:200) considers English as the medium of

teaching and learning Geography in all learning situations. Govender (2010:4) and Haselhurst

(2010:6) accentuate the views held by Butt (2002:200) and Howie (2005:178) by considering

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English as a consequential core to teaching and learning Geography. Their views regarding

English as a medium of instruction in Geography are critical. Teachers who do not use English

for teaching hinder the learners from developing their communicative competence. They can

hardly present/articulate answers to questions in examinations, thereby threatening good

performance.

Mahlalela-Thusi and Heugh (2001:24) maintain that the MT cannot be used an alternative for

English in teaching and learning Geography. Therefore, Geography teachers who use the MT in

Geography militate against the accomplishment of communicative competence in the learners.

Statement 38

English is a recognized barrier to the non-English speakers in a Geography class.

Figure 4.53

The teachers responded as follows: Six teachers (37.5%) never recognized LoLT as a barrier;

four teachers (25%) rarely recognized the LoLT as a barrier; four teachers (25%) often

recognized the LoLT as a barrier; and 2two teachers (12.5%) always recognized the LoLT as a

barrier. The above statement underpinned one of the four barriers under investigation. The

teachers’ responses to the statement were viewed in conjunction with statements 20, 21 and 22

and charts 4.35, 4.36 and 4.37. According to the statements and their respective charts, it was

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acknowledged by the learners that English remains a recognized learning barrier. According to

the teachers, it was maintained that English is learner-friendly, with particular reference to the

37.5% of the responses to never; and the 25% responses to rarely above. Again, the teachers’

responses signified to the researcher that some teacher responses did not correspond with the

first-hand experiences displayed by the learners as central figures in the teaching and learning

experience. The learners, however, were backed by a 37.5% collective response to often and

always. They convincingly indicated that English was a recognized learning barrier.

Research has asserted that English is a fundamental learning and teaching barrier in Geography.

The problem emanates from poor teachers in English overlapping with their lack of Geography-

specific language. Essien (2010:34) asserts that learners underachieve in the matric

examinations; because they are unable to answer the questions correctly. This is due to their poor

communicative competence. Setati (2011:11) agrees with Essien (2010:34) that English literacy

and mathematical literacy are critical links to good performance by learners.

Statement 39

I use the home language in class when I realize learners seem lost in my lesson

Figure 4.54

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The statement was affirmed by eight teachers (50%) and two teachers (12.5%), constituting

62.5% collectively in respect of often and always, respectively. Such teacher-attitudes and

practice deprived the learners of independent thinking opportunities in Geography for their

cognitive and conceptual development. Ultimately, it is probable that their learners would

perform poorly in Geography. On the contrary, 37.5% constituted by never and rarely were

recorded affirming that they practised English as a matter of principle in the teaching and

learning situation. Such learners would be advantaged to implement adaptive attitudes to the use

of English for practical learning; and to realize their literacy in the LoLT and Geography. Again

the views are mixed for this statement.

Turner-Bisset’s (2001:83-84) paradigm of teaching maintains that teaching is “a knowledge-

based profession”. It suggests that a knowledgeable Geography teacher should be in command of

effective-teaching methods commensurate with the pertinent teaching strategies earmarked for

specific learners’ (experiential approach/development in Geography). A teacher who commands

expertise in Geography would not run out of ideas on how to cater for individual learners in the

learning situation. The teacher would ensure that each learner benefits optimally, and would

grant learning opportunities to each learner (Bloch, 2009:90-91).

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Statement 40

I use the home language in Geography lessons when I want my learners to understand the

lesson.

Figure 4.55

The responses to this statement were as follows: One teacher (6.25%) responded never; three

teachers (18.75%) responded rarely; both values taken together comprised 25%. Seven teachers

(43.75%) responded often; and 5 teachers (31.25%) responded always both of which

collectively constituted 75% when taken together. The logic deduced from the values to often

and always would imply a detrimental effect on the learners in terms of denying them growth in

the LoLT and in their Geography.

The practice suggested in statement 40 implies that the Geography teachers in question are

lacking in Geography-specific language (Turner-Bisset) (2001:83-84). Consequently, second-

language learners would not be able to grow in communicative competence. They would be

deprived of the opportunity to learn Geography in English – in preparation for answering

questions in English in examinations (Bloch, 2009:90-91).

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Findings from learner questionnaire statements addressing Objective 4 (Learners: Practice

of code-switching from English to vernacular languages deprives second-language learners’

opportunities to develop in Geography-specific language/literacy.)

Howell and Lazarus (2003:5) aptly say that English, as the medium of instruction, is the most

significant barrier to learning and teaching in Geography. The Geography teacher’s command of

English and the content itself impacts on the learners in terms of their knowledge acquisition or

development in Geography. Butt (2002:200) considers teachers’ lack of knowledge and language

literacy as a barrier to instruction, resulting in communicative incompetence. Cotton (1995:80-

87) says that incompetent Geography teachers compound the learning barriers of second-

language learners’ by promoting code-switching from the medium of instruction into the

vernacular languages.

This implies that those Geography teachers who lack Geography-specific knowledge would

produce incompetent learners. In short, unskilled Geography teachers would not be able to

realise the vision and mission of the curriculum in terms of producing knowledgeable citizens,

which is expected of them as their core business.

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Statement 41

Our teacher uses the home language for explaining difficult [geographical] terms.

Figure 4.56

The learners responded as follows: 34 learners (8.85%) responded never; 63 learners (16.41%)

responded rarely; 152 learners (39.58%) responded often; and 135 learners (35.16%) responded

always. The never and rarely learners constituted 25.26%; and these maintained that their

subject teachers did not use the African languages in the teaching and learning activities. The

often and always responses constituted 74.74%, which confirmed the statement. The implication

is that learners would not be developed in terms of the use of the LoLT in respect of African

languages. The assertion was based on the fact that their African languages had no developed

scientific terminologies that they could use to teach these terms.

Other academic implications were that the same practitioners demonstrated their incompetency

in both the LoLT and the content.

A teacher who commands content-specific language is conscious of possessing the pertinent

teaching skills and strategies to employ to develop learners’ conceptual repertoires, in order to

maximise their knowledge. Bloch (2009:90-91) describes such a teacher as a subject-knowledge

specialist, who appropriates a subject-specific linguist pertinently to the contexts. Bloch

(2009:90-91) goes on to say that a content teacher who is poor in subject knowledge displays

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teaching inadequacies that manifest in the employment of ineffectual teaching strategies and

approaches. The latter approaches enhance optimal learner development that is talent-

development oriented (Dale, Ferguson & Robin, 1988:24).

Statement 42

Our teacher uses the home language for making difficult English easy for us to understand

during the lesson.

Figure 4.57

The learners responded to the statement as follows:

As many as 38 learners (10.38%) said that their teachers never practised the use of their home

language when teaching them. They consistently stuck to the LoLT. A further 60 learners

(16.39%) said their teacher very rarely adopted their respective African languages to facilitate

difficult geographical words in English, in order for them to understand their lessons. The

implications are that they were explained English words in English until they could comprehend

the lesson through participative involvement. This meant that the learners would optimize the use

of the English language in the subject (Geography).

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For the often and always values, 11 learners (32.24%) and 150 learners (40.98%), respectively,

indicated that their teachers used African languages under the pretext of facilitating difficult

LoLT for their learners, in order for them to understand their lessons. The reality is that their

teachers had no LoLT competency to utilize for the benefit of the learners. This meant that the

learners were at a disadvantage in terms of subject-vocabulary growth.

