Basic Paragraph Structure

In this lesson:

In many languages, the fundamental unit of composition is the paragraph. A

paragraph consists of several sentences that are grouped together. This group of

sentences together discuss one main subject. In U.S. formal academic English,

paragraphs have three principal parts. These three parts are the topic sentence,

body sentences, and the concluding sentence. We will also talk briefly about

details in paragraphs.

The Topic Sentence

A topic sentence usually comes at the beginning of a paragraph; that is, it is

usually the first sentence in a formal academic paragraph. (Sometimes this is not

true, but as you practice writing with this online lesson site, please keep to this

rule unless you are instructed otherwise.) Not only is a topic sentence the first

sentence of a paragraph, but, more importantly, it is the most general sentence in

a paragraph. What does "most general" mean? It means that there are not many

details in the sentence, but that the sentence introduces an overall idea that you

want to discuss later in the paragraph.

For example, suppose that you want to write a paragraph about the natural

landmarks of your hometown. The first part of your paragraph might look like

this:

My hometown is famous for several

amazing natural features. First, it is noted for the

Wheaton River, which is very wide and

beautiful. Also, on the other side of the town is

Wheaton Hill, which is unusual because it is

very steep.

(Notice how the first sentence begins with "My hometown..." a few spaces to the

right of the paragraph edge. This is an indentation. All paragraphs in English

MUST begin with an indentation.)

Note how the first sentence, My hometown, Wheaton, is famous for several

amazing geographical features,is the most general statement. This sentence is

different from the two sentences that follow it, since the second and third

sentences mention specific details about the town's geography, and are not

general statements.

Here are some examples of sentences that cannot be used as topic sentences. Can

you figure out why they are inappropriate?

1. My hometown is famous because it is

located by Wheaton River, which is very

wide, and because it is built near an

unusually steep hill called Wheaton Hill.

2. There are two reasons why some people

like to buy cars with automatic

transmission and two reasons why others

like cars with manual transmission.

3. Clouds are white.

The problem with sentence #1 is that it contains too many details. Topic

sentences are general, and details should appear later in the paragraph. A better

topic sentence would be like the one mentioned above, My hometown is famous

for several amazing geographical features.

Sentence #2 is not appropriate as a topic sentence because it mentions two topics,

not just one. Paragraphs are usually about one main thing and so their topic

sentences should also be about only one main thing.

The problem with sentence #3 is that it is toogeneral. It is also very boring!

Would you like to read a paragraph with this topic sentence? Most people would

not.

We can rewrite sentences #2 and #3 in the following ways to make it better:

There are two reasons why some people

like to buy cars with automatic

transmission.

OR (in a different paragraph):

There are two reasons why some people

like cars with manual transmission.

The shapes of clouds are determined by

various factors.

Supporting Sentences

Consider again the above-mentioned, short paragraph:

My hometown, Wheaton, is famous for

several amazing natural features. First, it is

noted for the Wheaton River, which is very wide

and beautiful. Also, on the other side of the town

is Wheaton Hill, which is unusual because it is

very steep.

(Again, note how this paragraph is indented on the first line, about five or seven

spaces in from the left-hand edge of the paragraph. Always remember to indent

your paragraphs!)

When a reader reads a topic sentence, such as My hometown, Wheaton, is famous

for several amazing natural features,a question should usually appear in the

reader's mind. In this case, the question should be like, "What are the natural

features that make Wheaton famous?" The reader should then expect that the

rest of the paragraph will give an answer to this question.

Now look at the sentences after the topic sentence. We can see that the second

sentence in the paragraph, First, it is noted for the Wheaton River, which is very

wide and beautiful,indeed gives an answer to this question. That is, the second

sentence gives some explanation for the fact that Wheaton is a famous town.

Similarly, we can see that the third sentence also gives some explanation for the

fact that Wheaton is famous by giving another example of an "amazing natural

feature," in this case, Wheaton Hill.

The second and third sentences are called supporting sentences. They are called

"supporting" because they "support," or explain, the idea expressed in the topic

sentence. Of course, paragraphs in English often have more than two supporting

ideas. The paragraph above is actually a very short paragraph. At minimum,

you should have at least five to seven sentences in your paragraph. Here we

can see our paragraph about Wheaton with a few more supporting sentences in

bold font:

My hometown is famous for several

amazing natural features. First, it is noted for the

Wheaton River, which is very wide and

beautiful. Also, on the other side of the town is

Wheaton Hill, which is unusual because it is

very steep. The third amazing feature is the

Big Old Tree. This tree stands two hundred

feet tall and is probably about six hundred

years old.

