• Basic punctuation • Logical Fallacies

Basic Punctuation

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Logical Fallacies

Fallacies• 1. Oversimplification• 2. Hasty generalization• 3. Post hoc, ergo proper hoc:• 4. Begging the question• 5. False analogy: • 6. Either/or thinking:• 7. Non sequitur:

(1) Oversimplification: • A drastically simple solution to what is clearly a

complex problem (multiple causes are reduced to just one or a few)

For example: We have a balance-of-trade deficit because foreigners make better products than we do.

Another example: School violence has gone up and academic performance has gone down ev-ery since organized prayer was banned at pub-lic schools. Therefore, prayer should be reintro-duced, resulting in school improvement.

It’s an oversimplification because

• The above example assumes that problems in schools (increasing vio-lence, decreasing academic perfor-mance) can be attributed to a single cause (the loss of organized, state-mandated prayers).

(2) Hasty generalization:• In inductive reasoning, a generaliza-

tion that is based on too little evi-dence or on evidence that is not rep-resentative (Basically, don’t be too quick to judge)

For example: My grandparents eat oat meal for breakfast, just as most older folks do.

(3) Post hoc, ergo propter hoc: • “ After this, therefore because of

this.” Confusing chance or coinci-dence with causation. The fact that one event comes after another does not necessarily mean that the first event cause the second:

For example: I went to the hockey game last night. The next thing I knew I had a cold.

(4) Begging the questionBegging the questions is a fallacy in

which the premises include the claim that the conclusion is true or (directly or indirectly) assume that the con-clusion is true.

For example: Lying is wrong because people should always tell the truth.

(5) False analogy:• Making a misleading analogy between logi-

cally unconnected ideasFor example: If we can clone mammals, we

should be able to find a cure for cancer.For example: Government is like business, so

just as business must be sensitive primarily to the bottom line, so also must govern-ment. (But the objectives of government and business are completely different, so proba-bly they will have to meet different criteria)

(6) Either or/thinking• Seeing only two alternatives when

there may in fact be other possibili-ties

For example: Either you love your job, or you hate it.

(7) Non sequitur:• “It does not follow.” An inference or

conclusion that is not clearly related to the established premises or evi-dence:

For example: She is very sincere. She must know what she’s talking about.

Check your papers• Do you have any logical fallacies?

• I will continue to check your para-graphs

• (You should have three to show me)• Goal: Two more paragraphs.