Basic Materials Used for Buildings

• Stones• Bricks• Concrete• Metal• Timber• Glass

Rocks, Stones and Pebbles

•In geology, a rock is a naturally occurring solid aggregate of one or more minerals

•Rocks can come in a variety of colours, the most common being grey.

•There are three types of rocks:-

IgneousSedimentaryMetamorphic

Rocks

Types of Rock

•start off as magma (volcanic emission) within the earth.

•forms through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava

•formed by direct alteration of existing rocks

•formed by sedimentation of particles at or near the Earth's surface and within bodies of water.

•Over time rocks may be weathered down by water, wind and ice and be carried into a lake, river, sea or even sand dunes. Over millions of years they will be compressed until a rock with visible layers is formed.

•Metamorphic rock is igneous/sediment rock that has been changed by heat and/or pressure. Any rock changed this way is a metamorphic rock.

Gypsum

•Sedimentary rocks category include:

Types of Rock•Igneous rock include:

Quartz Ebonite Obsidian Diamond

Granite

Basalt Lava rocks Pumice

•Metamorphic rocks category include:-

Gypsum Soapstone Shale Chinli formation

(found only in central Utah)

Sandstone Limestone Coal Oil strata

GraniteQuartz

LimestoneSandstone

Pumice

Marble Slate

Stones •Stones are a smaller variety of rocks, and they are usually around the size of your hand.

Pebbles are the very tiny ones.

Pebbles are generally considered to be larger than granules (2 to 4 millimetres diameter) and smaller than cobbles (64 to 256 millimetres diameter).

Pebbles

BRICKS

Bricks•A brick is a block or a single unit of a ceramic material used in masonry construction.

• Typically bricks are stacked together or laid as brickwork using various kinds of mortar to hold the bricks together and make a permanent structure

•Bricks are produced in many formats: solid, perforated, and hollow

•Typical size : 215x102x65 mm (length x width x height)

Types of bricks (shape)

End web

End web

Face shell

Central web

cell

Hollow

Cavities exceeding 25% of total volume of brick

Volume of indentations must not exceed 20% of gross volume

frog

Frogged

Holes exceed 25% of gross volume of the brick

Perforated

Solid

Brick Bonding• Stretcher•Header• English• Flemish• Rat trap

Brick made of :-

• Clay• Concrete

• calcium silicate• sand-cement

Bricks material

common

facing

Clay Bricks

Three types of clay bricks:

•Common – general use, not design to provide good finish/ high strength, usually plastered, non-load bearing

•Facing – for attractive appearance, no cracks, may or may not load bearing, durable

•Engineering – good strength and durability, high density, well fired (load bearing walls, retaining walls, sewers, embankments)

Engineering

Manufacturing of clay bricks

Preparation

Formation

Drying

Firing

•Process (digging, crushing, sieving, grinding, proportioning, mixing and tempering)•Add chemicals for special purpose (barium carbonat, soluble salts)

•Process of giving shape to the bricks.•Variety shaping methods depends on moisture content and consistency of clay•Ex:Semi dry process,stiff plastic process,wire cut process,soft mud process.

•To reduce the moisture content•Enable brick to be stacked higher in the kiln•Enable firing temperature to be increased more rapidly

•Changes the physical structure and give good mechanical properties and resistance to water

Calcium Silicate Bricks•Consists of 90 – 95% sand, lime and water•Usually light grey and paler shades

Manufacturing

•Mixing – mixing with sand, lime, pigments and water•Pressing – pressed under very high pressure to give shape•Autoclave – high pressure steam curing to form calcium silicate

Concrete Bricks•Consists of aggregates, cement and water

•May contain additives such as air entraining agents, coloring pigments.

•Lengths 400 – 600 mm•Heights 150 – 300 mm•Thickness 60 – 250 mm

Sand-cement Bricks•Dimension = 210mm(L) x 100mm(W) x 65mm(H)

•Suitable for all construction brick works.

Concrete

Concrete Constituents

•One of the most common construction material

•Wide variety applications- piles, dams, foundations, bridges and many more

•One of the most economical materials of construction

Concrete

•Cement•Fine Aggregate•Coarse aggregate•Water•Admixtures – chemical and pozzolanic

•Cement-Made of Argillaceous(clay, sandstone) + Calcareous (Limestone)-Most popular type of cement is Portland cement

•Fine Aggregate – less than 5 mm

•Water – for hydration process and workability of concrete

•Admixtures- to enhance the properties of concrete in the plastic and hardened states.