According to Sawyer (2006:302), a content teacher is considered to be in command of

“operational literacy, which includes competence with the tools, procedures, and techniques

involved in handling [issues] with language proficiency”. This quotation addresses statement 42,

which suggests that a linguistically incompetent teacher resorts to code-switching from English

into the MT. Through code-switching, the teacher violates the set content-operational rules and

constructivist practices. The gist of the quotation is that Geography teaching is governed by

involvement with phenomena/concrete realities in context. The manipulation of the facts by the

learners forms their ideas and experiences. The conceptual and conceptual processes of learning

build up/form the learners’ cognitive/metacognitive powerhouse, which entails knowledge

development (Kruger & Adam, 1999:154).

Knowledge acquisition by the learner enables the learner to perform operational tasks in various

contexts – through the appropriation of content-specific language.

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Statement 43

Our teacher allows us to use our home language in class.

Figure 4.58

The learners responded as follows: As many as 105 learners (29.33%) responded with never; 87

learners (24.30%) responded with rarely. Both values rejected the statement. A further 95

learners (26.54%) responded with often; and 71 learners (97.83%) responded with always. The

last values were in support of the statement. The reader should note that the respondents reacted

differently to statements 41 and 42, and to charts 4.56 and 4.57; where the inclination was to

embrace code-switching. This demonstrated that more learners were comfortable with the LoLT,

is so far as the never and rarely values were concerned. It also meant that more learners were

involved in practical learning in the subject in the medium of instruction, thereby ensuring their

growth in literacy. The critical implication was that learners who favoured the statements lacked

consistency in terms of providing reliable data.

Bloch (2009:90-91) holds the view that poor subject knowledge emanates from the poor training

background of the subject teachers. Bloch (2009:90-91) goes on to ascribe weak language

proficiency as a barrier for content learners – especially when communicating their answers in

the language of instruction in a test. This implies that those teachers, who use the home language

to teach, defeat the purpose of the curriculum language; because the learners cannot grow in the

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content literacy of Geography. The affected learners are unable to develop in the second

language as a vehicle of learning and communication. Cotton (1995:137) holds the same view

that initial poor practice perpetuates subsequent poor practice, thereby affecting the final results

of learning, which is communicative incompetence or literacy incompetence.

Statement 44

Our teachers get angry with us for using our home language in class.

Figure 4.59

The learners’ response to the above statement was contradictory; and it cast doubts as to whether

they really understood the meanings underlying the different statements administered to them.

The responses were captured as followed: The never response equalled 193 learners (54.21%);

rarely equalled 59 learners (16.57%); often equalled 42 learners (11.8 %); and always equalled

62 learners (17.42%). The projected picture was that the statement 44 and chart 4.59 were in

contrast to statement 42 and chart 4.57. The 10.28% and 16.39% indicated were not in favour of

code-switching. This effectively meant that only a small fraction of the learner responses

promoted communicative growth in the LoLT and subject (Geography). The implications from

the contrasts pointed out above aptly indicated that English was a recognized learning barrier to

the second-language learners. Hence, their inconsistency in their attitudes to the use of English

was opposed to code-switching practices.

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The view held by Turner-Bisset (2001:83-84) that teaching is a “knowledge-based profession” is

pertinent to statement 44, which reflects the discipline displayed by a competent content teacher.

The teachers described by Turner-Bisset engage their learners in English as the language of the

curriculum, in order to develop their conceptual framework and language-specific competence.

The cognitive/metacognitive development of such learners would not be threatened, nor

compromised. The expertise of the teachers would remove or minimise any possible barriers.

Macdonald (1990:177) says a proficient teacher can remove vocabulary that obscures learners

from assessing the text in the textbook – by supplementing the LoLT with the user-friendly

words of the MT.

In the classrooms of such expert teachers, there is no room for the dual medium of instruction at

the expense of developing them in attaining content and language literacy.

Statement 45

In class we talk in the home language freely

Figure 4.60

The learners responded as follows: As many as 90 learners (25.07%) responded with never; 74

learners (20.61%) responded with rarely; 68 learners (18.94%) responded with often; and 127

learners (35.38%) responded with always. The never and rarely values rejected the practice of

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code-switching. The often and always values affirmed the practice of code-switching in the

Geography class. The affirmation of the statement was in stark contrast with statement 43 and

chart 4.59. The implication was that in both statements, English was a recognized teaching and

learning barrier.

Serrao (2010:6) says poor literacy in teachers emanates from their poor training. Unfortunately,

it is perpetuated in the classroom; and this militates against the attainment of intended content

and language literacy in terms of the learners. Van Rooyen (1990:105) says a trained teacher is

aware of the special language needs – when executing content teaching. In agreement with Van

Rooyen (1990:105), Turner-Bisset (2001:61) says “all learning is experiential”. The trained

content teacher can select or apply familiar words; so that learners can comprehend and cope

with the content.

4.6.6 Interview data

The purpose for conducting interviews was to gather data from the respective respondents on

their attitudes, experiences, and teaching preferences, as well as their opinions about the barriers

presented by the use of a second language in learning-teaching Geography in grade 12. The

interviews were administered by the researcher; and the responses were recorded. The questions

were asked and responded to in English. The interviews were conducted in a semi-formal context

via interactions between the interviewer and the interviewees. The rationale for administering the

interview was to validate the data obtained through other instruments (Montello & Sutton,

2013:113). The study targeted 10 different teachers from the 16 who had completed the

questionnaires. Two (2) subject teachers were further interviewed about their roles as Geography

specialists.

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The study sought their experiences and opinions on the problem. Six schedule-based items were

administered to the respondents, as contained in Table 4.6.

Table 4.6: Interview Data

No. Statement focus Pertinent response tally Response %

1. Teacher’s role is crucial in textbook

selection

IIII II 70%

2. Code-switching from English into the

mother tongue is practised.

IIII II 70%

3. Code-switching affects geography

learning and teaching

IIII II 70%

4. Teachers’ content and English proficiency

are both significant in teaching-learning

Geography

IIII II 70%

5. Teachers need to develop, in order to

improve learners’ performance.

IIII II 70%

6. There is a need to introduce intervention

strategies to improve the pass rate in

Geography.

IIII 50%

Most of the teachers interviewed recognised the importance of their role in the teaching and

learning of Geography (see Table 4.6). They acknowledged that they have a crucial role to play

in the selection of appropriate Geography textbooks. They indicated that they practised code-

switching as a means of getting students to understand important geographical concepts. They

also acknowledged that code-switching does affect the teaching and learning of Geography.

Whilst it helped learners to understand the concepts; they were at a disadvantage, when it came

to examinations and using textbooks; as these were done using English.

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Table 4.7 Interviews with curriculum specialists/advisors

In providing a different perspective to that of the school-based Geography teachers, two subject

advisors were interviewed to provide their experiences regarding the barriers from the

perspective of the curriculum-service unit. They responded as follows:

No. Existing barriers Response tally Response %

1. Not integrating related subject matter in Geography

teaching-learning situations.

II 100%

2. Problem sections of content:

- geographical concepts

- synoptic weather-map challenges

- use of conventional approach versus the

constructivist approach.

II 100%

3. Threats emanating from difficult textbooks:

- Textbook-clarity challenges

- Language-level challenges

- Climatology challenges

- Case-study language challenges

II 100%

The subject advisors revealed that it is important for teachers to integrate the subject matter

within the Geography-learning context. This helps learners with their understanding of the

content. They indicated that integration was not taking place; and this affected both the teaching

and the learning of the subject. The subject advisors were also able to identify specific problem

sections within the curriculum. These were the teaching of geographical concepts and synoptic

weather maps. They also stated that many teachers preferred to use conventional teaching

methods, instead of using constructivist methods. The subject advisors also spoke at length about

the problems related to textbooks.

