B.Ed - Semester 1 Course 2 - Notes - All Online Free€¦ · Language dominates every aspect of human life. In ... of speech sounds. ... Articulatory phonetics – studies production

Bachelor of Education (B.Ed.)

SEM 1 COURSE 2: Language Across Curriculum

SNDT University / Ashoka Education Foundation

NOTES

Disclaimer:

These notes compiled from information freely available on the internet

and are for non‐commercial use only.

These notes are only to be used as a quick refresher. They do not

substitute the depth of knowledge and information available through

classroom learning, research papers or professionally written text books.

Use at personal discretion.

Megha Goyal www.oakwoods.in

Semester 1

Course 2

Course Title : Language Across Curriculum

Total Credit: 4; Marks: 100; Hours : 60( Excluding hours to be spent by

student teachers for completing assignments)

Note: Figures in the bracket show hours for curriculum transaction

Module 1 : The Nature and Characteristics of Language Objectives:

After learning this module student teacher will be able to..

discuss basic nature and characteristics of language

explain importance of phonetics of language

elaborate relationship of language with society, culture, literature

explain the significance of basic principle of linguistics

Content :

1. Language as basic means of communication (1)

2. Specific human behavior, system of symbols, oral and written forms (2)

3. Innate capacity, habit formation (1)

4. Voice production mechanism (1)

5. Phonetics, phonology, vowel Sounds, Consonants sounds, diphthongs , stress intonation (5)

6. Brief introduction to linguistics as a separate discipline (1)

7. Pragmatics, inter language, multilingualism (1)

8. Language and society ( gender, power, identity, class); Language and Culture; Language and

literature (1)

9. Standard form of language and dialects (1)

10. Language and Process of thinking (1)

Module 2 : Acquisition of Language

Objectives : After learning this module student teacher will be able to..

explain the process of acquisition of language and stages of acquisition of knowledge

apply the theoretical principles of Dewey, Piaget, Vygotsky, Chomskey in teaching‐ learning

transaction

explain functions of brain in language acquisition

discuss place and importance of mother tongue, verbal intelligence

explain the place of language in personality development

discuss the impact of ICT on language and English on mother tongue

Content :

1. The process of acquisition of language; Different stages in the acquisition of language (2)

2. Contribution of John Dewey, Jean Piaget, Vygotsky, Noam Chomskey (4)

3. Functions of brain in language acquisition (1)

4. Role of language in socialization (1)

5. Place and importance of mother tongue in individual’s life (1)

6. Development of verbal intelligence and related activities (3)

7. Place of language in personality development (1)

8. Impact of ICT on language (1)

9. Impact of English on mother tongue (1)

Module 3

Place and Importance of Language in School Curriculum Objectives :

After learning this module student teacher will be able to..

explain the place of language and centrality of language in school curriculum

discuss the Constitutional provisions and policies

describe importance of language in every subject education

explain the correlation of language with other subjects

discuss the Issue of medium of instruction and Semi English medium for Science

Content :

1. Place of language in school curriculum; centrality of language in learning (2)

2. Constitutional provisions and policies (Art 343 to 351)

a. Provisions in Kothari Commission, National Policy of Education (1986) ;

Recommendations regarding language education in NCF 2005 (3)

3. Objectives of teaching language in general, their specifications (2)

4. First language, Second language, Third language, Three language formula (1)

5. Importance of language in every subject education‐ Science/ mathematics/ social sciences (2)

6. Study of classical languages with special reference to Sanskrit(1)

7. Study of mother tongue, languages from other states, foreign languages (1)

8. Correlation of language with other subjects (1)

9. Issue of medium of instruction, Semi English medium for Science (1)

10. Issues of multilingual class (1)

Module 4

Enriching Language Proficiency

Objectives : After learning this module student teacher will be able to..

apply various methods of teaching in transaction of content

explain the importance of four basic skills

apply different techniques to enhance teaching learning transaction of language

discuss various ways of enriching vocabulary

explain functional purposes of learning language

explain the characteristics of language teacher

appreciate the language

Content :

1. Pedagogy of language; various methods of teaching language : aural‐oral method,

structural method, grammar translation method, direct method, grammar translation

method, direct method, Interactive teaching and Cooperative learning (4)

2. Teaching of four basic skills : listening, speaking, reading, writing; Different ways and

activities to develop these skills; Interrelationship of these skills; Constructivism in

language teaching (3)

3. Different techniques to enhance teaching learning transaction of language : debate, elocution,

role play, mock conversation, dramatization, quiz, cross word puzzles, riddles, language games (3)

4. Enrichment of vocabulary, active and passive vocabulary, synonyms, antonyms, Conversion of

word forms( noun to adjective, verb to noun, adjective to noun, noun to verb etc), one word

substitution, idioms, phrases, proverbs, figures of speech (1)

5. Developing verbal/ linguistic creativity (1)

6. Developing art of translation, appreciation of literature and Encouraging creative writing

(1)

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Compiled by Megha Goyal | For non‐commercial use only.