In this lesson, we will talk about supporting sentences again in the section,

"Details in Paragraphs," below.

The Concluding Sentence

In formal paragraphs you will sometimes see a sentence at the end of the

paragraph which summarizes the information that has been presented. This is the

concluding sentence. You can think of a concluding sentence as a sort of topic

sentence in reverse.

You can understand concluding sentences with this example. Consider a

hamburger that you can buy at a fast-food restaurant.* A hamburger has a top

bun (a kind of bread), meat, cheese, lettuce, and other elements in the middle of

the hamburger, and a bottom bun. Note how the top bun and the bottom bun are

very similar. The top bun, in a way, is like a topic sentence, and the bottom bun

is like the concluding sentence. Both buns "hold" the meat, onions, and so on.

Similarly, the topic sentence and concluding sentence "hold" the supporting

sentences in the paragraph. Let's see how a concluding sentence (in bold font)

might look in our sample paragraph about Wheaton:

My hometown is famous for several

amazing natural features. First, it is noted for the

Wheaton River, which is very wide and

beautiful. Also, on the other side of the town is

Wheaton Hill, which is unusual because it is

very steep. The third amazing feature is the Big

Old Tree. This tree stands two hundred feet tall

and is probably about six hundred years old.

These three landmarks are truly amazing and

make my hometown a famous place.

Notice how the concluding sentence, These three landmarks are truly amazing

and make my hometown a famous place,summarizes the information in the

paragraph. Notice also how the concluding sentence is similar to, but not exactly

the same as, the topic sentence.

Not all academic paragraphs contain concluding sentences, especially if the

paragraph is very short. However, if your paragraph is very long, it is a good idea

to use a concluding sentence.

Details in Paragraphs

The short paragraph in this lesson is a fairly complete paragraph, but it lacks

details. Whenever possible, you should include enough details in your paragraphs

to help your reader understand exactly what you are writing about. In the

paragraph about Wheaton, three natural landmarks are mentioned, but we do not

know very much about them. For example, we could add a sentence or two about

Wheaton river concerning HOW wide it is or WHY it is beautiful. Consider this

revision (and note the additional details in bold):

My hometown is famous for several

amazing natural features. First, it is noted for the

Wheaton River, which is very wide and

beautiful. On either side of this river, which is

175 feet wide, are many willow trees which

have long branches that can move gracefully

in the wind. In autumn the leaves of these

trees fall and cover the riverbanks like golden snow. Also, on the other side of the town is

Wheaton Hill, which is unusual because it is

very steep. Even though it is steep, climbing

this hill is not dangerous, because there are

some firm rocks along the sides that can be

used as stairs. There are no trees around this

hill, so it stands clearly against the sky and

can be seen from many miles away. The third

amazing feature is the Big Old Tree. This tree

stands two hundred feet tall and is probably

about six hundred years old. These three

landmarks are truly amazing and make my

hometown a famous place.

If we wished, we could also add more details to the paragraph to describe the

third natural feature of the area, the Big Old Tree.

Why are details important? Consider the example of the hamburger, mentioned

above.* If the hamburger buns are the topic and concluding sentences, then the

meat, the cheese, the lettuce, and so on are the supporting details. Without the

food between the hamburger buns, your hamburger would not be very delicious!

Similarly, without supporting details, your paragraph would not be very

interesting.

A Note on Formality. In addition to having a particular kind of structure,

academic paragraphs (and multi-paragraph essays, which will be topic of another

lesson) are different from "ordinary writing" (such as letter writing) in that certain

kinds of expressions are not allowed. For example, in formal essays, you should

not use contractions such as don't or aren't. Instead, you should write out the

words in full, for example, do not and are not.

Also, in formal essays you should avoid the first and second person. That is, do

not use the pronouns I or you. The pronouns we and us are sometimes used in

formal essays in some major fields, but in general you should not use these unless

you are certain that they are customary in your field and/or your professor allows

them. It is safer simply to use the third person.

< academic in avoid should you that expresions informal some about learn to

table following the>

TOO

INFORMAL

(Do not use)

ACCEPTABLE

don't do not

doesn't does not

aren't are not

weren't were not

can't cannot

couldn't could not

won't will not

Coherence and Unity

In this lesson:

Major Connectors | Minor Connectors | Paragraph Unity | Exercise #2

Coherence refers to a certain characteristic or aspect of writing. Literally, the

word means "to stick together." Coherence in writing means that all the ideas in a

paragraph flow smoothly from one sentence to the next sentence. With coherence,

the reader has an easy time understanding the ideas that you wish to express.