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Many of the challenges related to the language of the textbooks; because all the Geography

textbooks are written in English; and this poses a problem for English second-language learners.

Learners often need to seek clarity on definitions and concepts; according to the subject advisors;

and this is where code-switching plays a major role. They also felt that proficient teachers and

curriculum specialists must be able to select suitable content/material for learners; while, at the

same time, the textbooks are supposed to be user-friendly. They stated that content teachers

should be trained to address the challenges that the subject presents. The subject advisors

suggested team-teaching as a solution that could be employed to solve problems, such as

climatology and synoptic weather-map challenges; especially for teachers who are not competent

in these sections.

They also emphasized the need for learners to be familiar with case studies, in order to develop

abilities in application, translation, interpretation, analysis, synthesis, extrapolation and

evaluation. This is supported in the literature; where it is stated that developed abilities should be

interlaced with crucial learning skills, such as the identification of key words linking ideas and

carrying meaning in a passage of the text (Tierney, Readence & Dishner, 1995:394-396).

4.7 DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS

4.7.1. Introduction

This section discusses the results that were obtained from the data-collection instruments

employed. Each problem was probed by a specific barrier-oriented statement. The responses

were reflected in figures to the respective statements. These were then quantified in percentages,

which either confirmed, or rejected the finding as a barrier. The four identified barriers were in

specific reference to the second-language Geography learner in the teaching-learning context.

The discussion of the results on the barriers in focus was done for the purpose of drawing

conclusive evidence that the barrier(s) actually existed. An overview of the pertinent barriers

investigated in the study follows.

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4.7.2. Overview of the barriers presented by using a second language for teaching and

learning Geography.

The study established that the teacher is the pivot around which all barriers in teaching-learning

revolve. The teacher could be a barrier to learning-teaching if s/he fails to demonstrate content-

based knowledge of Geography. This is supported by Turner-Bisset (2001:88-84), who stated

that teaching is a “knowledge-based profession”. This means that the teacher is a master of

knowledge or content knowledge; and s/he is required to impart this knowledge to the learners,

in order to optimise their content knowledge. The optimising of this knowledge is often evident

beyond the classroom context. This occurs when learners become professionals in their own right

in various pertinent Geography-related fields.

On the contrary, the teacher’s non-competence of the content knowledge is evident when the

teacher cannot rise above that of the textbook, which is merely a teaching aid. According to

Howell and Lazarus (2003:5), the teacher should not be subservient to the textbook; but the

textbook should be a tool manipulated to suit the learner’s needs. Leat (2002:109-111) chides

teachers who are over-reliant on textbooks, thereby compromising the constructivist approach

that requires learners to construct their own meaning from their interaction with the learning

material. Naidoo (2006:9), agrees with Howell and Lazarus (2003:5) and Leat (2002:109-111) by

saying that expert teachers master the content, in order to facilitate the learning from difficult

textbooks.

Another challenge faced by the second-language learner in Geography is the practice of a dual

medium of instruction in some schools. Its manifestation is in code-switching from English into

the mother tongue (MT). This practice emanates from wanting teachers to have knowledge in the

specific language, which is used as the medium of instruction. Breidlid (2003:83) says that

curriculum-challenged teachers are tempted to hide their weakness in curriculum-specific

language behind code-switching. Hooijer and Fourie (2009:135-151) attest to the view held

above by confirming that geography is a subject that is characterised by the use of English in all

its forms. If the Geography teacher is not competent in English, this spells disaster for the

second-language learner in terms of the attainment of Geography and English literacy.

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Radnor (2002:14), Sawyer (2006:30) and Saligmann (2011:13) sum this up by saying that

English forms one of the critical barriers to the second-language learner in the Geography

teaching-learning context. This becomes evident when the second-language learner struggles to

understand the subject-specific concepts; because they are beyond their level of

conceptualisation and contextualisation. Further manifestations are observable, when second-

language learners are unable to interpret and infer information from given passages of the

textbooks – due to the difficult wording of the textbook.

4.8. RESULTS OF THE STUDY ON BARRIERS

Having indicated in the deliberation above how the barriers were highlighted, this section

analyses the results on the specific barriers indicated in 4.6. The results are shown in Table 4.7.1

in the following format:

Table 4.7.1 presents the barrier number (no), the category of respondents to the barrier, the

number of respondents, the number of missing respondents, a description of the barrier (in

focus), the number of the statement probing the barrier, statement affirmation, statement

rejection, missing results in percentages, and the remarks column.

Table 4.8.1. Barrier 1: The content teacher is considered a barrier to the second language

learner’s teaching-learning in geography

No. of

Respondents

No.

missing

No. of statement

probing barrier

Statement

affirmed %

Statement

rejected %

Missing % Remarks

16 - 1 100% - - -

16 - 2 68.75% 31.25% - -

16 - 3 50% 50% - -

16 - 4 31.25% 62.50% - Constructivist

16 - 5 87.50% 12.50% - -

16 - 6 56.25% 43.75% - -

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16 - 7 68.80% 31.20% - -

15 1 8 93.75% - 6.25% -

16 - 9 93.75% 6.25% - -

16 - 10 100% - - -

16 - 11 100% - - -

16 - 12 75% 25% - -

16 - 13 87.50% 12.50% - -

16 - 14 81.25% 18.75% - -

The content teacher as a barrier to the second-language learner’s teaching-learning in Geography

is reflected in Table 4.7.1. This barrier was probed by fourteen (14) statements addressed to the

teachers. The statements were posed to the teachers to validate the assertions by the researchers,

such as Turner-Bisset (2001:83-84) who profess that teaching is “a knowledge-based

profession”; but the moment that the teachers no longer live by this dictum, they become a

barrier to teaching-learning. This compromises the knowledge attainment of the content of

Geography for the second-language learner.

Bloch (2009:90-91) maintains that inadequacies in the teacher, such as poor Geography subject

knowledge and teaching practice prevents the Geography teacher from doing meaningful

teaching, which subsequently results in ineffective learning. Howell and Lazarus (2003:5) say

that the teachers act as a barrier to learning for the second-language learner – by failing to

supplement the contents of difficult textbooks, which are written in English.

Therefore, the teacher as a barrier to the second-language learner is demonstrated by statements

1-3 and 5-14, which confirmed that the teacher is a barrier to the second-language learner in

Geography. Only the results of statement number 4 rejected the statement.

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Table 4.8.2 Barrier 2: The level of English textbooks is a barrier to second-language

learners in the Geography teaching-learning contexts.

No. of

Respondents

No.

missing

No. of statement

probing barrier

Statement

affirmed %

Statement

rejected %

Missing % Remarks

407 - 15 65.0% 35% - -

407 - 16 83.78% 16.22% - -

407 - 17 74.69% 25.31% - -

407 - 18 49.39% 50.61% - -

For statement 15, the barrier was confirmed by a majority. The study claims this on the basis

of the assertion by Essien (2010:34), was supported by Setati (2011:11), that the content

written in English and taught in English is considered a barrier to English second-language

learners. Despite the fact that they carried out their research in maths; Geography is no

exception; since Hooijer and Fourie (2009:135-151) state that second-language learners face

learning challenges in Geography because the subject uses English as a medium of

instruction. Therefore, the claim that the level of English textbooks is a barrier to second-

language learners is validated by 65%.