7. Learning language for specific functional purposes: Conversation, to make introduction, vote of

thanks, compeering, announcements, interview ( taking and giving), short speech, debate (1)

8. Characteristics needed for language teacher (1)

Q. 1. Discuss the nature of language and explain how it is learnt.

Ans. Language is the most important phenomenon in the world. From birth to death, all our activities are regulated by language. The human knowledge and culture is stored and transmitted in language. Thinking is only possible through language. In our dreams, we make use of language. Language dominates every aspect of human life. In fact, it is a yardstick to separate us from other beings. Language is a mean of communication. With the help of language, we can express our thoughts and feelings to others. Without language, society would be impossible.

SOME DEFINITIONS OF LANGUAGE:

According to H.A. Gleason, “Language is one of the most important and characteristic forms of human behavior.”

NATURE OF LANGUAGE:

1. Language is learnt: Learning of language is not an automatic process. Of course, it is a behaviour but it is not type of behaviour like walking and crawling that comes to child in natural way. Language by imitation and practice. Language is not possible without effort.

2. Language is related to the culture of society: Every language is related to culture of society to which it belongs. The culture of the people naturally influences the language. Every language is the product of society. We cannot separate language from the culture in which that language exists. It has meaning only in relation to that society and culture.

3. Language is species specific: Language is species specific. Only human beings have got the gift of language. Of course, the other species do communicate but only human beings can make use of language.

4. Language is species uniformed: Language is species uniformed. All human children are capable of acquiring any language natively if they are provided the right kind of environment.

5. Language is a system: Each language is a unique system. The system of language consists of sounds, structures and vocabulary. A person who wants to learn a new language will have to learn new sounds, new structures and new vocabulary. The sound system of language differs from language to language depending upon the culture to which a language belongs. Each language has its own system of vocabulary. Thus each language is systematic.

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6. Language is a system of systems: Each language is a system of systems. There are phonological and grammatical systems in all languages. There are several sub systems with in a language. The phonology of a language forms its own system as the various sounds function in a systematic way.

7. Language is a system of symbols: Each language works through symbols. Different words used in a language are the symbols. They stand for certain things. The language will function well if its symbols are known both to the speaker and the person for whom they are being used.

For example the world cup has three sounds (K, Л, P) It is a symbol of English because a meaning is attached to it. But if we take the same three sounds like, K, Л, P they do form Puc, but that is not a symbol of English language as no meaning is attached to it.

8. Symbols of language are vocal: Different symbols are used in a single language. These symbols are vocal. A language system does not exist in a vacuum. It is primary used in speech. Only speech provides all essential signals of a language. There are other kinds of symbols which cannot be called vocal symbols. For example, gestures and signal flags are visual symbols and ringing of the bells and beating of a drum are auditory symbols. They do not form any language. In language the sounds are produced through vocal organs. Reading and writing are no doubt important. But speech is the basic form of language. A language without speech is unthinkable.

9. Language is a skill subject: Learning of a language is a skill subject. It is skill like swimming and cycling. We can not learn swimming or cycling just by studying rules. We can learn it by practice. In the same way, we can learn a language y constant practice of that language. So a lot of repetition for major linguistic skills like listening, speaking, reading and writing is required.

10. Language is for communication: Language is the best means of communication and self expressions. Human beings express their ideas, thoughts, feelings and emotions through language. In this way language is a means to connect past present and future.

11. Governed by a particular set of rules: Each language is governed by a particular set or rules. For example English is S.V.O. language. In forming sentence, we put subject, then verb and after verb we put object.

For example

He killed a snake.

Subject Verb Object

On the other hand, Hindi is S.O.V. language. First we put subject, he object and after object, we put verb.

Usne saamp maara .

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Subject Object Verb

12. Symbols of language are Arbitrary: Here by arbitrary symbols we meant that there is no visual relationship between the language item and the object for which it stands. A man is called man traditionally. There is no visual similarity between the symbol ‘man’ and the actual man. We have not named it so on the basis of some logic or scientific principles. In English we say man, in ‘Hindi’ we say ‘manaushya’. None of them is better than the other. In fact, we call a man ‘man’ because people have agreed to use it in that sense.

13. Language is unique: Each language is unique because it has its own style of functioning. The sounds, vocabulary and structures of every language have their own specialty.

What is phonetics and why does it matter? Phonetics is a science, which deals with pronunciation and structure of a language. It refers to the study

of speech sounds.

Pronunciation includes the system of all the phonetic means of expression in speech – speech sounds,

word‐stress, and intonation. All of them are important and should not be underestimated in studying a

language.

In order to understand how something works it is often useful to break it down into its constituent parts.

The following diagram shows a breakdown of the main features of pronunciation.

Phonetics can be divided into 3 main areas:

1. Articulatory phonetics – studies production of speech sounds;

2. Acoustic phonetics – studies transmission of sounds between speaker and a listener

3. Auditory phonetics – examines how sounds are perceived by a listener.

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Phonetics vs. Phonology Phonemes are the different sounds within a language.

Phonetics is often mentioned in relation to phonology which is a connected branch of linguistics. The

difference between the two is in the approach to the sounds.