Consider the paragraph that we studied in Lesson #1:

My hometown is famous for several

amazing natural features. First, it is noted for

the Wheaton River, which is very wide and

beautiful. On either side of this river, which is

175 feet wide, are many willow trees which have

long branches that can move gracefully in the

wind. In autumn the leaves of these trees fall

and cover the riverbanks like golden snow.

Second, on the other side of the town is

Wheaton Hill, which is unusual because it is

very steep. Even though it is steep, climbing

this hill is not dangerous, because there are some

firm rocks along the sides that can be used as

stairs. There are no trees around this hill, so it

stands clearly against the sky and can be seen

from many miles away. The third amazing

feature is the Big Old Tree. This tree stands two

hundred feet tall and is probably about six

hundred years old. These three landmarks are

truly amazing and make my hometown a famous

place.

Major Connectors

Look at the words in bold font. Do you see how they help guide the reader? For

example, consider the words, First, Second, and The third amazing feature. We

can call these words major connectors. Major connectors help organize the main

parts of your paragraph. This paragraph has three main parts: (1) a part about the

Wheaton River, (2) a part about Wheaton Hill, and (3) a part about the Big Old

Tree. Another way of saying this is that this paragraph has three main points

which are indicated by the major connectors. Using such major connectors is an

important way of providing coherence in a paragraph.

Minor Connectors

What about the other words in bold, such as those appearing in the phrases "these

trees" and "this hill"? We can call these minor connectors. Minor connectors

provide coherence to a paragraph by connecting sentences within each of the main

parts of your paragraph. That is, when you write about your main points, you can

use minor connectors to link your details to each main point.

Now, look at this paragraph. Can you identify the main points?

Each of the U.S. manned space exploration

projects had specific major goals. The Mercury

project was designed to test whether or not

human beings could survive and function in

outer space. The Mercury project tested rockets

with the new Mercury space capsule, which

could hold one person. The Gemini project was

intended to find out whether two people could

work in the weightless environment of space.

Gemini astronauts took "spacewalks." They

floated outside their spacecraft in a spacesuit,

connected to it by a tether. Gemini astronauts

tried out new flying skills. Some astronauts flew

two spacecraft extremely close together; this

procedure was called "rendezvous." On some

Gemini flights, astronauts physically linked two

spacecraft together. Linking, or "space docking,"

was a major goal of the Gemini program. The

Apollo project, with three astronauts, was

intended to test spacecraft and skills so that

people could actually fly to the Moon and land

on it. Performing scientific experiments on the

lunar surface and collecting rocks for study on

Earth were goals.

Was this paragraph a little confusing to read? Now consider the same paragraph

with a few changes:

Each of the U.S. manned space exploration

projects had specific major goals. For example,

the Mercury project was designed to test whether

or not human beings could survive and function

in outer space. In addition, the Mercury project

tested rockets with the new Mercury space

capsule, which could hold one person. As

another example, the Gemini project was

intended to find out whether two people could

work in the weightless environment of space.

One way of doing this was by having Gemini

astronauts take "spacewalks." That is, they

floated outside their spacecraft in a spacesuit,

connected to it by a tether. Gemini astronauts

alsotried out new flying skills. For example,

some astronauts flew two spacecraft extremely

close together; this procedure was called

"rendezvous." On some Gemini flights,

astronauts physically linked two spacecraft

together. This linking, or "space docking," was a

major goal of the Gemini program. Finally, the

Apollo project, with three astronauts, had the

goal of testing spacecraft and skills so that

people could actually fly to the Moon and land

on it. Other goals included performing scientific

experiments on the lunar surface and collecting

rocks for study on Earth.

Do you see which of the connectors above are major and which are minor? The

major ones are For example in the second sentence, which introduces the first

supporting point (the Mercury program); As another example, which begins the

second main point (the Gemini program); and the word Finally, which introduces

the third and last main point (the Apollo moon program). (In the paragraph above,

all of the major connectors are underlined.)

As for the minor connectors, we can divide them into three groups. The first

group of minor connectors provides coherence for the first main point (the

Mercury program). There is only one minor connector in this first group, In

addition, although it is possible to have more than one, depending on how many

details you have to support your first main point.

The second group of minor connectors consists of That is, also, and also the

phrase For example in the sentence, "For example, some astronauts..." Notice that

this last minor connector is the same as the major connector at the beginning of

the paragraph. However, the function of each is different, depending on the

meaning of the sentences.

The third group of minor connectors in this particular paragraph also has one

member, which is Other goals included....

