Becoming A Psychological Detective Psychology, Research, and
You Chapter 1 Section 1 Psychology, Research, and You Chapter 1
Section 1
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Chapter in Perspective Describe the methods psychologists use
to gather information about the numerous problems and areas they
research Examine the historical development and growth of
psychology Look at the different types of jobs that psychologists
currently hold Describe the methods psychologists use to gather
information about the numerous problems and areas they research
Examine the historical development and growth of psychology Look at
the different types of jobs that psychologists currently hold
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WHY DO WE NEED TO LEARN ABOUT PSYCHOLOGY?
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Be a Knowledgeable Consumer The results and claims of
psychological research fill our daily lives, so we need to know how
to evaluate the accuracy and credibility of these claims.
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Question: How much electric shock, from 0 to 450 volts, would
you administer to someone as part of a psychology experiment?
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Stanley Milgram (1974) Conducted a study in which people were
asked to administer shocks to others in what they believed was an
investigation of how people learned. No shocks were actually
delivered. Participants continued to administer shocks even when
they believed that the shocks could be harmful. Conducted a study
in which people were asked to administer shocks to others in what
they believed was an investigation of how people learned. No shocks
were actually delivered. Participants continued to administer
shocks even when they believed that the shocks could be
harmful.
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Obedience to Authority Can be incredibly powerful 1978
Jonestown, Guyana Jim Jones Persuaded his followers to give
cyanide-laced Kool-Aid to their children and then poison themselves
(918 total died)
http://abcnews.go.com/Health/slideshow/jonestown-massacre-
anniversary-17728596
http://abcnews.go.com/Health/slideshow/jonestown-massacre-
anniversary-17728596 Can be incredibly powerful 1978 Jonestown,
Guyana Jim Jones Persuaded his followers to give cyanide-laced
Kool-Aid to their children and then poison themselves (918 total
died) http://abcnews.go.com/Health/slideshow/jonestown-massacre-
anniversary-17728596
http://abcnews.go.com/Health/slideshow/jonestown-massacre-
anniversary-17728596
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THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY
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What is psychology? Psychology is the science of behavior (both
human and animal) and mental processes. It also includes dreams,
daydreams, and other inner experiences. Psychology is the science
of behavior (both human and animal) and mental processes. It also
includes dreams, daydreams, and other inner experiences.
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Psychology as a Science Psychology provides the tools we need
to answer questions about a wide range of issues including IQ
testing, problems in learning, ethics in research, and countless
other issues.
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Becoming a Psychological Detective We need to be clear about
what happened to determine why and how it happened Asking and
answering these questions can provides tools to answer questions
about other situations. Takes practice! We need to be clear about
what happened to determine why and how it happened Asking and
answering these questions can provides tools to answer questions
about other situations. Takes practice!
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Sample Questions: Will most people administer a 450-volt shock
to another person as part of a study of learning? How strong is
obedience to authority? Will most people administer a 450-volt
shock to another person as part of a study of learning? How strong
is obedience to authority?
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A Barrage of Info We are bombarded by information from
newspapers, radio, television, family and friends, and
advertisements on a daily basis designed to influence our opinion,
persuade us to buy products, entertain us, and/or inform us about
the world.
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Sample Headlines: Miracle Happy Pill Banishes the Blues Youll
Read 200% Faster with Better Comprehension Recovered Memories Point
to a History of Abuse Hidden Messages in Rock Songs Linked to
Suicides Three-Year-Old Psychic Predicts the Future Miracle Happy
Pill Banishes the Blues Youll Read 200% Faster with Better
Comprehension Recovered Memories Point to a History of Abuse Hidden
Messages in Rock Songs Linked to Suicides Three-Year-Old Psychic
Predicts the Future
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Psychological Techniques To evaluate information, psychologists
have found certain techniques to be helpful in thinking critically.
We will explore these techniques in the next section, but lets
consider a common alternative: folk wisdoms. To evaluate
information, psychologists have found certain techniques to be
helpful in thinking critically. We will explore these techniques in
the next section, but lets consider a common alternative: folk
wisdoms.