Phonetics is a branch of linguistics, which deals with the physical reality of speech sounds. It studies

the articulation and their acoustic qualities and the physical characteristics and sound perception

Phonology is primarily concerned with how we interpret and systematise sounds. It deals with the

system and pattern of the sounds which exist within particular languages. The study of the phonology

of English looks at the vowels, consonants and suprasegmental features (stress and intonation) of the

language. Significance of Phonetics

Phonetics is important not only for the scientists, but also for anyone who either teaches or learns a

foreign language. One of the most important applications of phonetics is in the teaching foreign

languages. It allows teachers to examine the differences between the sounds of source and target

languages and explain this difference to learners. It also enables learners to better understand and speak

the language they are learning. One of the most famous phoneticians was Henry Sweet who made a

number of important discoveries in the field of English phonetics. In his book The Practical Study of

Language (1899) Sweet says that: “without phonetics we can neither observe nor record the simplest

phenomena of language.”

His research has contributed to the science of phonetics in general and he is considered to be the father

of what we know today as Received Pronunciation.

STRESS & INTONATION

Stress is defined as using more muscular energy while articulating the words. When a word or a syllable

in word is produced louder, lengthier, with higher pitch or with more quality, it will be perceived as

stressed. The prominence makes some syllables be perceived as stressed. Words including long vowels

and diphthongs or ending with more than 1 consonant are stronger, heavier and stressed. English words

have one or more syllables. A syllable is a complete sound unit. In words containing more than one

syllable, one or sometimes two syllables prominent, that is , they receive the stress or accent. The more

prominent of the syllable receives the primary accent and the other receives the secondary accent. While

the primary accent mark comes above the syllable the secondary accent mark comes below the syllable.

The accentual pattern of English words does not rigidly conform to any set of rules and one should learn

to speak with the right accent by being exposed to the right models of speech. A few conventions for

accent patterns are given below

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English intonation: structures, functions and use

We call the melody of language intonation. Intonation refers to the total pattern of pitch changes, i.e., the

rising and falling of the voice when a person is speaking, within an utterance. Intonation is another

important element of spoken English. It is the English intonation which makes English sound really English.

Intonation makes speech meaningful.

English intonation adds the meaning of an utterance in two ways:

1. It shows the relationship of words within and between sentences;

2. It tells something about the feeling of the speaker.

In other words, different pitches may indicate different meanings for the same utterance. Different

pitches help us express our feelings: happiness, sadness, surprise, annoyance, anger, and so on. In

listening to the meaning of an utterance, therefore, we listen to how speakers talk as well as to what they

say. The HOW and WHAT together give us the meaning of an English utterance. We now see the

importance to use the appropriate intonation patterns when we speak. Otherwise, we may be sending

messages using intonations that contradict what we want words to say. Intonation patterns that disagree

with the content of the utterance may indicate doubt, sarcasm, or confusion.

English has two basic intonation patterns : rising and falling. When they go together, they can make a

falling‐rising tone.

Intonation units are also called intonation‐groups, tone groups or tone‐units. An intonation unit usually

corresponds to a sense group (or word group). An intonation unit may contain several syllables, some of

them stressed and some unstressed. The last stressed syllable is usually a marker of the highest

importance and has the focus stress. On this syllable, there takes place a change of pitch, either an upward

or downward movement, or a combination of the two. A nucleus refers to the syllable in an intonation

unit which carries maximal prominence.

PHYSIOLOGY OF SPEECH Vocal Tract

Subglottal System Sound in human language is produced by the regulation of airflow from the lungs through the throat,

nose, and mouth. This airflow is altered in various ways by different aspects of this speech system.

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The first major segment of the speech system is the subglottal system. This subglottal system (See

Picture 1) comprises the lungs, diaphragm and trachea.

The Larynx The larynx is a mass of cartilage at the top of the trachea. It is commonly called the voicebox. (See

Picture 2)

Sounds that are produced with relaxed vocal folds are known as voiceless sounds, and sounds that

are produced with tensed vocal folds are known as voiced sounds. Example z is voiced and s is

voiceless.

Above the Larynx The area above the larynx consists of three main areas: the pharynx, the nasal cavity, and the oral

cavity. The pharynx consists of the area above the larynx and below the uvula. The oral cavity is the

area from the back of the throat to the mouth. The major parts of the oral cavity that are used in

speech production are the uvula, the velum, the tongue, the hard palate, the alveolar ridge, the teeth,

and the lips. The uvula is that fleshy blob that hangs down in the back of the throat. The velum is the

soft palate, and the alveolar ridge is a mass of hard cartilage behind the teeth.

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The following graphic shows these major parts of the area, which is also known as the supraglottal

system.

Summary The air stream released by the lungs comes to the larynx, which contains the vocal cords. When we breathe out, the vocal cords are in a relaxed position. But if the tense vocal cords are brought together, the air stream, which comes from the lungs makes them vibrate, and we hear some voice. The air stream coming out of the larynx passes through the pharynx. Then goes the soft palate, which directs the air stream either to the mouth or to the nasal cavity. The soft palate is the remotest part of the palate from the teeth. Most of the palate is hard. This hard part of the palate is divided into two sections: the hard palate (which is the highest part), and the alveolar ridge. The teeth ridge is very important for the English sound formation as many consonants here are formed with the tongue touching it. The lower teeth are not very important for making speech sounds, while the upper teeth take an active part in the production of many of them. The most important organ of speech is the tongue. Phoneticians divide the tongue into four sections: the tip, the blade, the front, and the back of the tongue. The lips can take up various positions while producing speech sounds. They can be firmly brought

together or be apart, neutral, rounded or protruded forward.