Here is a table of a few common connectors (also called transitions):

For example,

For instance,

One example of

(this) is

As another example,

Another example of [xxx] is

(that)

Finally,

On the one

hand,

On the other

hand,

First, Second,

Third, etc.

In conclusion,

To summarize,

However,

..., but...

also

Paragraph Unity

Unity is a very important characteristic of good paragraph writing. Paragraph

unity means that one paragraph is about ONLY ONE main topic. That is, all the

sentences -- the topic, supporting sentences, the detail sentences, and (sometimes)

the concluding sentence -- are all telling the reader about ONE main topic. If your

paragraph contains a sentence or some sentences that are NOT related to the main

topic, then we say that the paragraph "lacks unity," or that the sentence is "off-

topic."

Look at the following paragraph, which is similar to the paragraph that we have

studied above. Does it have perfect unity? Try to find the sentence that is off-

topic:

Each of the Russian manned space

exploration projects had specific major goals.

For example, the Vostok project was designed to

test whether or not human beings could survive

and function in outer space. For another

example, the Voshkhod project was intended to

find out whether people could work in the

weightless environment of space. One Voshkhod

cosmonaut experimented with weightlessness by

taking a "spacewalk." That is, he floated in a

spacesuit outside his Voshkhod spacecraft,

connected to it by a tether. The cosmonaut to do

this was Alexei Leonov. Several weeks later,

Leonov's spacewalk was followed by that of

U.S. astronaut Ed White. Finally, the Soyuz

project, with three cosmonauts, had goals of

testing spacecraft and spaceflight skills so that

people could fly long missions in Earth orbit.

This paragraph is generally good, but the sentence, Several weeks later, Leonov's

spacewalk was followed by that of U.S. astronaut Ed White, does not have

anything to do with the major goals of the various Russian space projects. That is,

it is an "off-topic" sentence, so we can say that the paragraph somewhat lacks

unity. In order to improve the paragraph, we should omit this sentence, even

though it is historically accurate.

Basic Essay Structure

In this lesson:

Introductions | Body Paragraphs | Concluding Paragraphs | Exercise #3

On the Written portion of the TOEFL, you will be asked to write an essay that is

more than one paragraph long. The reason for this is that in U.S. academic

culture, essays need to be several paragraphs long in order for students to express

their ideas clearly and for instructors to determine whether or not students

understand the material.

Knowing how to organize your ideas in such long essays is very important for

academic success.

Generally, academic essays have a similar format. They are at least five

paragraphs long, although often they are much longer. Also, the basic structure

of each of these paragraphs is the same as that which we have already studied. In

addition, the paragraphs in the U.S. academic essay can be divided into three

basic kinds: (1) the introductory paragraph, (2) the body paragraphs, and (3)

the concluding paragraph.

The Introduction

The first paragraph of the academic essay is the one that is usually the most

different from the basic paragraph that we have studied. In Lessons #1 and #2, we

saw that a basic paragraph had a topic sentence as its first sentence, followed by

supporting sentences with supporting details, and these (sometimes) followed by

a concluding sentence.

In the multi-paragraph academic essay, however, the structure is a little different.

Like the basic paragraph, the introductory paragraph opens with a very general

statement about the topic, and is often followed by some supporting examples,

but the paragraph then finishes with a narrow statement about the topic. This

narrow statement is called the main thesis. Here is a short example of an

introductory paragraph:

Throughout human history, the physical

universe has often presented dangers to

explorers. For example, when primitive humans

left their tribal villages to search for food and

water, they risked death or injury from

dangerous animals. Later, when people sailed the

oceans in search of new lands for settlement or

trade, many died in terrible storms. Similarly,

the ocean of outer space has many dangers,

but it also has several unique challenges for

explorers.

Notice how the first sentence, Throughout human history, nature has often

presented dangers to explorers,is a very general statment about the topic, which

is dangers in exploration. The next two sentences give some supporting examples

of this intital sentence. However, the third sentence of the paragraph gives an

example that contrasts in some way with the previous two sentences. Then, the

final sentence does something new: It introduces a specific example of the

general topic. This specific topic is the main thesis of the entire essay; that is,

the rest of the essay will focus on this specific topic, which in this case is several

unique challenges for explorers.

This main thesis functions like the topic sentence of the basic paragraph, which

we have studied in Lessons #1 and #2. It is the most important sentence of the

essay.

Notice how the main thesis is worded. It includes the phrase, several unique

challlenges.This raises a question in the reader's mind, namely: "What are these

challenges?" The reader will find out what some of the challenges are in the body

of the essay, which we will study next.