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Folk Wisdoms Usually presented in the form of a proverb. Folk
wisdom provides explanations for every event as well as the exact
opposite event so that they can never be proven wrong. Hence, folk
wisdom provides answers for all situations but actually explains
none. Usually presented in the form of a proverb. Folk wisdom
provides explanations for every event as well as the exact opposite
event so that they can never be proven wrong. Hence, folk wisdom
provides answers for all situations but actually explains
none.
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Examples List A Look before you leap. You cant teach an old dog
new tricks. Out of sight, out of mind. Two heads are better than
one. A penny saved is a penny earned. Opposites attract. List B
People who hesitate are lost. Its never too late to learn. Absence
makes the heart grow fonder. If you want something done right, do
it yourself. Nothing ventured, nothing gained. Birds of a feather
flock together.
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Psychological Research Psychologist are trained to: - ask good
questions - gather useful information - arrive at appropriate
conclusions - develop and ask further questions based on the
information collected. There are right and wrong ways to conduct
research. Psychologist are trained to: - ask good questions -
gather useful information - arrive at appropriate conclusions -
develop and ask further questions based on the information
collected. There are right and wrong ways to conduct research.
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EVALUATING INFO
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Spiritualism A belief in the supernatural Popular after WWI on
both sides of Atlantic People would hold sances and hire mediums to
contact the spirit world to communicate with the dead loved ones. A
belief in the supernatural Popular after WWI on both sides of
Atlantic People would hold sances and hire mediums to contact the
spirit world to communicate with the dead loved ones.
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Arthur Conan Doyle Creator of Sherlock Holmes- England 1920s
Became deeply interested in spiritualism after the death of his son
in WWI. Believed he had spoken with his dead son on several
occasions. Creator of Sherlock Holmes- England 1920s Became deeply
interested in spiritualism after the death of his son in WWI.
Believed he had spoken with his dead son on several occasions.
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Fairies Found? May 1920-Report claimed fairies had been
photographed by two young girls which confirmed Doyles belief in
spiritualism. He rejected the possibility of fraud because the
girls were young and did not know how to use photographic equipment
even though one had worked in photographic shop. May 1920-Report
claimed fairies had been photographed by two young girls which
confirmed Doyles belief in spiritualism. He rejected the
possibility of fraud because the girls were young and did not know
how to use photographic equipment even though one had worked in
photographic shop.
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Confirmation? In 1921, Doyle presented the results of his
investigation in a book, The Coming of Fairies. His authoritative
statements led many people to believe that the photographs were
genuine which led to other people writing to him about similar
experiences. In 1921, Doyle presented the results of his
investigation in a book, The Coming of Fairies. His authoritative
statements led many people to believe that the photographs were
genuine which led to other people writing to him about similar
experiences.
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Fairy Hoax Modern technology reveals that the fairies were
cardboard cutouts from a childrens book suspended by nearly
invisible threads.
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Question? Why did the famous author of the most well-known
detective stories fall for such a hoax? Before he had seen the
photographs he was already convinced of the existence of the
spiritual realm. Why did the famous author of the most well-known
detective stories fall for such a hoax? Before he had seen the
photographs he was already convinced of the existence of the
spiritual realm.
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Bias beliefs that interfere with objectivity Bias can - cloud
our observations - influence the questions we ask - determine the
methods we use - influence our interpretation of the data we
gather. beliefs that interfere with objectivity Bias can - cloud
our observations - influence the questions we ask - determine the
methods we use - influence our interpretation of the data we
gather.
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Lessons? 1. Prominent public figures may have great
credibility, but their statements should not keep us from asking
our own questions. 2. We should be aware of the potential for bias
which could cloud our judgment. 1. Prominent public figures may
have great credibility, but their statements should not keep us
from asking our own questions. 2. We should be aware of the
potential for bias which could cloud our judgment.
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SIMPLE QUESTIONS THAT MAY REVEAL SOME EVIDENCE OF BIAS Table
1-2
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#1 Is the sun closer to the Earth or farther from the Earth
during the winter months, or is the distance the same in summer and
winter?
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#2 Whose face appears on a penny?