Statement 16 focused on the factor of rural schools, which constituted 83.78% of learners,

whose schools were situated under that category. According to Benson, Heagney, Hewitt,

Rosling and Devos (2013:85), rural-situated schools can influence second-language learners

in terms of the literacy level of the families. The resources in context and expectations may

not be sufficient to enhance the learners’ performance. That is, the question of the lack of

parental literacy level may not contribute to the desirable literacy level to influence learners’

performance. Engelbrecht, Green, Naicker and Engelbrecht (1999:48) agree that “the

psychosocial environment of a school can act either as a barrier to, or an opportunity for,

learning and development”. It is therefore deduced that learners in rural communities

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struggle on their own with difficult textbooks, without any help from their illiterate parents at

home.

Statement 17 should be viewed in terms of the views of Cavanagh (2007:13) and Ho

(2010:20) that Geography is an integrated/geoscience subject. It is expected to be handled by

expert content teachers in the specialized sections, in order to benefit the learners. The

findings reflect that 74.69% of learners are taught many sections of the Geography

curriculum by a single teacher, who might not be a specialist-subject teacher. The concern is

echoed by Leat (2002:109-111) that some Geography teachers rely only on the textbooks at

the expense of the constructivist approach, which enhances effective learning. Howell and

Lazarus (2003:5) warn in this regard that the subject teacher may be subservient to the

textbook, thereby denying learners any proper learning opportunities. Deducing from the

arguments advanced above, the textbook-based barrier was confirmed.

The discussion for statement 18 was approached in the same way as statement 17. The reason

is that if some school teachers used one textbook, as is reflected in the 49.39% affirming

statement 18, this becomes a concern. Although the statement was rejected, it should be

noted that the margin is very narrow (1.22%). By implication, the use of one textbook

compromises knowledge growth in Geography learners. Vermeulen (2000:105) puts it aptly

that a geography teacher lacking in geography-specific language deprives learners of the

opportunities to grow in their conceptual knowledge. Cavanagh (2007:13) and Ho (2010:20)

recommend that more than one teachers should teach geography; because it is an

integrated/geoscience subject that needs joint manpower to satisfy all the sections, and to

accomplish learners’ maximum development in the subject.

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Table 4.8.3 Barrier 3: English is a recognised barrier to second-language learners in the

context of Geography

No. of

Respondents

No.

missing

No. of statement

probing barrier

Statement

affirmed %

Statement

rejected %

Missing % Remarks

361 46 19 30.72% 57.99% 11.29% -

370 37 20 58.27% 32.70% 9.03% -

359 48 21 48.90% 39.31% 11.7% -

375 32 22 66.59% 25.55% 7.8% -

358 49 23 41.28% 46.68% 12.04% -

357 50 24 36.61% 51.11% 12.28% -

359 48 25 44.72% 43.49% 11.79% -

357 50 26 17.20% 70.51% 12.29% -

It is striking to realise that out of 8 statements probing the barrier in Table 4.7.3, only statements

20 and 21 confirmed that English is a recognised barrier for second-language learners. It is

contrary to the findings of Essien (2010:34) that Geography second-language learners are

conceptually and linguistically challenged. It could be argued that the learners’ rejection of the

barrier by the rest of the statements could be based on two factors. These are the ignorance and

bias factors. It could be out of ignorance that they did not recognise the linguistic consequences

entailed in the difficult medium of instruction that the language posed to them as second-

language learners in the context of Geography.

On the bias factor, James, Milenkiewitz and Bucknan (2008:68) say that the employment of the

qualitative method for gathering evidence regarding the investigation could result in respondents

suspecting the intentions of the research in seeking the evidence from them. They may

subsequently withhold ideas/feelings from the researcher. It could be that their ideas or feelings

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might be threatened by the sensitiveness of their conception of integrity; or they might have the

conception that their failure to understand English would be viewed as humiliating by others.

Subsequently, the responses militated against the researcher’s intentions for this statement.

Having indicated the possibility of the said factors of ignorance and bias, the study reconciled the

barrier of English in terms of the attitudes and feelings of the learners with those of the

Geography-subject teachers. The teachers maintained in 4.7.4 that English is a recognised barrier

for second-language learners in the context of Geography learning.

Table 4.8.4 Barrier 4: English is a recognised barrier to second-language learners in

learning-teaching in the context of Geography learning (teacher’s views)

No. of

Respondents

No.

missing

No. of statement

probing barrier

Statement

affirmed %

Statement

rejected %

Missing % Remarks

16 - 27 75% 25% - -

16 - 28 62.50% 37.50% - -

16 - 29 56.30% 43.70% - -

16 - 30 75% 25% - -

16 - 31 56.20% 43.80% - -

16 - 32 81.20% 18.80% - -

English is a recognised barrier to second-language learners in learning-teaching Geography

contexts, as reflected in Table 4.7.4, This is constituted by statements 27-32, which addressed

teachers on the said problem. All the statements confirmed the presence of the barrier, and how it

impacted on the second-language learner in the learning-teaching context. Its nature of being a

barrier for second-language learners in Geography is reconciled with Tables 4.7.5 and 4.7.6,

which both entail the practice of code-switching from English into the MT in the Geography

classes of the second-language learners.

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Table 4.8.5 Barrier 4: Code-switching from English into vernacular languages presents as a

barrier to second-language learners in Geography contexts

No. of

Respondents

No.

missing

No. of statement

probing barrier

Statement

affirmed %

Statement

rejected %

Missing % Remarks

16 - 33 75% 25% - -

16 - 34 56.20% 43.80% - -

16 - 35 31.25% 68.75% - -

15 1 36 43.80% 50% 6.25% Conversely,

50% affirms

code-

switching

16 - 37 62.50% 37.50% - -

16 - 38 37.50% 62.50% - Contradicts

37%

16 - 39 50% 50% - -

16 - 40 75% 25% - -

The claim of code-switching from English into the vernacular languages presents as a barrier to

second-language learners in Geography contexts. This was addressed to the teachers by eight

statements numbered 33-40. Statements 35 and 38 rejected the barrier of code-switching; while

statement number 33, 34, 36, 37, 39 and 40 confirmed the barriers’ presence/prevalence in the

Geography teaching-learning contexts. It was noted that the rejection of the barrier by statement

38 was contradictory to statement number 37. The implication is that if the teachers confirmed

statement 37, there was no way that statement 38 would be rejected. It can be argued that an

element of bias came into play here (James, Milenkiewiez & Bucknan, 2008: 68).

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Table 4.8.6 Barrier 4: Code-switching from English into mother tongue deprives second-

language learners the opportunity to grow in English and Geography literacy

No. of

Respondents

No.

missing

No. of statement

probing barrier

Statement

affirmed %

Statement

rejected %

Missing % Remarks

384 23 41 70.52% 23.83 5.65% -

366 41 42 65.85% 24.08 10.07% -

358 49 43 40.80% 47.17 12.05% -

356 51 44 25.55% 61.92 12.53% Conversely,

61.92%

affirm code-

switching

359 48 45 47.92% 40.29 11.79% -

Table 4.7.6 reflects the data results on code-switching from English into a mother tongue. It is

argued that this deprives second-language learners of the opportunity to grow in English and

Geography literacy. Table 4.7.6 is constituted by five statements numbered 41-45. Of the five

statements probing the barrier, three statements numbered 41, 42, 44, and to a relative degree

statement 45, confirmed that code-switching is prevalent in Geography learning-teaching

contexts. Only statement 43 rejected the existence of code-switching in Geography classes.