Return to top.

The Body

The body portion of the essay is the largest portion. Typically, it has three

paragraphs, but it might have two paragraphs and of course it can have many

more than three. Each of these paragraphs usually has a topic sentence and several

supporting sentences, just like the basic paragraph we have studied. Here is an

example of three body paragraphs (which together continue the essay that we

have started studying above):

One of the challenges that is unique to space

is the fact that space is a vacuum, which is a risk

for various reasons. First, in a vacuum there is no

atmosphere and therefore no air pressure.

Without air pressure, the human body has no

oxygen to sustain itself. After too many minutes

without oxygen, a person would lose

consciousness and eventually die. Also, in a

vacuum a person's blood will gradually begin to

boil. Finally, without an atmosphere, the rays of

the Sun can cause radiation poisoning.

Another difficulty that is unique to outer

space is the presence of meteors and

micrometeors. These are pieces of rock and

metal that are left over from the formation of the

solar system. Many of these objects travel at

very high speeds. Under the Earth's blanket of

air, people are usually protected from metor

impacts. However, in space, people and

spaceships are vulnerable to collisions with

meteors. It is true that the chance of metor

impacts is relatively small, but if even a small

micrometeor happens to collide with a

spacecraft, it could cause serious damage.

A third special challenge involved with the

environment of space involves the fact that it is

very difficult to find life-sustaining water off the

Earth. For example, the planet Mercury, which is

closest to the Sun, is too hot to have water, so

space travelers must take water from Earth if

they want to visit Mercury. A similar situation

exists on the planet Venus, second from the Sun.

This planet is likewise too hot for water to exist.

Similarly, the fourth planet, Mars, is too cold and

dry, although there may be some water frozen at

the north and south poles of the planet.

(Note that usually we do not put extra spaces between individual paragraphs, as

has been done above. The spaces between the paragraphs above are only for study

purposes.)

Recall that the main thesis statement of this essay said, Similarly, the ocean of

outer space has many dangers, but it also has several unique challenges for

explorers. You can see how the body of the essay is organized according to the

challenges that are mentioned in the main thesis. The first body paragraph

discusses the dangers of space vacuum, the second body paragraph gives

information about meteors, and the third paragraph mentions the fact that water is

very difficult to find on other planets.

Return to top.

The Conclusion

The concluding paragraph does not always appear in an academic essay. In

particular, on the Written portion of the TOEFL, which lasts 30 minutes, there

may not be enough time for you to include a formal concluding paragraph.

However, here is an example of a concluding paragraph for you. Notice how it

summarizes the main points of the preceding body paragraphs:

There are other difficulties involved with

space exploration, but these are three of the most

important ones. In summary, without adequate

air pressure, the unprotected human body may be

seriously harmed in a vacuum. In addition,

meteors can threaten human life and damage

spacecraft. Finally, the lack of water in space

means that human life may have a difficult time

surviving on other planets. As one can see, the

challenges of space travel are rather different

from terrestrial dangers.

Here is another example of a concluding paragraph:

As mentioned above, the Earth's natural

environment has often presented dangers to

explorers. Dangerous animals, vast oceans, and

violent weather have presented risks to humans.

However, the new frontier of outer space, with

its vacuum, meteors, and lack of water, presents

unique challenges to people who desire to

explore it.

Comparison and Contrast Paragraphs

In this lesson:

Organization by Similarities | Organization by Subtopic | Comparison Conjunctions |

Contrast Paragraphs

Comparison/Contrast Exercises

Some TOEFL writing topics will ask you to consider the relationship between two

things, for example, your hometown (that is, the town where you were born or grew

up) and your university town. Such topics may allow you to organize your essay

either around the similarities between these two subtopics (for example, between your

hometown and your university town) or around the differences between them. If you

write about the similarities, the essay will be a comparison essay. On the other hand,

if you want to write about the differences, your essay will be a contrast essay.

This lesson will show you some ways in which you can structure sentences to write a

comparison or contrast paragraph. We will first look at comparison paragraphs and

then briefly look at contrast paragraphs.

Comparison Paragraphs Organized by Similar Points

Consider the following paragraph:

My hometown and my college town have several things in

common. First, both are small rural communities. For example, my

hometown, Gridlock, has a population of only about 10,000 people.

Similarly, my college town, Subnormal, consists of about 11,000

local residents. This population swells to 15,000 people when the

college students are attending classes. A second way in which these

two towns are similar is that they are both located in rural areas.

Gridlock is surrounded by many acres of farmland which is devoted

mainly to growing corn and soybeans. In the same way, Subnormal

lies in the center of farmland which is used to raise hogs and cattle .

