Basic Principles in Research Writing (1)

8/8/2019 Basic Principles in Research Writing (1)

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BASIC PRINCIPLES IN RESEARCH WRITING

Know your Readers

One very important role to consider in setting ones style is the target

readers. In writing for the ordinary layman, the average reader, or thegeneral public, the researcher or writer of research studies must strive to be

understood easily and painlessly.

To do so, he has to use plain, simple language. High-sounding words

and jargon must be avoided. (Jargon, as you may know, is the short-cut or

slang of technical language.) Except for highly specialized publications,

technical words must be made understandable to the average reader.

For example, Technology! , a PCARRD bulletin, is aimed at influencing

policy in support of research-based technology. It is, therefore, directed at

policy makers and administrators; but these are busy people and may not

have the technical background of the researcher.

So, the style of writing is simple and nontechnical in nature.

Paragraphs are short for ease in reading, and the whole persuasion is

presented in capsule form.

Write Simply and Clearly

In research writing, one must use simple and familiar words and the

writer must get to the point. Below are examples of unfamiliar words andtheir simple equivalents:

repudiate - refuse

contemplate - think

commence - begin

endeavour - effort

conflagration - fire

conceal - hide

aggregate - total

solar radiation - sunlight

monsoon season- rainy season

increment - increase

inflorescence - flower

cluster

verbose - wordy

peruse - read

pass away - die

dwell - live


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utilize - use

laceration - wound

initiate - begin

precise - exact

parasitoid - parasite

inundate - flood

pulchritude - beauty

Make Sentences and Paragraphs Short

Avoid putting too many ideas in a sentence. Break it up. Paragraphs

should also be shortened. Long paragraphs bore the readers and turn them

off. One glance at a text with kilometric paragraphs could easily discourage

even the reader with bulldog endurance.

Example:

It must be remembered, however, that the moisture content of a

given peanut seed is actually the average moisture content of all the

seeds in the sample but there may well be some seeds with high

moisture content in which fungal growth may progress to form pockets

of mouldy seeds with aflatoxin which is known to be carcinogenic and

dangerous to health and must therefore be avoided by seeing to it that

the seeds are well and uniformly dried during the drying period.

Reconstructed paragraph:

The moisture content (MC) of a given peanut-seed sample is the

average MC of the rest in the container. It is, possible, however, that

relatively dry peanuts may have portions of high-moisture seeds, inthese seeds fungus grows fast, form moulds, and secretes aflatoxin.

Aflatoxin is a highly potent poison which is carcinogenic (tending

to produce cancer). Peanut seeds must therefore be well and uniformly

dried.


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Use Concrete Words

Concrete words are exact and definite. Abstract words are subjective

and liable to many interpretations. The researcher does his work carefully

and conscientiously. He cannot therefore afford to have his study

misunderstood with the careless use of words.

Abstract: Field experiments conducted in the north showed that inoculation

increased soybean yield significantly.

Concrete: Field experiments conducted in Batangas clay loam showed that

inoculation increased syben yield from 1,000 to 2,400 kg/ha.

Use the Active Voice

As much as possible, use the active voice. This is preferable in

scientific writing. The sentences are simpler, shorter, clearer and more

direct. In the active voice, the subject is the doer of the action

(predicate/verb). In the passive, the subject is acted upon and becomes the

subject of the preposition by.

The predicate in the passive voice composed of an auxiliary verb (is,

are, was, were, will be, have, had, has been, were being, etc.) and a past

participle (written, done, shown, lived, planted, etc.)

Examples:

Passive:

1. The report was written by him.

2. It has been shown by Cruz that organic matter improves soil

structure.

Active:

1. He wrote the report.

2. Cruz showed that organic matter improves soil structure.

To switch from passive to active voice, do the following:


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1. Make the subject or the doer of the action, not the object of the

preposition by.

Passive:

Expensive inorganic fertilizers must be changed to cheap organicones by the researchers.

Active:

The researchers must change expensive inorganic fertilizers to

cheap organic ones.

2. Give the sentence an active subject if it does not have any.

Passive:

a. The study was conducted in 1987.

b. It is expected...

c. It was felt...

d. It is thought...

Active:

a. The DA conducted the study in 1987.

b. The agency expected...

c. The participants felt...

d. Many people thought...