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CLASSIFICATION OF SPEECH SOUNDS – Vowels and Consonants The work of speech organs necessary for making speech sounds is called articulation. According to the specific character of articulation, especially according to the presence or absence of the obstruction speech sounds are divided into vowels and consonants. The most substantial difference between vowels and consonants is that in the articulation of vowels the air passes freely through the mouth cavity, while in making consonants an obstruction is formed in the mouth cavity or in the pharynx and the flow of the air meets a narrowing or complete obstruction. Vowels have no fixed place of articulation, the whole of the speaking apparatus takes part in their formation, while the articulation of consonants can be localized, an obstruction or a narrowing for each consonant is formed at a definite place of the speaking apparatus. In producing vowels all the organs of speech are tense, while in making consonants, the organs of speech are tense only in the place of obstruction. Voice prevails in vowels while in most consonants noise prevails over voice. Vowels are syllable forming sounds while consonants are not, as a rule.

Monophthongs and Diphthongs English vowel phonemes are divided into two large groups: monophthongs and diphthongs. This division is based on the stability of articulation. A monophthong is a pure (unchanging) vowel sound. In its pronunciation the organs of speech do not change their position throughout the duration of the vowel; e.g. [i], [e], [æ], [o], etc. In most educated, standard, accents of English – not only in UK, but also around the world – this vowel requires a relatively steady tongue position. Diphthongs are described as sequences of two vowels pronounced together, the two vocalic elements being members of the same syllable. Thus, a diphthong is a complex sound consisting of two vowel elements pronounced so as to form a

single syllable. In the pronunciation of a diphthong the organs of speech start in the position of one

vowel and glide gradually in the direction of another vowel, whose full formation is generally not

accomplished. The first element of an English diphthong is called the nucleus. It is strong, clear and

distinct. The second element is rather weak. It is called the glide.

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Linguistics

Linguistics, the systematic study of human language, lies at the crossroads of the humanities and

the social sciences. Much of its appeal derives from the special combination of intuition and rigor

that the analysis of language demands. The interests of the members of the Department of

Linguistics and colleagues in other departments span most of the major subfields of linguistics:

phonetics and phonology, the study of speech sounds;

syntax, the study of how words are combined;

semantics, the study of meaning; historical linguistics, the study of language change in

time;

Computational linguistics, the modelling of natural language in all its aspects from a

computational perspective.

Studying linguistics is not a matter of studying many languages. Linguistics is a theoretical

discipline with ties to such areas as cognitive psychology, philosophy, logic, computer science,

and anthropology. Nonetheless, knowing particular languages (e.g., Spanish or Japanese) in some

depth can enhance understanding of the general properties of human language.

Linguistics attempts to answer such questions as:

how the mind enables us to produce and understand utterances how children acquire language how and why languages resemble and differ from each other how and why languages change over time, and how they are related how the categories of language relate to the world how language use varies across different social and cultural contexts how to make computers talk and 'understand' human languages

Pragmatics

For any specific language, natural speakers will inherently know the uses and the rules for many

types of expressions. These rules determine the interaction between people and between

societies. This lesson will look at one aspect of those rules: pragmatics.

Pragmatics is a branch of linguistics, which is the study of language. Pragmatics focuses on

conversational implicature, which is a process in which the speaker implies and a listener infers.

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Simply put, pragmatics studies language that is not directly spoken. Instead, the speaker hints at

or suggests a meaning, and the listener assumes the correct intention.

In a sense, pragmatics is seen as an understanding between people to obey certain rules of

interaction. In everyday language, the meanings of words and phrases are constantly implied and

not explicitly stated. In certain situations, words can have a certain meaning. You might think that

words always have a specifically defined meaning, but that is not always the case. Pragmatics

studies how words can be interpreted in different ways based on the situation.

Examples

The definition might be a bit confusing, so let's look at some examples to clarify the role of

pragmatics in our language. This first example is one that you probably use in your own life every

day. Say you are in line at a store to pay for your purchases. The cashier asks, 'How are you today?'

Do you immediately go into an in‐depth account of your health issues, varying mood, relationship

status, and everything else going on in your life? Of course not! Usually, you respond with

something similar to, 'Fine, how are you?' with the same expectation that the cashier will not go

into full detail of how she truly is. This interaction perfectly shows pragmatics at work. It is

understood that this question does not really ask you to explain everything going on in your life.

The implication relies on the context and situation. It is good manners to ask strangers how they

are, but it is not intended for a detailed response.

Interlanguage

Interlanguage pragmatics is the study of the ways in which nonnative speakers acquire, comprehend, and use linguistic patterns (or speech acts) in a second language.