. . .

(Note: The four dots [ . . . . ] at the end of this paragraph mean that the paragraph

contains more sentences that are not shown here.)

The passage above is from a comparison paragraph. that is, a paragraph which

discusses the similarities between two subtopics. Notice how the ideas in this

paragraph are organized. As usual, the topic sentence is at the beginning of the

paragraph. (For more about topic sentences, click here.) After that, the paragraph

continues by discussing one point of similarity between the towns of Gridlock and

Subnormal, namely, their small population. Specific details are given to support the

statment that "both are small rural communities." (For more about supporting details,

click here.) Following this, the paragraph briefly discusses a second point of similarity

between the two towns, that is, their geographic surroundings. Here, the paragraph

also gives supporting details to illustrate their similarity, namely, that they are "both

located in rural areas."

As you can see, therefore, this comparison paragraph is structured (organized)

according to the points of similarity between the two towns. This particular

paragraph discusses only two points of similarity, but of course we can imagine a

paragraph that gives three, four, or even more points of similarity. This paragraph, for

example, might continue in this way:

. . . Thirdly, both of these towns are similar in that both contain

college campuses. Gridlock, for example, is home to Neutron

College, which is famous for its Agricultural Economics program as

well as for its annual Corn-Watching Festival. Likewise, the town

of Subnormal boasts the beautiful campus of Quark College, which

is well known for its Agricultural Engineering department and also

for its yearly Hog-Calling Contest.

(Note: The three dots [ . . . ] at the beginning of the above paragraph indicate that the

paragraph contains previous sentences that are not shown here.)

We can place the points of similarity and their supporting details in a table in order to

see more clearly how this short paragraph is organized:

Comparison Paragraph -- Organized by Similar Points

TOPIC

SENTENCE

My (a) hometown and (b) college town are

similar.

POINT #1 Both are small rural communities.

DETAIL (a) Gridlock has about 10,000 people.

DETAIL (b)

Subnormal has about 11,000 local

residents.

It has about 4000 college students.

POINT #2 Both are located in rural areas.

DETAILS (a)

Gridlock is surrounded by many acres

of farmland.

This farmland is devoted to growing

corn.

The land is also used to grow

soybeans.

DETAILS (b)

Subnormal is in the center of land used

for raising hogs.

This land is also used to raise cattle.

POINT #3 Both towns contain college campuses.

DETAILS (a)

Gridlock is home to Neutron College.

This college is famous for its

Agricultural Economics program.

It is also famous for its annual Corn-

Watching Festival.

DETAILS (b)

Subnormal contains Quark College.

This campus is famous for its

Agricultural Engineering department.

It is also famous for its yearly Hog-

Calling Contest.

Return to Top

Comparison Paragraphs Organized by Subtopic

Another way of organizing a comparison is not according to supporting details that

are similar, but according to subtopic. (A subtopic is a main example, or main

supporting idea, that illustrates the topic sentence of a paragraph. For more about

supporting details, click here.) That is, we can organize the paragraph by first

discussing all the relevant points associated to one subtopic, then discussing those of

the second subtopic. Look at the following example, based on the above paragraph:

My hometown and my college town have several things in

common. First, my hometown, Gridlock, is a small town. It has a

population of only about 10,000 people. Located in a rural area,

Gridlock is surrounded by many acres of farmland which are

devoted mainly to growing corn and soybeans. Gridlock also

contains a college campus, Neutron College, which is famous for its

Agricultural Economics program as well as for its annual Corn-

Watching Festival. As for my college town, Subnormal, it too is

small, having a population of about 11,000 local residents, which

swells to 15,000 people when students from the nearby college are

attending classes. Like Gridlock, Subnormal lies in the center of

farmland which is used to raise hogs and cattle. Finally, Subnormal

is similar to Gridlock in that it also boasts a beautiful college

campus, called Quark College. This college is well known for its

Agricultural Engineering department and also for its yearly Hog-

Calling Contest.

As you can see, after the topic sentence, this paragraph first discusses the relevant

details about Gridlock and then presents the details about Subnormal. As with the

paragraph above, we can illustrate this paragraph's structure in the following way:

Comparison Paragraph -- Organized by Subtopic

TOPIC

SENTENCE My hometown and college town are similar.

SUBTOPIC #1: GRIDLOCK

DETAILS ABOUT

GRIDLOCK:

Gridlock is a small town.

o It has about 10,000 people.

Gridlock is in a rural area.

o It is surrounded by many acres

of farmland.

o This farmland is devoted to

growing corn.

o The land is also used to grow

soybeans.