The passive voice, however, can be used if the subject is not

necessary, is clearly understood, or not known. If one wishes to emphasize

something or someone other than the agent/doer of the action, the passive

voice may also be used.

Examples:

1. The Director assigned the research to Juan Cruz. This study was

conducted in 1 ha of rice land. (The doer, Cruz, is already

mentioned in the first sentence and is not necessary in the second,

which is in the passive voice.).


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2. The field was plowed two times to eliminate the weeds. (if clearly

understood that the farmer/ labourer did the plowing).

3. Nitrogen supply is increased by rhizobia inoculation. (Emphasis is

placed on nitrogen supplyrather than on rhizobia inoculation.)

Be Consistent

The research writer should stick to the format and style of his agency,

his university, or the publication he is writing for. Carelessness is often

shown in the use of punctuation, apelling and handling of numbers, among

others.

Punctuation. In a series, a comma is placed before the conjunctions

andand or. Other types of writing disregard this rule.

In research writing, this rule must be observed to avoid the mistake of takingthe last two words as a unit or combination.

Examples:

1. The infested tomato plants were sprayed, burned, or buried.

2. The incidence, effect on yield, and geographic distribution of viruses

need to be studied.

Without the comma, the last two phrases in the series will read: effect

on yield and geographic distribution. This means the effect on bothyield and geographic distribution.

Spelling. With words having two acceptable spellings, choose one

and use throughout. Between the British and American spelling, however, we

opt for the latter.

American British

1. traveller traveller

2. hemoglobin haemoglobin

3. honor honour

4. rationalize rationalise

5. center centre


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6. luster lustre

7. program programme

8. estrus aestrous

Most compound words with the prefixes non, post, anti, pre, re, and

semi are not hyphenated. There are exceptions, of course.

Examples:

1. nonessential

2. antismoking

3. prewar

4. postharvest

5. reopen

6. semiconcrete

Handling of numbers. Spell out all numbers below 11 and use

figures for 11 upward. However, when the numbers are used with measures

(which should be abbreviated), these are all in figures.

Examples:

one crop six weeks 11 sows

ten studies nine days 110 reports

but

1 km 11 ha 96t/ha

10t 120 g 50 kg/ha

Be Accurate


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Choose words with the exact meaning intended. Even in synonyms,

one must use the correct word. Do not use varying when you mean various.

Do not use appraise for apprise, adoptfor adapt, etc. Do not mix nouns and

adjectives indiscriminately (fungus-fungous/fungal).

Example:

1. UPLB conducted the research to determine the extent of bud rot in

various (not varying) soil conditions.

Be Concise

Wordiness is a common fault in writing and must be avoided. It

confuses the reader who usually gets lost in the middle of a long-winded

sentence. Among the main course of wordiness are the following:

1. Use of common phrases which can be shortened

Examples:

Wordy Concise

a. At this point in time - at present, now

b. Due to the fact that - because

c. In the neighbourhood of - about

d. The poor quality of the soil poor soil

e. Take into consideration consider

2. Use of the passive voice

3. The phrase habit, the tendency to use a phrase instead of an

adjective or averb.

Examples:

Wordy Concise

a. in length long


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b. of great importance very important

c. the avoidance of avoiding, avoid

4. Overuse ofwhich

Examples:

Wordy: a method which was known to be dangerous

Concise: dangerous method

5. Overuse ofof

Wordy Concise

kernels of the peanut in storage stored peanut kernels

shelling pods of soybean shelling soybean pods

characteristics of this species of fish characteristics of

fish species

6. Overuse ofthe

Wordy: The planting of the trees took three months.

Concise: Tree planting took three months

7. Overuse of impersonal it

Wordy Concise

It is apparent that ... Apparently, ....

It is unfortunate that ... Unfortunately, ...

It is clear that ... Clearly, ...


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Common Errors in Research Writing

Scientific and technical writing demands that the written word should

be simple, clear and concise. Wordiness is a common fault in writing andoften violates these three principles. Wrong sentence structure is another.

Discussed earlier are fundamental principles in research writing that

are often violated such as in the kind of writing that contributes to

wordiness, as in the use of the passive voice, long common phrases, the

noun habit, and the overuse ofwhich and of.

The following sections will discuss other most common errors in

research writing.

Dangling Participles

The most common dangling modifier is the dangling participle or the

dangling participial phrase. Participles are verb forms used as adjectives or

noun modifiers.

