Lina (centre), 18, helps three neighbourhood children createdrawings, seated on the floor in her home in the Khairkhananeighbourhood of Kabul, the capital. Lina completed the third gradebefore she was forced to stop school. Determined to continue hereducation, she asked her brother, a university student, to help herstudy.

UNICEF/HQ01-0472/ SHEHZAD NOORANI

Household/Community-Level BarriersAreas for analysis Possible findings/causes Broad Strategies Possible interventions

Direct costs ofschooling, e.g.:- school fees- clothing and shoes- school books/supplies

Families cannot meetdirect costs, so children donot enrol in school or theydrop out.

Gender dimension: If achoice has to be madebetween sending a boy or agirl to school, the boy willusually be given precedence.

Advocacy for affordableeducation (includingelimination of school fees)

Awareness-raising inimportance of girlseducation (so parents willstrive to send all, ratherthan some, of their childrento school)

Poverty reduction strategies

Incentive programmes,such as small scholarships,subsidies, food, schoolsupplies and uniforms

Micro enterpriseprogrammes

School feedingprogrammes throughstrengthened partnerships

Provision of suppliesIndirect costs ofschooling, e.g.:- opportunity costs- child labour and work

Families cannot afford theloss of income or labourcontribution of theirchildren, so their childrendo not enrol or attend.

Gender dimension:Traditional division of labouroften disadvantages girls(more likely to have to work inthe home, care for siblingsetc.).

Awareness-raising thatchild labour is badeconomics/ development

Socialmobilization/sensitizationon the importance of girlseducation

Flexible school timetables Child-care programmes for

siblings, children Reallocation of household

tasks Mother/parent/caregiver

education School feeding

programmes

Areas for analysis Possible findings/causes Broad Strategies Possible interventionsAttitudes and practices,e.g.:- traditional, cultural orreligious beliefs- gender stereotypes- lack of knowledge onbenefits of education- gender-differentiatedchild- rearing practices

Education not valued or isseen as irrelevant to or inconflict with accepted rolesin society.

Limited involvement ofparents in schooling andearly learning.

Gender dimension: Earlymarriage, low status ofwomen, and intractablepatriarchal societies oftenresult in lower priority oneducation of girls. Content ofeducation reinforces genderstereotypes. Hiddencurriculum of discriminationis perpetuated.

Sensitization to importanceof girls education andcompletion of schooling

Advocacy and actions tomake schools safer andmore secure

Strengthened links betweenschools and communities

Media programmes andmotivational material(posters, story books,Meena, Sara, etc.)

National Enrolment Days Culturally appropriate

schools Endorsement of education

(particularly girlseducation) by religious andother leaders

Gender-awareness training Micro planning Better parenting

programmes Village committees,

parent-teacherassociations, etc., topromote community andparental involvement ingirls education

Inclusion programmes(disability, ethnicity,poverty, etc.)

Health-related issues,including poor nutritionand HIV/AIDS

Children not able toparticipate and/or learn.

Children caring for sickfamily members. Child-headed households.

Gender dimension: Girlsoften more likely to care forfamily and work. Girls morevulnerable to exploitationwithout family stability. Boysget often more food than girls.

Sensitization to importanceof water and sanitation

Awareness raising forHIV/AIDS and nutritionrelated issues

Community networks forchildren in need

Partnerships that providecare and support toaffected children inschool, community andfamily

Water and sanitationprogrammes

Areas for analysis Possible findings/causes Broad Strategies Possible interventionsSituations of crisis andinstability

Children separated fromfamilies unable to attend.

Children recruited intomilitary or supportactivities.

Gender dimension: Girlsmore frequently required tohead households, boys morefrequently recruited intomilitary service.