In conclusion, the findings from Table 4.7.6 will be dealt with in Chapter Five, in which the

conclusions, recommendations, suggestions for further research, and the limitations of the study,

as well as the contributions made by the study will be discussed.

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4.9. SUMMARY ON BARRIERS-BASED RESULTS

In this summary, the barriers presented by the use of a second language in the learning-teaching

of Geography in grade 12 in the Limpopo Province were investigated.

The barriers we categorised, according to their respective respondents as follows:

4.9.1. Barrier-based objective 1: Teachers

The content teacher is considered a barrier to the second-language learner’s teaching-

learning in the geography contexts.

The barrier was probed by 14 statements. All but four statements confirmed that the Geography

teacher constitutes a barrier to the second-language learner’s learning of geography. The results

that confirmed the existence of the barrier were quantified – with 66.4% indicating the existence

of the barrier.


English is a recognised barrier for second-language learners in learning-teaching

Geography contexts.

The barrier was probed by six statements numbered 27 to 32. All the statement results confirmed

that English is a barrier for the second-language learner in Geography-learning situations. The

results were quantified as 67.71% confirming the prevalence of the barrier.


Code-switching from English into the vernacular languages presents as a barrier for

second-language learners in Geography contexts

The barrier was probed by eight statements. Six statements 33, 34, 36, 37, 39 and 40 confirmed

the existence of the barrier, quantified by 61.45% of the respondents.

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4.9.4. Barrier-based objective 2: Learners

The English of the textbook is a barrier for second-language learners in the learning-

teaching of Geography

The barrier was probed by the four statements 15-18. Statements 15-17 confirmed the prevalence

of the barrier, which were quantified by 74.49% of the respondents.


English is a recognised barrier for second-language learners in Geography learning-

teaching contexts.

The barrier was probed by eight statements numbered 19-26. Only two statements, 20 and 22,

confirmed that the barrier existed. Statements 19, 21, 23-26 rejected the statement that English is

a barrier to second-language learners’ learning of geography. The study points out that the

rejection of the existence of the barrier is contrary to the affirmation of the barrier by their

teachers under 5.3.4. The teachers validated the existence of the barrier (100%). However, the

researcher advanced an argument for the rejection of the barrier by the learners.


Code-switching from English into the vernacular languages deprives second-language

learners’ opportunities for maximising Geography knowledge and language literacy

This practice emanated from the manifestation of English as a barrier to second-language

learners in the learning-teaching of geography. On the whole, with particular reference to the

latter argument, all the barriers investigated in the study are in existence: their presence is a

cause for concern; because they hinder the Geography/content learners from accomplishing

content-specific learning by using the medium of instruction (English).


The researcher used specific tools to address the prevalent barriers to Geography learning and

teaching in grade 12 in the Limpopo Province. The research findings confirmed the following:

Firstly, the Geography subject teachers’ proficiency was questionable. Secondly, the LoLT was

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found to be a barrier to both the subject teachers and the learners. Thirdly, the textbook was

found to be a challenge to the second-language learners when used independently without the aid

of the subject teacher. Fourthly, the code-switching practice from the LoLT into the home

language impacted on the learners’ acquisition of literacy in the LoLT in Geography. This

resulted in learners failing to communicate effectively and intelligibly in the LoLT in

examinations. The respective tables and figures shown above on the respective statements based

on the barriers have substantiated the rationale for undertaking the study.

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CHAPTER 5

SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS, CONCLUSION

5.1. INTRODUCTION

This chapter rounds off the study by presenting a general view of the investigation into the

problem of barriers presented by the use of a second language in teaching and learning

Geography (second-language learners) in grade 12 in the Limpopo Province. In investigating the

problem, the study had objectives to realise; and they were to determine: the link between the

content teacher’s qualification and his/her influence on teaching the whole curriculum to the

second-language learners, in order to optimise the content knowledge; secondly, the impact of

the second language (English) on second-language learners’ learning in terms of the level of

comprehension of the content and the medium of instruction; thirdly, the impact of the level of

the textbook language (English) on the linguistic literacy level of the second-language learners in

terms of readability and comprehensibility to/by the learner in geography contexts. This is

dependent on the content-specific knowledge and the level of literacy of the teacher: either to

enable or to compromise the learner’s growth in both the content and the second language

(English).

The research questions were: Firstly, is there a link between the content teacher’s proficiency

and effective teaching in geography contexts with special reference to the second-language

learner?

Secondly, does the second language of instruction (English) deter the second-language learners

from comprehending the content in terms of the learners’ communicative competence? Thirdly,

does the level of English in the content of the textbooks challenge the second-language learners?

Fourthly, does the Geography teacher encourage the practice of code-switching from English to

the vernacular languages – at the expense of the second-language learners’ literacy attainment?

The brief of the findings is presented under the general view of the study, followed by

conclusions of the study, and recommendations based on the findings from the study, which was

based on the problem of the study with particular reference to the solution of the problem, on the

assumption that further research on the findings of the study will be made. In the final conclusion

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to the study, the limitations of the study are discussed, together with the contributions the study

has made to enrich the teaching and learning of Geography for English second-language learners.

5.2. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHOD

The researcher used the constructivist approach, which advocates the laying of emphasis on the

actual learning and teaching – revolving around the learner as the central figure. The researcher

used the survey method, whereby specific questionnaires were constructed for specifically

addressing the respective respondents, in order to elicit the data in terms of the question that the

study has addressed. The implementation of the specific tools was aimed at assessing the

attitudes and perceptions held by the subject teachers in terms of their teaching, and the value of

the curriculum of Geography in the lives of the learners – and their future impact on the welfare

of the nation at large.

In terms of the concept attitudes, the researcher wanted to ascertain what methods the teachers

had used with the rationale of employing their preferred teaching methods in the learning

environment of Geography. The study employed the qualitative and quantitative methods to

gather the data, in order to address the barriers that exist in the teaching and learning of

Geography for English second-language learners.

5.3 OVERVIEW AND CONCLUSIONS OF THE STUDY

In Chapter One, the barriers were identified through the use of a second language in teaching and

learning Geography in grade 12 in the Limpopo Province. The purpose of this was to redress the

poor performance. The need for improvement in performance necessitated the employment of

the constructivist teaching and learning approach in Geography. This was a shift from the

practice of a conventional/traditional teaching approach, as used previously in Geography

environments. The adoption of an effective constructivist teaching and learning approach was

illuminated in the theoretical framework in Chapter One.

The study focused on the teaching and learning of Geography for second-language learners by

drawing from the conceptual and theoretical framework advocated by Piaget, Dewey and the

adherents of constructivism. For the learners, the study espouses the constructivist-based mind-

map that the content teacher must strive to achieve, in order to realise effective learning in

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Geography. All their teaching efforts must be channelled towards the attainment of the necessary

Geography knowledge and skills, in order to develop a self-sufficient second-language learner.

The study attempts to remove the existence of the barriers by the employment of a constructivist

approach – underpinned by the co-operative, active, participative and experiential learning

methods.

The barriers were presented as: The geography teacher is seen as a barrier in teaching second-

language learners; the textbooks are also a barrier for second-language learners in terms of their

readability and comprehensibility level with regard to second-language learners’ literacy level;

English is a recognised barrier for second-language learners, as the content vehicle and medium

of instruction in relation to learner’s communicative competence; and the code-switching

practice from English into the vernacular languages in teaching and learning Geography prevents

second-language learners from attaining Geography-specific language literacy.