•Coarse aggregate – greater than 5 mm(10, 20, 40 mm)

Types of Concrete

Based on aggregate:-

•Lightweight concrete•Normal weight concrete•Heavyweight concrete

Based on strength:-

•Normal strength – 25 to 50 Mpa•High strength – 51 to 80 Mpa•Very high strength – greater than 80 MPa

Metal

•is a solid material that is typically hard, shiny, and generally can be hammered or pressed permanently out of shape without breaking or cracking

•Metal also able to be fused or melted and ductile (able to be drawn out into a thin wire).

•Two types:-

Ferrous metalNon-Ferrous metal

Metal

Ferrous metal

•Iron – one of most abundant metallic material in the earth’s crust (4-5%), found in the form of ore (oxides, carbonates, silicate)

•Steel – combination of iron and carbon. - steel products are coming in semi finished types such as billets (coins, gold bar), blooms and slab.

•Stainless Steel – is a steel alloy with a minimum 10.5% of chromium content by mass.

- resistant to corrosion and stain

Non-Ferrous metal

•a non-ferrous metal is any metal, including alloys, that does not contain iron in appreciable amounts

•Generally more expensive than ferrous metals, low weight, higher conductivity, non-magnetic property or resistance to corrosion.

•Example: aluminium, copper, lead, mercury, cadmium, Alloy steel (chromium, cobalt, tungsten)•Mostly being used as non structural member

TIMBER

INTRODUCTIONTimber is a term used to describe wood, either

standing or that has been processed for useTimber from the latter is only produced in small

sizes, reducing the diversity of uses. Of the hundred of the species, only a few

secreted timber which are used in building construction

ANATOMY OF TIMBER

Pith

Sapwood

Bark

Cambium

Ray

Heartwood

TIMBER SELECTION•The selection of timber depends on: - appearance - strength - availability - stability - durability - cost

HARDWOOD

• From board leaves tree • Most of them are deciduous mast

tree where hard and strong• Eg: damar laut, jelutung and pulai

Jelutung

pulai

SOFTWOOD• As coniferous tree with

needle like leaves which are evergreen

• Types of growth with the cone shape

• Eg:resak, giam, kempas, merah and berlian

kempas

MALAYSIAN TIMBERHeavy hardwood

Medium hardwood

Light hardwood

Softwood

HEAVY HARDWOOD

•This is a kind of heavy timber•The weight ranges from 50-70

lbs/cubic foot (22kg - 31kg)•Density: more than 800 kg/m3•Have a natural durable (have

a toxic material contains in their tissues)

•Eg: cengal, balau, resak

cengal

MEDIUM HARDWOOD

• Have a moderately heavy

• The weight ranges from 45-55 lbs/cubic foot (20kg - 25kg)

• Density: area 720 – 800 kg/m3

• Have a different durability depends on weather

• Must be preserved before and after construction

• Eg: kulim, kapur, jati, merbau

merbau

jati

LIGHT HARDWOOD

Have a relatively light in weight

The weight ranges from 25-45 lbs/cubic foot (10kg – 20kg)

Density: area 400 – 720 kg/m3

They are not very durable and need preservation

Used for furniture or panelling

Eg: meranti, durian, kedondong, bintagor, getah, medang

getah

durian

SOFTWOOD• Have a very soft surface• Density: less than 400 kg/m3• They are lack of commercial

significance• Not durable and classified as

perishable• Quickly and easily to destroyed

DEFECT OF TIMBER

Natural defect

Conversion defect

Deterioration defect

NATURAL DEFECT

•The grains are direction of wood cell•The longitude axis of a timber that were

swan•This can give an effects to the strength of

a timber

CONVERSION DEFECT

•Normally, cause by human•Eg: poor drying, poor cutting

DETERIOTATION DEFECT

• Reproduction by spores• The favorable condition for it growth is where the

place have a good temperature, oxygen and moisture• Dry rot (most common and fungal attack)• Wet rot (become brittle, lose strength and crumble)