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#3 Who stole the greatest number of bases in a single season of
professional baseball?
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#4 Can you transform the following figure into a perfect square
using just one straight line?
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ANSWERS:
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#1 Is the sun closer to the Earth or farther from the Earth
during the winter months, or is the distance the same in summer and
winter?
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#1 The answer depends on the hemisphere you are in when you
answer the question. For people in the Northern Hemisphere, the
Earth is closer to the sun from September to May; for people in the
Southern Hemisphere, the Earth is closer to the sun from May to
September. The degree of warmth is not associated with distance
from the sun; the tilt of the Earth as it receives the suns ray
determines warmth.
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#2 Whose face appears on a penny?
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#2 It depends. If the country minting the coin is the United
States, the answer is Abraham Lincoln though you may be aware of
the much older and very valuable Indianhead pennies. In Canada, the
Queen of England appears on a penny. It depends. If the country
minting the coin is the United States, the answer is Abraham
Lincoln though you may be aware of the much older and very valuable
Indianhead pennies. In Canada, the Queen of England appears on a
penny.
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#3 Who stole the greatest number of bases in a single season of
professional baseball?
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#3 The answer is Sophie Kurys, who played for the Racine Belles
in the Womens Professional Baseball League in 1946; she stole 202
bases.
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#4 Can you transform the following figure into a perfect square
using just one straight line?
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A#4 The answer is simple, provided that assumptions do not get
in your way. Extend the line on the right side downward and you
will produce the number 4 (a perfect square).
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Quandary Suppose we have two or more explanations for an event
or a claim. Which should we accept? Assume for a moment that all
the proposed explanations explain the event or claim. The law of
parsimony tells us to adopt the simplest explanationthe one that
requires the fewest assumptions. Suppose we have two or more
explanations for an event or a claim. Which should we accept?
Assume for a moment that all the proposed explanations explain the
event or claim. The law of parsimony tells us to adopt the simplest
explanationthe one that requires the fewest assumptions.
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The Law of Parsimony The principle that simple explanations of
phenomena (the one that requires the fewer assumptions) are
preferred to complex explanations.
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Doyles Choices: Doyle was faced with two explanations for the
apparent sightings of the fairies by the girls. One explanation was
that the girls had actually seen the fairies. The second
explanation was that the girls had played an elaborate hoax on
Doyle. Doyle was faced with two explanations for the apparent
sightings of the fairies by the girls. One explanation was that the
girls had actually seen the fairies. The second explanation was
that the girls had played an elaborate hoax on Doyle.
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Which to choose? Which explanation is simpler and involves
fewer assumptions? Clearly, the belief in the existence of fairies
involves many more complex assumptions than does the view that the
girls perpetrated a hoax. Which explanation is simpler and involves
fewer assumptions? Clearly, the belief in the existence of fairies
involves many more complex assumptions than does the view that the
girls perpetrated a hoax.
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Goal Goal of book is to help you become a better psychological
detective capable of asking good questions, collecting useful
information, arriving at defensible conclusions, and being aware of
your own biases and those of others.
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Study Tip Name a bias that you have seen in people you know or
even in yourself. Evaluate the bias: - What effects does it have on
behavior and belief? - What are the results of such behaviors or
beliefs, and are the results positive or negative? Name a bias that
you have seen in people you know or even in yourself. Evaluate the
bias: - What effects does it have on behavior and belief? - What
are the results of such behaviors or beliefs, and are the results
positive or negative?
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Critical Thinking Critical thinking, or the reasoning we do in
order to determine whether a claim is true, is a cornerstone of
psychology.
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GUIDELINE QUESTIONS
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Question #1 What is the statement or claim, and who is making
it?
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Analyze Consider personal bias or personal gain (from the
person making the claim and ourselves) - Evaluate authority of the
claim. - Remember credibility does not automatically transfer from
one field to another. Consider personal bias or personal gain (from
the person making the claim and ourselves) - Evaluate authority of
the claim. - Remember credibility does not automatically transfer
from one field to another.