The present participle is a verb form ending in ing: using, sowing, and

running.The past participleis the third form of the three principal parts of

the verb, as follows:

Present Past Past Participle

use used used

harvest harvested harvested

feed fed fed

break broke broken

write wrote written

freeze froze frozen

The present and past participles are often used in phrases that modify

nouns or substantives and pronouns. The italicized words in the following

sentences are participial phrases placed very close to the words modified

(underlined).


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1. Using a spade, he dug an irrigation canal.

2. Standing up, the farmer announced his decision to adopt the

technology.

3. The plants, attacked by insects, were burned.

4. They read the primer written in the vernacular...

Can you tell why the following participial phrases are dangling?

1. He removed the insects using forceps.

2. Standing up, the meeting was adjourned.

3. Bitten by a snake, we rushed the boar to the veterinarian.

4. The insect sucks the sap of the plant, causing its death.

5. The farmer planted his crop at the onset of the rainy season,

eliminating the need for irrigation.

A participial phrase dangles if:

1. It is not placed close to the word modified,

2. It does not modify any word, and

3. It modifies the wrong word.

There are three ways of correcting dangling participial phrases:

1. Place the phrase close to the word it modifies.

Example:

Dangling: The farmer plowed the field using a tractor.

Correct: The farmer, using a tractor, plowed the field. Or Usingthe tractor, the farmer plowed the field.

2. Provide the word modified.

Example:


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Dangling: Disappointed with the results, the research was

terminated.

Correct: Disappointed with the results, PCARRD terminated the

research.

3. Reconstruct the whole sentence.

Examples:

Dangling:

a. Bitten by the snake, we rushed the boar to the

veterinarian.

b. Using the tractor, the field was plowed.

c. The farmer planted his crop at the onset of the rainy,

eliminating the need for irrigation.

Correct:

a. We rushed the boar, bitten by a snake, to the

veterinarian.

Or

We rushed the snake-bitten boar to the veterinarian.

b. Using the tractor, the farmer plowed the field.

Or

The farmer plowed the feild with the tractor.

c. The farmer, eliminating the need for irrigation, planted

his crop at the onset of the rainy season.

Or

The farmer planted his crop at the onset of the rainy

season and eliminated the need for irrigation.

4. Add byto using or change using to with.


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Example:

Dangling: He removed the insects using forceps.

Correct: He removed the insects by using forceps.

Or

He removed the insects with forceps.

Exceptions:

Some phrases beginning with such words as assuming, considering,

and speaking have come to be accepted as clusters that do not strictly need

to have a noun or pronoun to modify.

Examples:

1. Assuming him to be right, there are still questions to be settled.

2. We extended the soybean pilot project, considering that many

farmers expressed their desires to participate.

3. Speaking of funding, many foreign agencies are waiting to help

financially with agricultural projects.

Vague Pronoun Reference

The reader should immediately know the word (called antecedent) to

which a pronoun refers.

1. The pronoun it

Vague: The peanut sheller is equipped with a blower, but it is

inadequate.

(Which is inadequate, the sheller or the blower?)

Clear: The peanut sheller, which is inadequate, is equipped with a

blower.

(Place the modifier, which is inadequate, near the noun modified-

sheller


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Clear: The peanut sheller is equipped with a blower, which is

inadequate.

(Bloweris modified by which is inadequate.)

2. Implied references to an entire preceding statement. The mostcommon error is to use the pronoun which, this, that, etc.To refer to

an entire clause and not to a definite noun or pronoun.

Examples:

Vague: Organic fertilizer considerably enriches the soil, which

improves crop yield.

The relative pronoun which refers to the whole clause preceding

it. This refers is merely implied and thus contributes to

vagueness.

Good:Organic fertilizer considerably enriches the soil, a fact which

improves crop yield.

(In this sentence, which now refers to a definite word fact -

which refers to the whole preceding statement.)

Better: Organic fertilizer considerably enriches the soil and

consequently improves crop yield.

Vague: His father is a farmer. This helps in the education of the

children.

Better: His father is a farmer. Farming helps in the education of

the children.

Better: His fathers farm helps in the education of the children.

3. Relative pronouns (who, which, that)


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These pronouns refer to the nearest noun (antecedent) and

should agree with it in number. The antecedent should, therefore, be

placed near the relative pronoun.