The study attempted to draw the data on the study barriers from the participants’ views, attitudes,

experiences and perceptions to/of teaching and learning practices in Geography situations. The

responses were elicited by the employment of barrier-based or probing statements addressing

specific participants. Table 4.7.1 presents the findings from the respective barrier-based

statements, quantified in percentages – to affirm or reject the existence of each barrier in the

study.

The Geography teachers’ qualifications and experience in teaching the content were probed; and

the responses were quantified in Figures 4.4, 4.5 4.6 and 4.7. The staffing for geography was

captured in Figure 4.8. The three factors were considered critical and consequential in terms of

their class-based practices or geography teaching-learning methods. The findings revealed that

conventional teaching methods prevailed in geography contexts, thereby compromising

constructivist teaching-learning approaches. The absence of the constructivist learning-teaching

practices validated the existence of the identified barriers referred to above.

Barrier-specific questionnaires, underpinned by barrier-probing statements, were used to gather

the relevant data on the problem of the study. The focus was on teaching and learning practices

in Geography contexts alluded to above. The practice of Code-switching was confirmed by both

the teacher and learner respondents. The latter practice implied that Geography teachers’ use of

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code-switching when presenting the content made the second-language learners vulnerable in

terms of attaining content-specific knowledge in Geography. The challenges posed by the

textbook alluded to earlier signified that content teachers were forced into code-switching;

because they could not supplement the difficult concepts found in the textbooks. Resorting to

code-switching did not help the second-language learners, however, because African languages

have not yet developed any geographical corpus of terms.

The subject advisers in their interviews corroborated with the findings from teacher and learner

respondents that the barriers in focus existed in real-life Geography contexts. The subject

advisers made recommendations that embraced the employment of the constructivist approach to

improve learners’ performance in Geography. The shortage of Geography teachers was one of

the findings that was concerning. As many as 43.7% of the teacher-respondents indicated that

one teacher in the school was responsible for teaching the whole Geography curriculum. This

suggested that Geography was not recognised as an integrated subject belonging to the

Geosciences. The evidence from Figures 4.16 to 4.18 indicates strongly that ‘section-challenged’

teachers (only competent to teach certain sections of the curriculum) left their learners helpless

regarding those sections of the curriculum in which they were not competent.

Over and above the fact that some Geography teachers did not meet the curricular needs, the

question of under-qualified and unqualified teachers in Geography, as found in Figure 4.5, had a

further negative effect on learners’ performance. The study concludes that the constructivist

approach and its related active-learning methods are essential for producing learners with

geographical career-oriented knowledge.

5.4 SUMMARY AND INTERPRETATION OF THE RESEARCH FINDINGS

The researcher’s focus of the study was on the four (4) objectives stated individually and

logically as follows:

Objective 1: This was aimed at addressing Geography subject teachers. It constituted 14

statements. The statements probed the teacher’s proficiency in terms of Geography teaching and

its respective challenges. A fair response amount of between 6.25 % and 50% conceded that

215

some subject teachers were lacking in their proficiency in terms of meeting maximally all the

needs of the curricular sections, in order to effect the good performance of learners in

Geography. Therefore, it was inferred that teacher proficiency in Geography was a barrier to

learning and teaching in the Limpopo Province.

Objective 2: This probed the subject learners, with specific reference to the experiences with the

Geography textbooks as a learning barrier. The learners responded to four statements. The results

to the statements ranged from 49.3% to 74.9% in the affirmative. The findings confirmed that

textbooks were a recognied barrier to their learning with regard to the difficulty of the LoLT.

Objective 3: The respondents in this regard were teachers and learners. The objectives focused

specifically on English as the language of learning (LoLT) and teaching. Firstly, the statements

numbered 19-26 probed learners on how they perceived the LoLT, in terms of acquiring

information and knowledge from the lessons taught by the teacher and the assessment within the

learning situation. The learners’ responses ranged from 17.2% to 66.6% in recognition of the

LoLT as a learning barrier. Secondly, the 16 subject teachers reacted to statements 17-32 on the

question of the LoLT as a teaching and learning barrier in Geography. The teachers’ responses

confirmed that between 56.3% and 81.3% of the teachers indicated that the LoLT was a

recognised teaching and learning barrier in the Geography learning environment.

Objective 4: The participants were both the teacher and learner respondents, as well as the CAs.

The focus of the objective was on the code-switching practice in Geography teaching and

learning environments.

Firstly, statements 33-39 were administered to 16 teachers, probing how they practised code-

switching in their teaching and learning activities. The responses were that 31.3% to 75% of

teachers confirmed that code switching was used by Geography subject teachers under the

pretext that they practised it to facilitate the difficult LoLT and the textbooks, so that learners

could learn more easily. However, it would eventually impact negatively on their performance in

examinations. Secondly, statements numbered 40-45 were administered to the learners. Their

results confirmed that between 25.5% and 70% of learners indicated that their Geography subject

teachers initiated code-switching from the LoLT into their African languages in their teaching

and learning activities. Therefore, code-switching was confirmed as a teaching and learning

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barrier, which was eventually detrimental to their LoLT development. This could possibly

impact on the literacy growth level in both the LoLT and in Geography.

5.5 RECOMMENDATIONS

Geography teachers should continually seek for ways to improve their content knowledge. This

can be done through in-service training or through short courses in areas where they lack content

knowledge. Since the curriculum has changed significantly over the last few years, it is crucial

for them to upgrade their content knowledge. Furthermore, this study urges the curriculum

authorities to recognise Geography as an integrated subject that belongs to the geosciences

curriculum. The maths-oriented sections of the content must be taken care of by competent

mathematicians. And, the same goes for agricultural science, biology/life sciences and

chemistry-based sections of the geography curriculum.

This integrated-subject approach should redress some of the findings of this study, as presented

and subsequently discussed (in Table 4.7.1). The study recommends to the stakeholders of

Geography not to only focus on improvements for the sake of academic results, but to consider

the future careers of these learners as well.

Based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations are made:

5.5.1 Provincial curriculum section/unit

The curriculum unit should, as a matter of policy, proclaim a vision and mission statement that is

fashioned around being able to mould future Geographers via effective and efficient teaching and

learning strategies at all curricular levels. They should adopt and implement an integrated subject

approach, driven by curricular teamwork teaching, through the use of the constructivist

approach. This policy should be communicated to units at district and circuit levels. The

overseers should monitor threats to learner performance and minimise/remove them through

regular in-service training of the Geography teachers, supervised and monitored by the

curriculum advisers. This approach/measure could eradicate the ineffective teaching that this

study found.

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5.5.2 Advisory structures at district and circuit levels

The districts and circuits should distribute sufficient resources to schools, in order to facilitate

the implementation of the expected quality teaching to redress the barriers discussed. Geography

expert teachers should take care that the entire geography curriculum is effectively and

efficiently managed. The poorly performing teachers should be serviced by utilising the services

of the universities at their disposal to redress poor performance. The expert teachers should take

contextual threats like pedagogical and psychosocial factors into consideration, and vigorously

address them, in order to redress the poor performance of learners in the districts.

5.5.3 School curriculum management/structure

The school curriculum team/overseers should have a plan to realise the vision and mission

statement of the Geography curriculum. They should be mindful of the fact that Geography is an

integrated subject. They should allocate the relevant expertise for Geography, in order to

maintain a balanced teaching staff to meet all the curricular challenges and needs of the subject

at the school. The Geography ‘manifesto’ of the school should be pursued to produce self-

sufficient Geographers in different Geography career paths. To attain this, they should employ

active teaching-learning practices which underpin the constructivist approach.