The influence of first language (L1 hereinafter) in the learning of second language (L2). The term '

Interlanguage' was first introduced by Selinker (1972 &1974) who referred it to as L2 systematic knowledge independent of both L1 and L2. According to Richards et al. (1996), IL is the type of language which can be produced by FL/L2 (FL=Foreign Language) learners who are in the process of acquiring or learning a new language. Within the cognitive perspective, refers to the separateness of an L2 learner's system, a system which includes a structural status between the NL (Native Language) and TL(Target Language). It reflects L2 learners' attempts at building up a linguistic system which progressively and gradually approaches the TL system.

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MT = Mother Tongue; NL = Native Language; TL = Target Language; FL = Foreign Language.

The main theoretical assumption of IL theory is that when a FL/L2 learner is trying to communicate in the TL, he/she uses a new linguistic system different from the NL and the TL. This assumption has been supported by Selinker (1974:35) who states that IL can be "a separate linguistic system based on the observable output which results from a learners' attempted production of a TL norm". IL theory is important for some reasons. First, it looks at the L2 learner as an active participant because he/she has the ability to form rules from the data he/she might encounter. This leads to saying that the study of IL is universal and systematic by nature, which makes it similar to the innateness theory. Second, the study of IL theory might help us in determining what a FL leaner knows at a particular point in time and what he/she should be taught. Third, IL theory helps in understanding the L2 learners' problems better and in providing timely help to such learners; hence, they can achieve competence in their TL. Fourth, IL theory has also brought about significant changes in the teaching methodology, with communicative teaching making its way into the teaching system. IL also brought in the acknowledgement of the fact that errors are a part and parcel of the learning process, thus reducing the need for continuous supervision by the teachers.

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Multilingualism is the use of two or more languages, either by an individual speaker or by a community

of speakers. Multilingual speakers outnumber monolingual speakers in the world's population.

Multilingualism is becoming a social phenomenon governed by the needs of globalization and cultural

openness.

LANGUAGE, SOCIETY, CULTURE. CONCEPT OF CULTURE IN

LINGUISTICS

According to theoretical manuals in sociolinguistics there are several possible relationships

between language and society. One is that social structure may either influence or determine linguistic

structure and/or behavior. Certain evidence may be adduced to support this view: the age‐grading

phenomenon whereby young children speak differently from older children and, in turn, children speak

differently from mature adults; studies which show that the varieties of language that speakers use reflect

such matters as their regional, social or ethnic origin and possibly even their sex (gender).

A second possible relationship is directly opposed to the first: linguistic structure and/or behavior

may either influence or determine social structure. This is the view that is behind the Whorfian hypothesis.

A third possible relationship is that the influence is bi‐directional: language and society may influence each

other.

Hence language is a social institution it both shapes and is shaped by society in which it plays an

important role. Language is not an “autonomous construct” [Fairclough 1989: vi] but social practice both

creating and created by the structures and forces of the social institutions within which we live and

function. Certainly, language cannot exist in a vacuum; there is a kind of “transfusion” between language

and culture.

To go back to the relationship between language and culture Samovar, Porter, & Jain [1981: 24]

observe: “Culture and communication are inseparable because culture not only dictates who talks to

whom, about what, and how the communication proceeds, it also helps to determine how people encode

messages, the meanings they have for messages, and the conditions and circumstances under which

various messages may or may not be sent, noticed, or interpreted... Culture...is the foundation of

communication”.

Fairly recently, many ethnographers such as Buttjes (1990), Ochs & Schieffelin (1984), Poyatos,

(1985), and Peters & Boggs, (1986) have attempted to show that “language and culture are from the start

inseparably connected”. More specifically, he summarises the reasons why this should be the case:

1) language acquisition does not follow a universal sequence, but differs across cultures;

2) the process of becoming a competent member of society is realized through exchanges of

language in particular social situations;

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3) every society orchestrates the ways in which children participate in particular situations,

and this, in turn, affects the form, the function and the content of children's utterances;

4) caregivers' primary concern is not with grammatical input, but with the transmission of

sociocultural knowledge;

5) the native learner, in addition to language, acquires also the paralinguistic patterns and

the kinesics of his or her culture.

Language and gender The word ‘gender’, originally a grammatical term, has come to refer to the social roles and behaviour of individuals arising from their classification as biologically male or female. This is a huge complex embracing virtually all aspects of social behaviour of which language is only one. In the past three decades or so intensive research has been carried out into the relationship of language and gender, largely by female scholars who have felt drawn to the topic because of the obvious discrimination against women which has taken place in the past and which is still to be observed today. It is assumed by all researchers on language and gender that men and women use language differently. This is taken to result from what is called socialisation, the growing into a society from early childhood onwards. Gender roles are presented to infants and lead them along paths full of preconceived opinions. Language & Class Studies, such as those by William Labov in the 1960s, have shown that social aspirations influence

speech patterns. This is also true of class aspirations. In the process of wishing to be associated

with a certain class (usually the upper class and upper middle class) people who are moving in

that direction socio‐economically will adjust their speech patterns to sound like them. However,

not being native upper class speakers, they often hypercorrect, which involves overcorrecting

their speech to the point of introducing new errors. The same is true for individuals moving down

in socio‐economic status.