Examples:

1. He is one of the researchers who dedicate their time to science.

2. They choose thepesticide that does not harm the environment.

3. Integrated pest control, which seems to be the best method, is the

subject of the seminar.

Lumped Compound Modifiers

A number of writers lump compound modifiers together, perhaps in an

attempt to say much in a few words. Unfortunately, this tendency is often

more confusing than enlightening. It is also bad diction. This error in writing

can be remedied by doing any or all of the following together:

1. Break the cluster into prepositional phrases.

2. Hyphenate.

3. Add conjunctions.

4. Rearrange word replacement.

Examples:

1. slatted rectangular corn crib on-farm storage.

2. traditional subsistence sweet potato products practices

3. Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M. King infested field

Improved:

1. on-farm stoirage in a slatted and rectangular on corn crib

2. traditional subsistence practices for sweet potato products

3. field infested with Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M. King

Faults against Parallelism


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Two or more words, phrases, or clauses that are parallel in thought or

that do the same work, are easier to read if they are similar in grammatical

construction. The conjunctions used are and, but, for, nor, either-or, neither-

nor, nut only but also.

A. Words

Poor: The project was observed, analyzed, and a judgement given.

Better: the project was observed, analyzed, and judge.

Poor: The fisherman was calm, cool, and did not worry.

Better: The fisherman was calm, cool, and confident.

B. Phrases

Bad: They introduced new ways of planting corn and control of pest.

Good: They introduced new ways of planting corn and controlling

pests.

or

They introduced new ways to plant corn and control pests.

Bad: Everyday the farmer milks his cows, cleans his field, and hogs

are fed.

Good: Everyday the farmer milks cows, cleans his field, and feeds

his hogs.

C. Clauses


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Bad: An additional amount was generated when the project leader

needed it most and during the time the bills were coming in.

Good: An additional amount was generated when the project leaderneeded it most and the bills started coming in.

Bad: they plowed the field with a carabao, harrowed it with a

tractor, and it was prepared for planting.

Good: They plowed the field with a carabao, harrowed it with a

tractor, and prepared it for planting.

Comparisons

Comparisons should be between two or more logical words

(nouns or substantives) or concepts.

Poor: Rice yield in the first crop rotation was good compared with

the second rotation.

(Note: What the writer wants to compare are the yields of

rice between the first and second season crop rotations. Inthis sentence construction, he is actually comparing rice yield

and second rotation.)

Good: Rice yield in the first crop rotation was better than that in

the second.

(Note: The word thatrefers to yield (singular). The

comparison is now between the yields of the two rotations.

The expression better than is more logical i this type of

sentence.)

Pairs Often Confused

adapt-adopt

adapt to make suitable, to adjust


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adopt to take as ones own

Examples:

a. That temperate crop adapted well to Philippine conditions.

b. The farmers failed to adopt the technology generated.

affect effect (v)

affect to influence

effect to cause

Examples:

a. The right kind of fertilizer affects plant growth favourably.

b. Sunlight effects a favourable change in plants.

agree to agree with (also agree on)

agree to terms proposed

agree with a person

agree on a course of action

Examples:

a. The farmers agreed to some of the terms of the Department

of Agriculture.

b. The project implementers did not agree with the government

negotiators.

c. The scientists agreed on conducting a multidisciplinary

research.


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all right alright

all right two words

alright not an acceptable word

Examples:

a. It is all right to do it.

b. All right, lets do it.

already - all ready

already previously, by this time

all ready everything prepared

Examples:

a. The farmers have already harvested the crop.

b. The participants are all ready to start work.

among between

among shows a relationship of more than two object, persons,

etc.

between shows relationship of two objects, person, etc.

Examples:

a. An agreement was forged among the numerous members for

R&D research on banana.

b. There showed an inconsistency in treatment between the two

trials.