In pursuit of this goal, effective monitoring and assessment processes should be thoroughly

implemented.

5.5.4 The geography teacher(s)

School-based teachers must realise that they are prime curriculum implementers and assessors of

all the learning activities. It is incumbent upon them to conceptualise and contextualise the vision

and the mission of the curriculum. Therefore, they must initiate self-development and regular

knowledge updates, in order to keep abreast of new teaching innovations and techniques, which

are Geography-specific. They must have a well-defined conceptual framework; so that learners’

development can be accomplished at their school. Therefore, they must have geographical

blueprints for teaching – to realise their learners’ cognitive and metacognitive skills.

These skills’ development can only be realised through the teacher’s mastery of the subject

content. The teacher must be able to scan textbooks thoroughly before selection. The textbook

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selection must be guided and directed by Geography-specific criteria comprising, inter alia, the

readability, comprehensibility and sustainability in terms of the linguistic level of the second-

language learners. Over and above that, the Geography teacher must have the necessary expertise

to supplement the textbook, as well as to augment knowledge wherever it is deemed necessary.

Teachers can only do this if they know their subject requirements. A knowledgeable subject

teacher knows that no textbook is perfect and can be completely relied on. A Geography teacher

must be assertive and consultative, and have the ability to supplement the textbook, in order to

have effective teaching that promotes effective and meaningful learning in the learners. Since

English is used as the medium of instruction, in order to attain the espoused literacy, the teacher

must embrace the constructivist approach interlaced with co-operative, participative and

experiential learning. Such learning strategies should enable the learners to tackle case-study

passages, in which the learner can discover hidden meanings behind the words and phrases.

This discovery can be made by teachers as well, who equip themselves through self-

development. The teacher who employs the constructivist approach develops the learners to be

able to predict questions when doing independent learning, who can organise their learning

material meaningfully, can rehearse answers to the predicted questions, can grasp concepts in

English, and can evaluate their own learning, to redress personal challenges, before sitting for

assessments, either orally or in writing.

Informed geography teachers must be aware that, in order to enhance good performance in the

learners, they must perform their core business of deepening their own geographical knowledge

through constructivist learning techniques. When geographical context-related teaching takes

place, the learners should be able to translate texts using their own content-specific vocabulary

without instructional help; they should be able to synthesise data/information in context; they

would be able to deliberate on given issues in various contexts; they would be able to interpret

the data in their own language, and be able to extrapolate the data beyond contexts into related

contexts meaningfully, be able to evaluate material, be skilful analysts of the learning material;

and furthermore, they should be successful in applying that knowledge to pertinent geographical

contexts – and beyond to the related contexts of life experiences.

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5.6. CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE STUDY

5.6.1. The researcher would like to conscientise the DoE in the province to work closely with

tertiary institutions to develop the provincial African languages to the level of being mediums of

instruction in their own right in the schools. This should assist as a permanent redress of the use

of code-switching from English into the respective African languages, which have a dearth in

specific scientific terminologies, and which consequently compete with English. The status quo

was viewed by the researcher as being unfair linguistic competition contrary to the

pronouncement by the Constitution that these languages should be treated equally as official

languages of the country.

5.6.2. The DoE in the Limpopo Province should also realign their curricula in terms of

recognizing Geography as one of the geosciences with the intention of producing pertinent

artisans, technologists and engineers to commensurate the needs of the local mining undertakings

in the province. This could curb the importation of expertise at the expense of the locals, who,

due to lack of qualifications in these scarce-skills jobs, contribute to perpetuating unemployment,

crime, poverty and other social ills.

5.7 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

The researcher experienced a number of challenges, as follows:

Some subject teachers lacked a sense of urgency in terms of completing and returning the

questionnaires within a reasonable time;

The researcher experienced a number of postponements at some schools before the

questionnaires could be responded to, or which were not returned;

Subject teachers at some schools were unwilling to present their workbooks/assessment

records to the researcher for observation/analysis purposes;

Some district senior managers did not respond to the researcher’s formal request for

permission to enter their circuits to conduct research at (their) schools;

Some circuit managers were not welcoming towards the researcher concerning entering their

schools to conduct research;

The study could not access the examiners because of examination confidentiality and security

reasons.

220

Geography subject markers declined to participate in the data-gathering processes.

School-based documents were not made available to the researcher for perusal.

The study experienced biases from the respondents to some statements, due to sensitive

perceptions they had, such as security threats for teachers and subject advisors, integrity

threats for learners in terms of their limited literacy-level revelations.

The teacher respondents were uninformed of their professional obligations towards providing

the data to the researchers in the interest of their own wellbeing and that of their learners.

These factors could possibly act as limitations of this study; since they may have affected the

findings of the study.

5.8 SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

5.8.1 The study suggests that the recognition of the teacher as a barrier in Geography contexts

should be looked into; as it is deemed to impact negatively on learners’ performance.

5.8.2 Research on how curricular team-teaching structures at school level can be put in place to

bring about improved performance in Geography.

5.8.3 Research into declaring Geography as an integrated subject with maths, agricultural

science, chemistry and biology/life science (geosciences), whose combination would

raise the performance levels.

5.8.4 Research on how constructivism can be weighed against conventional theory in terms of

the current results in learning-teaching Geography contexts.

5.8.5 An examination of the value of Geography-advisory services in terms of the content-

based current results in grade 12.

5.9 CONTRIBUTION MADE BY THE STUDY

In spite of the challenges that affected the conduct of this study, this investigation is considered

to be the first of its kind; because it was able to illuminate the barriers of learning and teaching in

Geography in grade 12 in terms of the second-language learners in the Limpopo province. The

study advocates the formation of an integrated-subject structure comprising Geography, maths,

agricultural science, life sciences and physical sciences. The formation of an integrated-subject

structure is based on the fact that Geography is a geoscience; and its teaching and learning

221

should be integrated. This advocacy is informed by the findings of the study in Chapter Four and

the discussions of the results in Chapter Five.

The teachers are advised to teach their learners with the future orientation of producing

knowledgeable self-sufficient geographers. Content learners must be enticed through the

constructivist learning approach to qualify as geographers in specific future career paths. This

study is informed by economic factors to provide the needed Geographers in relation to the rich

mining enterprises/explorations in the Limpopo Province. The study conscientises the content

teacher that all learners in different Geography contexts deserve instructional help from a

competent teacher to enable them to learn independently, in order to optimise their content

knowledge. This should assist learners in their future career paths.

5.10 CONCLUDING REMARKS

The findings of this research study have indicated to the researcher that the subject teachers of

Geography in general have not been teaching their respective learners in the most effective way

in terms of satisfying optimally all the prescribed sections of the syllabus, as expected of them, to

produce knowledgeable Geographers. In fact, it was found that most of the subject teachers

taught geography to learners as just carrying out their narrow professional mandate – without a

clear-cut specific vision and mission of learning and teaching of the subject. A case in point was

their embracing of the local African languages in the place of the LoLT. They used this to

address their linguistic incompetence in English on the pretext that they did it to facilitate the

learning, because of the difficulty of the LoLT. This was a manifestation of a professional

catastrophe for learners who would eventually sit for their examinations, unprepared to answer in

English, when answering the question papers. This is a professional weakness, despite their

knowledge that learners could not use the local African language when answering questions.