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Example: Salespeople have a personal stake in convincing you to
purchase the products they sell. Car dealers want new customers to
know that past buyers have been satisfied, and to prove their point
they offer the results of surveys. Salespeople have a personal
stake in convincing you to purchase the products they sell. Car
dealers want new customers to know that past buyers have been
satisfied, and to prove their point they offer the results of
surveys.
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Surveys Car manufacturers mail surveys to recent buyers to
determine their level of satisfaction. According to Consumer
Reports (Selling It, 1991), some car dealers offered their
customers incentives to complete these surveysbut only if they take
the survey to a dealer, who is more than happy to help them
complete it! Car manufacturers mail surveys to recent buyers to
determine their level of satisfaction. According to Consumer
Reports (Selling It, 1991), some car dealers offered their
customers incentives to complete these surveysbut only if they take
the survey to a dealer, who is more than happy to help them
complete it!
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Question #2 Is the statement or claim based on scientific
observations?
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Anecdotes People often support conclusions with personal
experiences or anecdotes. You may think that you succeeded on an
exam because you sat in your lucky seat. People often support
conclusions with personal experiences or anecdotes. You may think
that you succeeded on an exam because you sat in your lucky
seat.
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Proof? Personal experiences are also frequently offered as
proof of the quality of particular products, ranging from
detergents to cars.
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Justified? When you come across such a claim, ask whether it is
justified. For example, does the fact that one customer is
satisfied with a product prove that the product is consistently
satisfactory? When you come across such a claim, ask whether it is
justified. For example, does the fact that one customer is
satisfied with a product prove that the product is consistently
satisfactory?
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Examining Facts Critical thinking also requires us to question
where the facts came from. Was the information based on scientific
research or was it based on casual observation? Critical thinking
also requires us to question where the facts came from. Was the
information based on scientific research or was it based on casual
observation?
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Cause and Effect Although there are several research methods,
the experimental method is the only method that can provide the
basis for cause-and-effect statements.
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Psychology in Print Popular sources ranging from such tabloids
as the National Enquirer to more respected newspapers such as The
New York Times often print news related to psychology.
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Lack of Sources Fewer than 50% of these articles specify the
research methods used. Since print media pay little attention to
the process of scientific inquiry, it makes it difficult for us to
evaluate these claims. Fewer than 50% of these articles specify the
research methods used. Since print media pay little attention to
the process of scientific inquiry, it makes it difficult for us to
evaluate these claims.
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Internet Most articles and information on the internet do not
specify research methods, so there is no guarantee on
accuracy.
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Question #3 What do statistics reveal?
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Fear of Statistics Many students are fearful of statistics in
any form, yet we use statistics all the timealthough not always
wisely. Never hesitate to ask for numbers to support a claim, but
be sure to understand them. Many students are fearful of statistics
in any form, yet we use statistics all the timealthough not always
wisely. Never hesitate to ask for numbers to support a claim, but
be sure to understand them.
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Average Claims are often presented as some type of average (or
typical score). An average conveys information about the middle of
a distribution, or collection of numbers. There are actually three
types of averages, and you will need to know which type is being
presented and whether is it appropriate. Claims are often presented
as some type of average (or typical score). An average conveys
information about the middle of a distribution, or collection of
numbers. There are actually three types of averages, and you will
need to know which type is being presented and whether is it
appropriate.
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Statistically Significant When evaluating claims, we need to
know whether the findings could have occurred by chance. Findings
that exceed chance are said to be statistically significant, which
should be backed by data. You cannot tell if a finding is
statistically significant just by looking at the results- need to
conduct a statistical test. When evaluating claims, we need to know
whether the findings could have occurred by chance. Findings that
exceed chance are said to be statistically significant, which
should be backed by data. You cannot tell if a finding is
statistically significant just by looking at the results- need to
conduct a statistical test.
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Question #4 Are there plausible alternative explanations for
the statement or claim?
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Correlation Researchers frequently report that two variables
(behaviors or events) are related. The fact that two events are
correlated does not prove that one of the events caused the other;
however, knowing the relation between two events helps us to make
predictions about when events will occur in the future. Researchers
frequently report that two variables (behaviors or events) are
related. The fact that two events are correlated does not prove
that one of the events caused the other; however, knowing the
relation between two events helps us to make predictions about when
events will occur in the future.