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amount number

amount refers to quantity, used with a unified mass

number refers to countable units, used with separate units

Examples;

a. The amount of work planned es extensive.

b. The number of plants lost in the flood led to the failure of the

project.

apprise appraise

apprise to inform, give notice

appraise to evaluate, judge, set value

Examples:

a. We apprised the funding agency of the status in the

implementation of the project.

b. The evaluation committee apparaised the work of the project

coordinatyor.

apt liable (also likely)

apt- habitually, tending, suited, or fitted (positive in connotation)

liable exposed to the danger of (negative in connotation)

likely- expected, probable (negative or positive in connotation)


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Examples:

a. The small entrepreneur is apt to improve his income with the

new technology.

b. The small farmer is liable to be suspicious of a new

technology.

c. Extension workers are likely to fall if they dont understand

farmers.

d. One is likely to succeed if he works hard.

capacity ability or capability

capacity refers to volume and amount

ability and capability refers to what can be done

Examples:

a. The capacity of the machine is 20 sacks an hour.

b. That machine has the capacity to harvest and thresh rice

simultaneously.

compare to compare with

compare with for like things

compare to for unlike things

Examples:

a. Yield in the first plot was compared with that of the second.

(two yields are compared)

b. Life is compared to sailing on the sea. (Two unlike things are

compared

life and sailing)


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credible creditable (also credulous)

credible believablecreditable praiseworthycredulous ready to believe especially on slight or uncertain evidence

Examples:

a. The honest and outstanding farmer gave a credible account ofhis success.

b. The new researcher made a creditable research performance.

c. A credulous person will not make a good scientist.

different from different to/than

Do not use different than or different to

Example:

a. His style of writing is different from that of the others.

due to because of

due to an adjective phrase, so it must modify a nounbecause of adverbial phrase, so it must modify a verb

Examples:

Wrong: Yield was high due to the application of fertilizers.Better: Yield was high because of fertilizer application.Better: High yield was due to fertilizer application.

estrus (n.) estrous (adj.)

Examples:

a. The carabaos next estrus was delayed.b. The estrous bitch is restless and nervous.

farther further


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farther an adjective referring to distancefurther going beyond what exists (adjective), in addition (adverb), to

move forward(verb)

Examples:

a. The RACO staff drove farther north.b. We all need further training to enable us to improve our lives more.c. The liberal application of chicken dung enriched the soil further.d. The farmers furthered their learning of the technology in a workshop

conducted by extension workers.

imply infer

imply to express or suggest indirectly

infer to draw conclusion from the evidence.

Examples:

a. Your silence implies that you agree.b. From the findings, we infer that the methodology was questionable.

less few

Do not use less with nouns in the plural form.

Examples:

less gasoline, less landfew palnts, few tractors

lose loose

lose (v.) to misplaceloose (v.) to unfasten, to be unfastenedloose (adj.) not tight

Examples:

a. She loses her serenity when the project goes wrong.b. They usually loose the pigs at night.c. We wear loose clothes when working in the field.


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mucus (n.) mucous (adj.)

Examples:

a. The mucus is a protective secretion of mucous membrane.b. The organ has a mucous lining that keeps it from irritants.

phosphorus (n.) phosphorous (adj.)

phosphorus (n.) a non-metallic elementphosphorous (adj.) containing phosphorus, resembling phosphorus

Examples:

a. Phosphorus is one of the elements in commercial fertilizers.b. The planter owned a farm lot of phosphorous soil.

practical practicable

practical concerned with practice rather than theorypracticable capable of being put into practice

Examples:

a. The director is a practical man and not a dreamy, romanticperson at all.b. The proposed project is not practicable.

regardless irregardless

regardless without regard toirregardless a substandard word, an illiteracy

Example:

a. They went ahead with the project regardless of theconsequences.

result in result to

It is incorrect to use the preposition to with result.

Example:


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The application of fertilizers resulted in (not to) a bountiful harvest.

superior to superior than

Do not use than with superior

Example:

Many people find Latundan superior to Lacatan in taste.

that which (relative pronouns)

that introduces a restrictive (defining, limiting) clause; no commasare used.

which introduces a non-restrictive (descriptive, nondefining) clause;

commas are used.

Examples:

a. Research improves yields thatare unstable. (The italicized clausedefines which yields).

b.The study, which was conducted at the agency, aimed to increasecorn yield. (The italicized clause merely explains or describes study).

varying various

varying changingvarious many, different

Examples:

a. The seeds were planted in holes of various (not varying) depths.b. Research results are unreliable in a room of varying degrees ofheat intensity.

X ray X-ray

X ray (noun) the electromagnetic radiation, photograph obtained bythe use of X rays

X-ray adjective and verb

Examples:

a. The X ray showed a spot on the scientists lung.b. The X-ray machine broke down.


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c. The technicians had to X-ray the patient who fell from thetractor.

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Basic Principles in Research Writing (1)