By doing this, these teachers were not committed to professional accountability. These teachers

deliberately failed the learners by not sticking to the curricular policies governing the teaching of

Geography. With these remarks, this study comes to a conclusion.

222

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238

APPENDIX A: TEACHERS’ BIOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

Instruction: Mark with X in the appropriate box.

ACADEMIC QUALIFICATIONS IN ENGLISH

Matric Degree Honours Masters PhD

ACADEMIC QUALIFICATIONS IN GEOGRAPHY

Matric Degree Honours Masters PhD

PROFESSIONAL TRAINING LEVEL ATTAINED IN ENGLISH TEACHING

METHODOLOGY

College Diploma HED

PROFESSIONAL TRAINING LEVEL ATTAINED IN GEOGRAPHY METHODOLOGY

College Diploma HED

GEOGRAPHY TEACHING EXPERIENCE (IN YEARS)

1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30+

239

APPENDIX B: SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW SCHEDULE

1. Why is the Geography teachers’ role crucial in the selection of the subject textbooks?

_____________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

2. What encourages code-switching practice from English into the home language in the Geography

class?

_____________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

3. How does code-switching practice from English into the home language affect Geography learning?

_____________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

4. What is the significance of the teachers’ proficiency in both English and Geography learning situation?

_____________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

5. In your opinion, how should Geography teachers develop to improve learner performance?

_____________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

6. What intervention strategies do you suggest to teachers to improve pass rates in Geography?

_____________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

240

APPENDIX C: TEACHERS’ QUESTIONNAIRE: UNDERSTANDING EFFECTIVE PRACTICES DRIVEN BY

COMPETENT/EFFICIENT CURRICULUM PRACTITIONERS

Strongly

agree

Agree Disagree Strongly

disagree

1. A teacher should command Geography curriculum expectations to realise with learners in the teaching-

learning situation.

2. A teacher should command ability to select suitable textbooks (Geography) for learners to affect

meaningful learning in learners.

3. A proficient Geography teacher is able to supplement textbooks written in English to ease second

language learners to learn effectively.

4. An efficient Geography teacher is able to promote individual and co-operative learning in learners to

maximise learning.

5. A Geography curriculum teacher should create opportunities, time, and space to learners to think in

Geography.

6. A Geography curriculum teacher should respect learners’ ideas in interaction to develop independent

thinking.

7. A Geography curriculum teacher should develop thinkers, knowledge and new ideas constructors through

verbal reasoning.

8. A Geography curriculum teacher should provide guidance to learners to affect discovery ability in

learning in Geography.

9. A Geography curriculum teacher should provide to learners identifying, collecting-interpreting-and

analysing skills to actively handle facts as geographers.

10. A Geography curriculum teacher should view/recognise learners as unique individual’s to be accorded

respective opportunities to learn at own pace using specific methods and strategies.

THE END

THANK YOU FOR YOUR TIME AND CO-OPERATION

241

APPENDIX D: TEACHERS’ QUESTIONNAIRE: UNDERSTANDING THE CONCEPT BARRIERS

Strongly

agree


disagree

1. Geography curriculum teachers have challenges in qualifications in English as the

subject, English as the medium of teaching and learning.

2. Geography curriculum teachers are unqualified or underqualified to offer all prescribed

sections of the curriculum.

3. Geography curriculum teachers compromise English by teaching learners in the home

language (Sepedi) in class.

4. Geography curriculum teachers experience problems to supplement difficult textbooks

English to simplify learning to second language (English) learners.

5. Geography curriculum teachers do evil to learners by teaching them in Sepedi in class

while they answer in English in examinations.

6. Geography curriculum teachers have problems with realising the subject expectations in

learner development in learning situation.

THE END


242

APPENDIX E: LEARNERS’ QUESTIONNAIRE: PROBING LEARNERS’ EXPERIENCES AND CHALLENGES IN THE

LEARNING OF GEOGRAPHY IN THE LEARNING SITUATION

Strongly

agree


disagree

1. The language (English) of the textbooks we use is difficult for us without the help of the teacher.

2. Out Geography teacher makes the difficult English easy for us to understand the lessons.

3. Our Geography teacher uses our home language (Sepedi) always in teaching us in class.

4. Our Geography teacher does not at all use the home language (Sepedi) in class.

5. It is difficult to answer question papers in English in examinations while we were taught in the home

language (Sepedi) in class.

6. The Geography teacher who teaches us in English helps us to answer easily in English in

examinations.

7. It will be good to be taught Geography in the home language (Sepedi) to make learning easy.

8. The Geography teacher divides us into groups to do tasks.

9. The Geography teacher regularly takes us out to do tasks.

10. The Geography teacher regularly takes us out to do projects in the field.

11. The Geography teacher is good at teaching map work.

12. The Geography teacher spends most of the time talking in class without letting us talk.

13. The Geography teacher encourages learners to debate facts in English.

14. The Geography teacher gives individual learners chance to give reports about project

verbally/orally.

THE END


243

APPENDIX F: SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW SCHEDULE FOR GEOGRAPHY (SUBJECT) EXAMINERS IN THE LIMPOPO

PROVINCE

1. Why do grade 12 Learners in the Limpopo Province perform poorly in Geography?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………..

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………..

2. Could you single out/pinpoint particular sections in the grade 12 assessment of Geography that prose challenges to teachers subsequently

impacting/negatively on learners` performance in examinations?.

…………………………………………………………………………………………….................................................................................

................................................

…………………………………………………………………………………………….................................................................................

................................................

3. What is your take regarding the prescribed textbooks on Grade 12 Geography in relation to second language (English) learners` linguistic

level in the Limpopo province.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………….

244

APPENDIX G: LEARNERS’ QUESTIONNAIRE: PROBING LEARNERS’ EXPERIENCES AND CHALLENGES IN THE

LEARNING OF GEOGRAPHY IN THE LEARNING SITUATION

Strongly

agree

Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly

disagree

15. The language (English) of the textbooks we use is difficult for us without the help of the

teacher.

16. Out Geography teacher makes the difficult English easy for us to understand the lessons.

17. Our Geography teacher uses our home language (Sepedi) always in teaching us in class.

18. Our Geography teacher does not at all use the home language (Sepedi) in class.

19. It is difficult to answer question papers in English in examinations while we were taught in

the home language (Sepedi) in class.

20. The Geography teacher who teaches us in English helps us to answer easily in English in

examinations.

21. It will be good to be taught Geography in the home language (Sepedi) to make learning easy.

22. The Geography teacher divides us into groups to do tasks.

23. The Geography teacher regularly takes us out to do tasks.

24. The Geography teacher regularly takes us out to do projects in the field.

25. The Geography teacher is good at teaching map work.

26. The Geography teacher spends most of the time talking in class without letting us talk.

27. The Geography teacher encourages learners to debate facts in English.

245

28. The Geography teacher gives individual learners chance to give reports about project

verbally/orally.

THE END


246

APPENDIX H: SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW SCHEDULE FOR GEOGRAPHY

(SUBJECT) EXAMINERS IN THE LIMPOPO PROVINCE

4. Why do grade 12 Learners in the Limpopo Province perform poorly in Geography?

………………………………………………………………………………………………

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5. Could you single out/pinpoint particular sections in the grade 12 assessment of

Geography that prose challenges to teachers subsequently impacting/negatively on

learners` performance in examinations?.

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6. What is your take regarding the prescribed textbooks on Grade 12 Geography in relation

to second language (English) learners` linguistic level in the Limpopo province.

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