Language & Literature

Language, literature, teacher effectiveness and quality (language) education are related and in fact

inextricably interwoven concepts. This is because an ineffective language teacher cannot provide quality

education but it is not possible for a language teacher to be effective if he is not well grounded in both

the language he teaches and the literature that emanates there‐from. This is because language and

literature are two sides of the same coin such that it is hard to say which of the two takes precedence

over the other. Their relationship is just like that between a chicken and an egg: without an egg you cannot

have a chicken yet it is the chick that grows to lay eggs. Welleck and Warren (1970: 22) have succinctly

captured this relationship when they say, “Language is the material of literature as stone or bronze is of

sculpture, paints of picture, or sounds of music” implying that whereas language is system of

communication, literature is the content being communicated. The question of one being superior to the

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other cannot arise because both are complementary as they enrich and glorify each other. That is why a

successful language teacher must be highly proficient in both, to provide quality education.

That is also why a background of literature is a necessary precondition for prospective language

students and especial y for those seeking to teach language at all levels of our education. Several

classroom situations vindicate this position as we shall see shortly:

First and foremost, “quality (language) education” requires that students be nurtured to acquire and

sustain a rich repertoire of words that enables them to explore the creative potentials of language in all

ramifications. Language students that go through a goal oriented language course are exposed to

literature that enriches their vocabulary and by so doing release themselves from the claws of

dictionaries. This empowers them with sufficient creative acumen to generate not just an infinite number

of words but more importantly an expansive range of quality sentences; thus, widening their

communicative efficacy. This is important because according to Fromkin et al. (2011), it is the creative

nature of human language that marks human language out from that used by animals. To achieve this

however, the teacher must carefully select literature texts he chooses o expose the students to and

insist that they read all with a pen and jotter; ready to jot all new words and sentence structures they

encounter for discussion later in the classroom. This way, the teacher ensures that a very rich quantum

of words and literature class.

Secondly, for many students in a language class, literature motivates them to read based on the

interesting plots. We can cast our minds back to those years when we used to read the action packed

novels of James Hardley Chase, or James Bond or the Mills and Boom series. At the time, the main

motivation would be the thrill that the content provided but every language teacher knows that apart

from the stories, the works themselves are ideal vehicles for demonstrating language use: The various

syntactic structures we scrupulously teach during language lessons, the tedious and sometimes gruelling

lessons on lexis and structures, the painstaking efforts we expend on registers as well as the exhausting

inroads we make into idiomatic expressions etc will not amount to much without avenues of practical

demonstration. The success, of course, in using literature for the attainment of this objective depends

largely on the selection of texts which will not be difficult on either the linguistic or conceptual level. Good

choice of texts not only helps to bring all language lessons to life but also shows how language should be

used in contexts.

Thirdly, we had already pointed out during our discussion on effective language teaching that what we

do in language class is to develop and sustain the basic skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing

and this is where literature becomes indispensable. It helps students not only to learn and improve their

reading but also their listening, speaking and writing through the series of texts they are exposed to.

However, success cannot be attainable in this regard unless the class is made as participatory and as

student centred as possible. This is because listening, speaking, reading and writing skills cannot be

developed through teacher centred approaches that make students passive participants.

Furthermore, through literature, learners are exposed to experiences and events in real life which expose

people to a spectrum of real life experiences that exert varying demands on language and their language

15


competence. Learners for instance appreciate the fact that being proficient in English language,

necessarily requires not only being able to acquire but more importantly delineate the varieties of

English language to be used from the existing “Englishes” as dictated by the exigencies of the language

situations they may find themselves in. When for instance learners read and analyse Chinua Achebe’s

Anthills of the Savannah and are led through a systematic analysis of its narrative techniques, particularly

language use, they will understand why the major characters in the novel such as Chris Oriko, Ike Osodi,

Sam, and particularly Beatrice code switch seamlessly from Queen’s English to Nigerian English and then

to pidgin despite the fact that they are graduates of famous British universities. Understanding the

dynamics that occasion such fluid and effortless transition from one variety of English to another in

the novel will expedite students’ language acquisition skills particularly as regards equipping them to

select from the multiplicity of varieties that preponderate the Nigerian English community.

Characteristics of dialect:

1. Regional variety of a standard from 2. The utterance of dialect is unique 3. Maximum time using dialect is influenced by rural or urban socio‐cultural aspects. 4. Dialect can be varied from geographic area to area. 5. A language could have more than one dialect.

Differences between

standard language and

dialect: Many time people get confused with the aspect of language and dialect but there is some basic differences

between language and dialect. Virtually dialect is one kind of form which derived from language. So, the

differences are quite transparent and also inevitable. The main differences are:

1. Standard language can has huge speaker and expanded language area comparing that dialect has

little small language area with less speaker.

2. Implicit difference can be seen in Pronunciation style, vocabulary and also in sentence structure.

3. Standard language is apprehensive for all dialect speakers where dialect is not.

4. Standard language can be used in every field but dialect has limitation in use.

5. People follow Standard language in their writing system but there is no use of dialect in written

language. If it use it cannot be approved by society.

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6. Standard language is unbiased comparing dialect for public or common use. But dialect has more

variation than standard.

7. Dialect is not approved in formal situation but standard form can be used in both formal and

informal situation.