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Third Variable When we deal with an association between two
variables, we must consider the possibility that the relation is
actually due to a third variable.
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Example: Whenever the moon is full, the police report more
crimes and emergency rooms treat more accident victims. Is there a
relation between the full moon and these occurrences? Researchers
who have examined broader periods have consistently failed to find
such a relation. Whenever the moon is full, the police report more
crimes and emergency rooms treat more accident victims. Is there a
relation between the full moon and these occurrences? Researchers
who have examined broader periods have consistently failed to find
such a relation.
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Coincidences Although all the worlds events demand an
explanation, some are mere coincidences.
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Cause and Effect? Consider each of the following statements. -
Does one of the factors in each statement cause the other? - If
not, what other factors might be involved? Consider each of the
following statements. - Does one of the factors in each statement
cause the other? - If not, what other factors might be
involved?
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Table 1-3 1. The phone always rings when Im in the shower. 2. I
lose my keys only when Im in a hurry. 3. People always call at the
wrong time. 4. It always rains just after I wash the car. 5. An
item goes on sale the day after I buy it. 6. The doorbell always
rings just as the baby is going to sleep. 1. The phone always rings
when Im in the shower. 2. I lose my keys only when Im in a hurry.
3. People always call at the wrong time. 4. It always rains just
after I wash the car. 5. An item goes on sale the day after I buy
it. 6. The doorbell always rings just as the baby is going to
sleep.
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Study Tip Gather in a group of four. In a current newspaper or
magazine article, find a statement or claim. Assign one of the four
Guidelines for the Psychological Detective to each of the four
group members. Then, each student should evaluate the claim using
his or her chosen guideline and share this information with the
group. Gather in a group of four. In a current newspaper or
magazine article, find a statement or claim. Assign one of the four
Guidelines for the Psychological Detective to each of the four
group members. Then, each student should evaluate the claim using
his or her chosen guideline and share this information with the
group.
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Drug Trials Among the many claims we encounter every day are
ones about drugs and other remedies. Patients may respond to drug
treatment even if the treatment contains no active ingredient.
Among the many claims we encounter every day are ones about drugs
and other remedies. Patients may respond to drug treatment even if
the treatment contains no active ingredient.
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Why? If you expect that a drug will give you relief from some
ailment, that belief itself may bring about a reduction in the
symptoms.
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Placebo Effect Positive effects associated with a persons
beliefs and attitudes about the drug, even when it contains no
active ingredient
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Evaluating Effectiveness The claims made for drugs often sound
quite impressive. When judging a drugs effectiveness, we need to
know how many patients may have improved because of the placebo
effect alone. Only when we have obtained this comparative
information can we judge the true effectiveness of the drug. The
claims made for drugs often sound quite impressive. When judging a
drugs effectiveness, we need to know how many patients may have
improved because of the placebo effect alone. Only when we have
obtained this comparative information can we judge the true
effectiveness of the drug.
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Guideline Recap 1. What is the statement or claim, and who is
making it? 2. Is the statement or claim based on scientific
observations. 3. What do statistics reveal? 4. Are there plausible
alternative explanations for the statement or claim? 1. What is the
statement or claim, and who is making it? 2. Is the statement or
claim based on scientific observations. 3. What do statistics
reveal? 4. Are there plausible alternative explanations for the
statement or claim?
Slide 81
Caution! Using the 4 guidelines does not guarantee you will
always arrive an accurate understanding of any claim or proposed
explanation. Not even a well-conducted scientific experiment can
guarantee that you have found the truth. Using the 4 guidelines
does not guarantee you will always arrive an accurate understanding
of any claim or proposed explanation. Not even a well-conducted
scientific experiment can guarantee that you have found the
truth.
Slide 82
The Truth Depending on the specific type of experiment
conducted, the culture in which the experiment is conducted, and
the personal interpretation of the results, different views of the
truth may exist.
Slide 83
Why use the guidelines? They do help you avoid certain pitfalls
that can easily lead to inaccurate conclusions.