Gridlock is home to Neutron College.

o This college is famous for its

Agricultural Economics

program.

o It is also famous for its annual

Corn-Watching Festival.

SUBTOPIC#2: SUBNORMAL

DETAILS ABOUT

SUBNORMAL:

Subnormal is a small town.

o Subnormal has about 4000

college students.

o It has about 11,000 local

residents.

Subnormal is in a rural area.

o Subnormal is in the center of

land used for raising hogs.

o This land is also used to raise

cattle.

Subnormal contains Quark College.

o This campus is famous for its

Agricultural Engineering

department.

o It is also famous for its yearly

Hog-Calling Contest.

Return to Top

Comparison Conjunctions

In the above paragraphs you will see various conjunctions that contribute to paragraph

coherence. (For more on coherence, click here.) We can look at the above paragraphs

again to see how the conjunctions are used:

My hometown and my college town have several things in

common. First, both are small rural communities. For example, my

hometown, Gridlock, has a population of only about 10,000 people.

Similarly, my college town, Subnormal, consists of about 11,000

local residents. This population swells to 15,000 people when the

college students are attending classes. A second way in which

these two towns are similar is that they are both located in rural

areas. Gridlock is surrounded by many acres of farmland which is

devoted mainly to growing corn and soybeans. In the same way,

Subnormal lies in the center of farmland which is used to raise hogs

and cattle. Thirdly, these towns are similar in that they contain

college campuses. Gridlock, for example, is home to Neutron

College, which is famous for its Agricultural Economics program as

well as for its annual Corn-Watching Festival. Likewise, the town

of Subnormal boasts the beautiful campus of Quark College, which

is well known for its Agricultural Engineering department and also

for its yearly Hog-Calling Contest.

This paragraph, of course, is organized according to similarities. Notice how the

ORDER of the similarities is the same throughout the paragraph. That is, at each

similar point, the paragraph first discusses Gridlock and then it discusses Subnormal.

Keeping the same order throughout the paragraph prevents the reader from getting

confused. Also notice how the conjunctions (for example, similarly, and ...X are

similar in that...) are placed near each similar point. Now examine the following

paragraph, which is organized by subtopic:

My hometown and my college town are similar in several ways.

First, my hometown, Gridlock, is a small town. It has a population

of only about 10,000 people. Located in a rural area, Gridlock is

surrounded by many acres of farmland which are devoted mainly to

growing corn and soybeans. Gridlock also contains a college

campus, Neutron College, which is famous for its Agricultural

Economics program as well as for its annual Corn-Watching

Festival. As for my college town, Subnormal, it too is small, having

a population of about 11,000 local residents, which swells to 15,000

people when students from the nearby college are attending classes.

Like Gridlock, Subnormal lies in the center of farmland which is

used to raise hogs and cattle. Finally, Subnormal is similar to

Gridlock in that it also boasts a beautiful college campus, called

Quark College. This college is well known for its Agricultural

Engineering department and also for its yearly Hog-Calling Contest.

These are not the only ways to give coherence to a comparison paragraph. There are

other conjunctions, too. Here is a list of comparison conjunctions you can use:

Short Conjunctions Longer Expressions

Similarly,

Likewise,

...the same...

...the same

as...

...also...

..., too.

both

In the same way,

X is similar to Y in that (they)...

X and Y are similar in that (they)...

Like X, Y [verb]...

In like manner,

One way in which X is similar to Y is

(that)...

Another way in which X is similar to Y

is (that)...

Return to Top

Contrast Paragraphs

As mentioned above, a contrast paragraph discusses the differences between (at

least) two things. You can organize contrast paragraphs in much the same way that

you can organize comparison paragraphs. That is, you can organize them either

according to points of similarity or according to subtopic. Here is an example of such

a paragraph organized by subtopic. Notice the contrastive expressions in bold letters:

Even though Arizona and Rhode Island are both states

of the U.S., they are strikingly different in many ways.

For example, the physical size of each state is different.

Arizona is large, having an area of 114,000 square miles,

whereas Rhode Island is only about a tenth the size, having

an area of only 1,214 square miles. Another difference is

in the size of the population of each state. Arizona has

about four million people living in it, but Rhode Island has

less than one million. The two states also differ in the

kinds of natural environments that each has. For example,

Arizona is a very dry state, consisting of large desert areas

that do not receive much rainfall every year. However,

Rhode Island is located in a temperate zone and receives an

average of 44 inches of rain per year. In addition, while

Arizona is a landlocked state and thus has no seashore,

Rhode Island lies on the Atlantic Ocean and does have a

significant coastline.