8. Standard language is considered as a prestigious language by society while dialect does not count

as a prestigious language.

9. A standard language can represent all dialect under it. Dialect has not the power.

10. Standard language is not a formation of dialect but all dialects are formation of a standard

language

Language and Thought Processes

Language is more than just a means of communication. It influences our culture and even our

thought processes. During the first four decades of the 20th century, language was viewed by

American linguists and anthropologists as being more important than it actually is in shaping our

perception of reality. This was mostly due to Edward Sapir and his student Benjamin Whorf who

said that language predetermines what we see in the world around us. In other words, language

acts like a polarizing lens on a camera in filtering reality‐‐we see the real world only in the

categories of our language.

Cross cultural comparisons of such things as color terms were used by Sapir

and Whorf as evidence of this hypothesis. When we perceive color with

our eyes, we are sensing that portion of electromagnetic radiation that is

visible light. In fact, the spectrum of visible light is a continuum of light

waves with frequencies that increase at a continuous rate from one end to

the other. In other words, there are no distinct colors like red and green in

nature. Our culture, through language, guides us in seeing the spectrum in

terms of the arbitrarily established categories that we call colors. Different

cultures may divide up the spectrum in different ways. This can be seen in the comparison of

some English language colors with their counterparts in the Tiv language of Nigeria:

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Note: value refers to

the lightness or

darkness of a

color. High value is

light and low value is

dark.

Sapir and Whorf interpreted these data as indicating that colors are not objective, naturally

determined segments of reality. In other words, the colors we see are predetermined by what

our culture prepares us to see. This example used to support the Sapir‐Whorf hypothesis was

objectively tested in the 1960's. That research indicated that they went too far. All normal

humans share similar sense perceptions of color despite differences in color terminology from

one language to another. The physiology of our eyes is essentially the same. People all over the

world can see subtle gradations of color and can comprehend other ways of dividing up the

spectrum of visible light. However, as a society's economy and technology increase in

complexity, the number of color terms usually also increases. That is to say, the spectrum of

visible light gets subdivided into more categories. As the environment changes, culture and

language typically respond by creating new terminology to describe it.

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MODULE 2

Stages of Language Acquisition

Researchers define language acquisition into two categories: first‐language acquisition and

second‐language acquisition. First‐language acquisition is a universal process regardless of home

language. Babies listen to the sounds around them, begin to imitate them, and eventually start

producing words. Second‐language acquisition assumes knowledge in a first language and

encompasses the process an individual goes through as he or she learns the elements of a new

language, such as vocabulary, phonological components, grammatical structures, and writing

systems.

The Six Stages of Second‐Language Acquisition

Pre‐production

This is also called "the silent period," when the student takes in the new

language but does not speak it. This period often lasts six weeks or longer,

depending on the individual.

Early production

The individual begins to speak using short words and sentences, but the

emphasis is still on listening and absorbing the new language. There will be

many errors in the early production stage.

Speech Emergent

Speech becomes more frequent, words and sentences are longer, but the

individual still relies heavily on context clues and familiar topics. Vocabulary

continues to increase and errors begin to decrease, especially in common or

repeated interactions.

Beginning Fluency

Speech is fairly fluent in social situations with minimal errors. New contexts and

academic language are challenging and the individual will struggle to express

themselves due to gaps in vocabulary and appropriate phrases.

Intermediate

Fluency

Communicating in the second language is fluent, especially in social language

situations. The individual is able to speak almost fluently in new situations or in

academic areas, but there will be gaps in vocabulary knowledge and some

unknown expressions. There are very few errors, and the individual is able to

demonstrate higher order thinking skills in the second language such as offering

an opinion or analyzing a problem.

Advanced Fluency

The individual communicates fluently in all contexts and can maneuver

successfully in new contexts and when exposed to new academic information.

At this stage, the individual may still have an accent and use idiomatic

expressions incorrectly at times, but the individual is essentially fluent and

comfortable communicating in the second language.

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Jean Piaget Jean Piaget (1896‐1980) was a biologist who originally studied

molluscs (publishing twenty scientific papers on them by the

time he was 21) but moved into the study of the development

of children's understanding, through observing them and talking

and listening to them while they worked on exercises he set.

His view of how children's minds work and develop has

been enormously influential, particularly in educational

theory. His particular insight was the role of maturation

(simply growing up) in children's increasing capacity to

understand their world: they cannot undertake certain tasks until they are psychologically

mature enough to do so. His research has spawned a great deal more, much of which has

undermined the detail of his own, but like many other original investigators, his importance

comes from his overall vision.

He proposed that children's thinking does not develop entirely smoothly: instead, there are

certain points at which it "takes off" and moves into completely new areas and capabilities. He

saw these transitions as taking place at about 18 months, 7 years and 11 or 12 years. This has

been taken to mean that before these ages children are not capable (no matter how bright) of

understanding things in certain ways, and has been used as the basis for scheduling the school

curriculum.

Piaget's Key Ideas

Adaptation What it says: adapting to the world through assimilation and accommodation

Assimilation The process by which a person takes material into their mind from the environment,

which may mean changing the evidence of their senses to make it fit.