Support to communityinitiatives in schooling

Advocacy and actions tomake schools safe andsecure havens

Back to schoolcampaigns to encouragepost-conflict normalization

Psychosocial support forchildren and caregivers(including teachers)

In 1995 in Bangladesh, a young woman sitting on a straw mat with other women reads from an exercise book,while her teacher listens and village children stand nearby, during a UNICEF-assisted adult literacy class in thenorthern town of Dinajpur.UNICEF/HQ95-0973/ SHEHZAD NOORANI

School-Level BarriersAreas for analysis Possible findings/causes Broad Strategies Possible interventions

No school close to home Increased likelihood ofnon-enrolment or non-attendance and droppingout after enrolment.

Gender dimension: Issues ofsafety and security. Parentsless likely to allow daughtersto attend school if they haveto travel long distances. Insome countries, boardingfacilities are available, butonly for boys.

Provide support andtechnical assistance togovernment andcommunities to ensureincreased access for thosechildren who are hardest toreach

School mapping toimprove planning andtargeting

Child-seeking ChildFriendly Schools

Infrastructure programmes Schools closer to home

(including through clusterschools, multigrade ornon-formal approaches asa bridging measure)

Boarding/lodging facilitiesfor girls

Poor qualityenvironment, e.g.:- poor condition ofbuilding- overcrowding- lack of water orsanitation- violence (physical andpsychological)

Increased likelihood ofnon-attendance anddropping out. Poorachievement.

Gender dimension: Lack ofseparate sanitation facilitiesparticularly affects adolescentgirls. Boys often experiencebeating and bullying; girlsmore likely to be called on forservice tasks (e.g., cleaning),or be sexually assaulted orharassed.

Strengthened policies andstrategies for HealthPromoting Schools

Advocacy and action forsafety and security inschools

Sanitation facilities -separate latrines for girls

Repair and rehabilitation Mentor programmes (older

girls to younger girls)

Areas for analysis Possible findings/causes Broad Strategies Possible interventionsPoor quality content,e.g.:- lack of/outdatedcurriculum- inadequate learningmaterials- biased or inappropriatecontent

Learners may not learnwhat they need to(literacy, numeracy andlife skills-basededucation).

Discrimination andstereotypes reinforced.

Gender dimension:Girls/females often invisible incurriculum content andimages, and often excludedfrom taught curriculum.Gender stereotypes arereinforced and eventuallygender inequalitiesperpetuated in a wider societalcontext.

Promote skills-based,gender-sensitiveeducational content.

Gender review of quality ineducation

Gender-sensitivecurriculum reform,including in literacy,numeracy and life skills-based learning areas,including rights, genderequality, health, nutrition,HIV/AIDS, peace andrespect for diversity

Relevant, gender-sensitivematerials that do notreinforce stereotypes

Provision of supplies andequitable distribution

Poor quality learningprocesses:- untrained/poorlytrained teachers- lack of assessment- outdated teachingtechnologies- poor schoolmanagement- inflexible schoolcalendar

Learners not developing totheir full potential.

Possible non attendance,dropping out, limitedtransition from primary tosecondary education orfrom school to work.

Gender dimension: Girlsoften pushed intononprofessional courses, andoften overlooked by teachersin classroom discussions. Lackof female role models.Nonflexible calendar may leadto higher female drop-outrates because of competingdemands (e.g., work, care forsiblings).

Promote gender-sensitiveteaching and learningprocesses.

Build capacity of teachersand school-management

Promote active participationof children and youngpeople in programming

Training of teachers,especially women

Gender awareness trainingfor teachers, officials,communities, leaders

Training in administrationand management

Introduction of newtechnologies for learningand administration

Provision of quality-relevant supplies

Flexible approaches to theschool calendar

Incentives, particularly forfemale teachers in ruralareas

Active involvement ofcommunities and parentsin schools

Areas for analysis Possible findings/causes Broad Strategies Possible interventionsHealth-related issuesand HIV/AIDS

Learners unable/unreadyto participate and learn.

Absenteeism/droppingout/death of pupils andteachers, particularlybecause of HIV/AIDS.