TYPES OF BEETLE

• Common furniture beetle

• Powder post beetle

• House long horn beetle

• Death watch beetle

One of the most diverse groups of insectsForty percent of all described insect species are beetles (about 350,000 species) Can be found in almost all habitats Certain species can be agricultural pests

BEETLE

COMMON FURNITURE BEETLE•This flight hole 1.5mm and also called

woodworm•Attack softwood and the sapwood of

hardwood•Can be found in the furniture and joinery

POWDER POST BEETLE• This flight hole in 2.0mm• Mostly attack hardwood• Can be found in sawriils

HOUSE LONGHORN BEETLEThis flight hole at 10.0mmCause for extensive damaged because of the long larvae stage and have a few flight holeAttack the sapwood of softwoodCan be found at the structured timber

DEATH WATCH BEETLE This flight hole in 3.0mm Attack hardwood and usually

timber of old building

ANOTHER BEETLE

TIMBER TREATMENT

• Brushing-Costs applied and repeated periodically (2 – 3 years)

• Dipping-Involves immersion of timber in preservative for a period of 10

seconds to 10 minutes -Purposed to give considerable penetration

• Open tank system - Timber is submerged in a tank while preservative is

heated and kept for several hours at 80 – 90%.

- Absorption takes place as it cools

• Pressure injection - Provide deepest penetration of preservatives for

permanent protection against longhorns and

marine borers - Effective for timber that has direct

contact with ground/sea water or in similar

environments.

ADVANTAGES OF TIMBER

•Easy to handling•Have a beautiful appearance (aesthetic

value)•Heat and electric insulator is high•Have a good durability if was conserved•Availability•Suitable used on any construction

DISADVANTAGES OF TIMBER

•Easy to fired•Weather can changes their durability,

stability and appearance•Need to be painted to changes their

appearance•Easy to get a fungal attack

CONCLUSION

Timber are suitable used on any construction

Timber is not only used in superstructure but it also can used in the substructure works (formwork)

In the other words, timber have a lot of the uses

GLASS

What is glass?

•Glass is non-crystalline material that is made of sand, to which other materials are added.

•Used for household objects such as light bulbs and windows.

Functions of glass in building

•Floors•Windows•Doors•Staircases•Roofs•Walls•Partitions

Functional requirements of glass

•Thermal movement & stress-Low thermal movement glass-Able to withstand to thermal stress

•Strength-should be ale to resist wind forces/load-High impact resistance

•Fire resistance-glass must be non-combustible

Basic glass processes• Blowing-this is done either by mouth (to

reproduce antique glasses) or by machine (commonly used to produce bottles).

• Drawing-Producing ordinary sheet glass

for windows

• Grinding and Polishing-Used for rough cast glasses

Main glass processes

•Rolling-for patterned figure and cast glass production

•Floating-90% of today’s flat glass is manufactured by

floating method for distortion-free vision

•Pressing-Normally used to produce hollow glass blocks

and lenses

• Extrusion, Blowing & Drawing-applied to the glass fibers for textiles and

insulation purposes

• Foaming and Annealing-foaming involves batch-mixing raw materials

(melting the glass), where molten glass then flows from the glass furnace into a bath of molten tin continuously to form a flat surface.

-Annealing is the process where the glass is cooled at controlled temperatures, until it is essentially at room temperature. If this is not done, glass will be of low quality and might not entail the required performance specification.

Advantages of glass• Can be formed into smooth and impervious surfaces

• When the glass is under compression, it can stand great amount of

forces

• An excellent UV-ray filter

• Strong and non-reactive to chemical attacks

• Have low coefficient of thermal expansion.

• Transparent and good durability in normal condition

• Resist load like wind load, impact, thermal changes and many

more.

• Non combustible

• Easy to be cleaned and maintained

• Water resistant

Disadvantages of glass•Brittle and easily broken•Glass cannot remain in wet condition when

it is stacked together because it will cause deterioration.

•Tends to shatter upon localized impact.•Hazardous when it shatters into small,

sharp pieces.•Difficult to be transported and costly.•Cannot be fixed if it is broken or damaged

(though it can be recycled).

Conclusion• Glass plays an important role in the modern

building construction

• Although glass has numerous drawbacks, these were overshadowed by its advantages.

• Each type of glass has its own specialty.