Here are some contrast conjunctions that you can use:

Short Conjunctions Subordinating Conjunctions

However,

In contrast,

By contrast,

..., but

..., yet

On the other hand,

even though + [sentence]

although + [sentence]

whereas + [sentence]

unlike + [sentence]

while + [sentence]

nevertheless,

Cause and Effect Paragraphs

Cause & Effect Conjunctions | Go to the Exercises

Sometimes, assigned topics on the written portion of the TOEFL ask you to explain

the reasons or causes of something. Other topics will ask you to discuss the results or

effects of some cause. Here is an example of a writing topic asking for causes of a

particular phenomenon (Note: this is not an actual TOEFL topic, but it is similar to

one that may appear on a specific adminstration of the TOEFL):

In recent decades, cities have grown so large that now

about 50% of the Earth's population lives in urban areas.

Explain the causes of this phenomenon.

Be sure to give specific details and reasons in your

explanation.

Cause/effect paragraphs generally follow basic paragraph format. That is, they begin

with a topic sentence and this sentence is followed by specific supporting details.

(Click here if you wish to review Lesson 1, "Basic Paragraph Structure.") For

example, if the topic sentence introduces an effect, the supporting sentences all

describe causes. Here is an example:

In recent decades, cities have grown so large that now about

50% of the Earth's population lives in urban areas. There are

several reasons for this occurrence. First, the increasing

industrialization of the nineteenth century resulted in the

creation of many factory jobs, which tended to be located in

cities. These jobs, with their promise of a better material life,

attracted many people from rural areas. Second, there were

many schools established to educate the children of the new

factory laborers. The promise of a better education persuaded

many families to leave farming communities and move to the

cities. Finally, as the cities grew, people established places of

leisure, entertainment, and culture, such as sports stadiums,

theaters, and museums. For many people, these facilities made

city life appear more interesting than life on the farm, and

therefore drew them away from rural communities.

Notice how each supporting sentence is a cause that explains the effect mentioned in

the topic sentence. In the chart below are the main ideas of the above paragraph, to

help you understand the relationships better:

EFFECT (Topic Sentence)

CAUSES (Supporting Sentences)

Cities have grown very

large.

[There are several reasons

for this.]

Factory jobs attracted people.

(Cities have grown very

large.)

Better schools attracted families to

move

to the city.

(Cities have grown very

large.)

Places of leisure, entertainment,

and culture

made city life appear more

interesting.

Notice also how the topic sentence is followed by the "focusing" or "prediction"

sentence, There are several reasons for this. Such sentences help the reader anticipate

the organization of the paragraph or essay.

Cause and Effect Conjunctions

Here are some common conjunctions that can be used to express cause and effect:

since as a result because of + noun phrase

because therefore due to + noun phrase

consequently for this reason so

There are two things you must be careful of when using these conjunctions. First, you

must order the cause and the effect corerctly. For example, in the sentence

Sally closed the window because the weather outside was cold.

the CAUSE is the fact that the room was cold, and the EFFECT is Sally's closing the

window. The conjunction because is placed in the correct position here, which is right

before the cause. Similarly, in the sentence

Because the weather outside was cold, Sally closed the window.

the conjunction because is correctly placed before the part of the sentence that

expresses the cause, even though the subordinate clause because the room was cold is

now at the beginning of the sentence. (Note that the first letter of the conjunction is

now capitalized.) However, in this sentence:

??The weather outside was cold because Sally closed the window.

even though it is grammatical, it does not make sense because a person's opening or

closing a window does not influence the weather.

Second, you should be careful when using commas. Conjunctions such as therefore,

consequently, as a result, and for this reason are usually followed by a comma, as in

these examples:

The weather was cold; therefore, Sally closed the window.

The weather was cold. Therefore, Sally put on her coat.

The weather was cold. Consequently, Sally put on her scarf.

A blizzard hit the town. As a result, the schools were closed.

The adverbial clause conjunctions since and because are exceptions. These are

attached directly at the beginning of CAUSE-sentence without a comma, as in the

example above, Because the weather outside was cold, Sally closed the window. The

comma here is placed at the end of the subordinate clause.

The coordinating conjunction so is also different from the ones above. This

conjunction has a comma before it, as in this sentence:

The weather was warm, so Jim turned on the air conditioner.

However, in formal academic writing, so may not be used at the beginning of a

sentence (although you will often see it in informal writing):

The weather was warm. So Jim turned on the air conditioner.

(too informal -- avoid this usage)