Schools unable toaccommodate specialneeds of physically orlearning disabled.

Gender dimension: Girlsmore likely to care for family.Girls disproportionatelyaffected by lack of skills-basedhealth education. Highervulnerability to HIV infectionamong school-age girls thanboys in many countries.

Build capacity, strengthenpartnerships and supportcountries in intersectoraleducation programmesaround important localissues such as HIV/AIDS orwater and sanitation.

Support to schools andteachers in incorporatingHIV/AIDS awareness andlife skills-based approachesat the school level

Introduction of FRESH School sanitation and

hygiene educationprogrammes

Monitoring of impact ofhealth-related issues oneducation planning andresponse

Conflict and instability Schools damaged,destroyed or closed.

Teachers dispersed orunable to teach.

Children and teachersemotionally affected bytrauma.

Schools unsafe mines,conflict, recruitment.

Gender dimension: Girlsdenied access to limitedopportunities; boys morefrequently recruited intomilitary service.

Rapid assessment ofeducational needs

Support for communityschooling

Provision of basic suppliesand shelter materials

Back-to-schoolcampaigns fornormalization

Psychosocial interventionsat school level; training ofteachers and schooldirectors

Policy- and System-Level Barriers

Areas for analysis Possible findings/causes Broad Strategies Possible interventionsInadequate legalframework in such areasas:- compulsory education- child labour- re-entry into school

Education not free andcompulsory in principle orpractice.

Increased likelihood thatchildren will fall throughthe safety net, be unableto take examinations or beforbidden re-entry intoschool.

Gender dimension: Girlsoften miss out on education ifchoices have to be made. Theabsence of a birth certificateoften precludes eligibility forentry or examinations. Girlsare less likely to be registeredthan boys. Pregnant girls areexcluded from school, evenfollowing birth.

Advocacy forimplementation ofcompulsory education laws

Advocacy forimplementation of labourlaws

Advocacy for laws allowingfor continued schooling forpregnant girls, or re-admission to schools afterpregnancy

Birth registrationcampaigns

Analysis, planning andimplementation of policiessupporting girls education

Lack of enforcement ofexisting laws andpolicies relating to, e.g.:- corporal punishment- child labour- school fees

Increased likelihood ofnon-enrolment, non-attendance and droppingout.

Gender dimension: Sonpreference in enrolment,traditional gender division oflabour and lack of a safe andsecure environment can havea disproportionate impact ongirls.

Advocacy forimplementation of existingpolicies, regulations andlaws

Support to child-friendly,gender-sensitive schools

Advocacy to eliminatecorporal punishment andviolence in schools

Linking poverty reductionstrategies, such asminimum householdincome subsidies, toschool attendance

Areas for analysis Possible findings/causes Broad Strategies Possible interventionsInsufficient nationalbudgetary allocations toprimary and secondaryeducation

Insufficient school places. Underpaid and

unmotivated teachers. Decline in quality and

achievement.Gender dimension:Increased competition foraccess usually affects girlsmore; gender imbalances inteaching force.

Support for reallocation ofnational budgets in favourof basic education

Support for sector-wideapproaches to educationdevelopment

Mobilization of partners andfacilitation of donorcoordination

Gender-based review ofbudget and planning ineducation

Introduction of the UNGirls Education Initiativeat country level for supportand advocacy

Isolation of educationfrom existing nationalframeworks

Education plans notaligned with nationaldevelopment or povertyreduction plans.

Education not treated asinvestment with impact onpoverty reduction.

Education budget sharelimited.

Gender dimension: The roleof women in nationaldevelopment, and theeconomic and social returnson investment in girlseducation are importantfactors to be addressed innational plans.

Advocacy for linkage ofeducation plans to PRSP ornational development plans

Support to the developmentof EFA national plans ofaction with strong genderdimensions

Introduction of the UNGirls Education Initiativeat country level for supportand advocacy

Areas for analysis Possible findings/causes Broad Strategies Possible interventionsOutdated curriculum Children not equipped

with the knowledge,attitudes and skillsrequired for a modernsociety.

Gender dimension: Genderstereotypes reinforced; girlsless likely to achieve parity inlearning outcomes.

Technical support forcurriculum review anddevelopment

Support forpilot/demonstrationprogrammes using moderntechnologies to expandaccess and improve quality

Support for revision oflearning materials andelimination of gender andother bias

Lack of completion andtransition to next stageof education

Implementation child-friendly, gender sensitiveschools which are healthy,effective, gender sensitive,child-seeking andprotective

Lack of political will Promotion of partnerships,particularly the UN GirlsEducation Initiative

Areas for analysis Possible findings/causes Broad Strategies Possible interventionsPoor quality processes:- pre-service and in-service teacher training(including genderinsensitive)- learning outcomes notdefined in literacy,numeracy and life skills-based education- lack of learningassessment tools

Lack of trained personnel,defined learning outcomesand assessment tools.Negative impact onenrolment andperformance of learners.

Gender dimension: Fewfemale teachers, lack ofgender sensitivity or activediscrimination in teaching andlearning processes, genderinequality in outcomes.

Support for innovativeteacher developmentprogrammes and continuedprofessional support

Support for theidentification andassessment of learningoutcomes in numeracy,literacy and life skills-basededucation

Capacity-building andpolicies for second-chanceeducation for youth anddrop-outs

Advocacy and technicalsupport showing the linksbetween curriculum,teacher training andoutcomes for learning

Gender awareness trainingfor officials

Gender-sensitiveworkshops focusing oneliminating disparity anddealing with discrimination

Promotion of participatoryapproaches to learning

Areas for analysis Possible findings/causes Broad Strategies Possible interventionsHIV/AIDS Devastated infrastructure,

services and humancapacity of systems.

Contracting educationbudgets due to strain ofAIDS on economies.

Impaired performance andhigh attrition where largenumbers of teachers andother staff have becomeinfected and affected byHIV/AIDS.

Loss of administrators andmanagers affecting qualityof planning, training andsupport.

All the above reversingrecent positive gains inbasic education.

Gender dimension:Disproportionate caretakingburden on girls; decline ingirls gross enrolment andintake ratios in high-prevalence countries;diminished resources toensure safety of girls atschool; most vulnerablechildren and girls are first tobe affected when educationbudgets shrink.

Support for training ofofficials and keystakeholders in developingsystem responses to theHIV/AIDS pandemic

Support for thedevelopment of educationand other policies ensuringthat children affected byHIV/AIDS are not excludedfrom school or learning

Development of, andtraining in, life skills-basedapproaches to learning

Areas for analysis Possible findings/causes Broad Strategies Possible interventionsConflict and instability Collapse of system

administration, supervisionand examinations.

Unpaid teachers, untrainedschools personnel.

Conflict over curriculumissues.

Gender dimension: Lack ofsystem control to limitdiscrimination on grounds ofgender; women teachers haveto work, teach and performdomestic duties.

Assist all countries toprepare for, and respondto, conflict and other crisesso that affected childrencan fulfil their right to basiceducation in safe, stableand gender-sensitiveenvironments.

Interaction with educationauthorities at appropriatelevels to promote earlyresumption of schooling

Logistical and policysupport for distribution ofbasic supplies

Production and distributionof curriculum and learningmaterials

Facilitation of agency andNGO coordination

Mobilization of resourcesthrough the ConsolidatedAppeals Process (CAP) andother mechanisms

Resource mobilization forcontinued post-conflict/crisis support

Two adolescent girls from a junior secondary schoolrecord their discussion on HIV/AIDS awareness andprevention, in a booth at Radio Botswana, the nationalradio station, in Gaborone, the capital.

UNICEF/HQ01-0197/ GIACOMO PIROZZI