Accommodation The difference made to one's mind or concepts by the process of assimilation.

Note that assimilation and accommodation go together: you can't have one without

the other.

Classification The ability to group objects together on the basis of common features.

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Stages of Cognitive Development

Stage Characterised by

Sensori‐motor

(Birth‐2 yrs)

Differentiates self from objects

Recognises self as agent of action and begins to act intentionally: e.g. pulls a string

to set mobile in motion or shakes a rattle to make a noise

Achieves object permanence: realises that things continue to exist even when no

longer present to the sense (pace Bishop Berkeley)

Pre‐operational

(2‐7 years)

Learns to use language and to represent objects by images and words

Thinking is still egocentric: has difficulty taking the viewpoint of others

Classifies objects by a single feature: e.g. groups together all the red blocks

regardless of shape or all the square blocks regardless of colour

Concrete operational

(7‐11 years)

Can think logically about objects and events

Achieves conservation of number (age 6), mass (age 7), and weight (age 9)

Classifies objects according to several features and can order them in series along

a single dimension such as size.

Formal operational

(11 years and up)

Can think logically about abstract propositions and test hypotheses systemtically

Becomes concerned with the hypothetical, the future, and ideological problems

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Lev Vygotsky

Major Contributions to Instructional

Development

Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) More Knowledgeable Other (MKO)

Vygotsky’s theories stress the

fundamental role of social interaction in the development

of cognition (Vygotsky, 1978; Wertsch, 1985), as he believed strongly that community plays a

central role in the process of "making meaning."

How Lev Vygotsky Impacts Learning:

Curriculum–Since children learn much through interaction, curricula should be designed to emphasize interaction between learners and learning tasks.

Instruction–With appropriate adult help, children can often perform tasks that they are incapable of completing on their own. With this in mind, scaffolding–where the adult continually adjusts the level of his or her help in response to the child’s level of performance–is an effective form of teaching. Scaffolding not only produces immediate results, but also instills the skills necessary for independent problem solving in the future.

Assessment–Assessment methods must take into account the zone of proximal development. What children can do on their own is their level of actual development and what they can do with help is their level of potential development. Two children might have the same level of actual development, but given the appropriate help from an adult, one might be able to solve many more problems than the other. Assessment methods must target both the level of actual development and the level of potential development. [Source]

Major themes:

1. Social interaction plays a fundamental role in the process of cognitive development. In contrast to Jean Piaget’s understanding of child development (in which development necessarily precedes learning), Vygotsky felt social learning precedes development. He states: “Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological).” (Vygotsky, 1978).

2. The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO). The MKO refers to anyone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a particular task, process, or concept. The MKO is normally thought of as being a teacher, coach, or older adult, but the MKO could also be peers, a younger person, or even computers.

3. The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). The ZPD is the distance between a student’s ability to perform a task under adult guidance and/or with peer collaboration and the student’s ability solving the problem independently. According to Vygotsky, learning occurred in this zone.

22


JOHN DEWEY

The main aims of education as advocated by Dewey are:‐

Social Efficiency: According to Dewey the development of social efficiency is one

of the aims of education. To him school is a social institution. The school should

be organised in such a way that the activities of the outer world are reflected.

Education is life: Dewey emphasises that education is not a preparation for life, it

is life itself. The child lives in the present. The future is meaningless to him. Hence

it is absurd to expect him to do things for some future preparation.

Education is experience: Dewey favoured an education by, of and for, experience. Every new experience

is education. An old experience is replaced by a new experience. The human race he gained experience in

its struggle to meet the needs of life. This ' struggle for existence ' is a continuous process.

Education should combine theory & practice: The aim of education, according to Dewey should be create

a balance between theoretical and practical activities. He has stressed equal importance to both action

and thought. These two should go hand in hand.

Dewey on School Curriculum

• Dewey advocates that broader curricular programmes are needed and emphasis should be

placed in the total development of the person as being equally important as the intellectual and

the academic.

• The teacher is a guide and director he steers the boat, but the energy that people it must come

from those who are learning. The more a teacher is aware of the past experience of students of

their hopes, desires, chief interests the better will be.

• The teacher is engaged not simply in the training of individuals but in the formation of the

proper social life. In this way the teacher always is the prophet of the true God.

Dewey's Method of Teaching

Situation Problem Observation Solution Application

Dewey's method of teaching is based on his pragmatic philosophy. He is of the opinion that direct

experience is the basis of all method. Knowledge takes place from concrete and meaningful situations.

Hence knowledge should come from spontaneous activities of the children. Dewey's method of teaching

are based on the principles of learning by doing activities in connection with the life of the child.

The project or problem method which Dewey advocated, the child's interests and purposes are the most

important things.

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For his problem or project method, Dewey laid down the following five steps as essential.

(1) The pupil should have a genuine situation of experiences.

(2) A genuine problem should arise from this situation and should stimulate the thinking of the child.

(3) The child should obtain information or make observation needed to deal with the problems.

(4) The suggested solution(s) should occur to him.

(5) He should have an opportunity to test his ideas by application.

Dewey's contribution to educational thought and practice

(1) Dewey's social theory of education coupled with the logic of experimental method has been

very influential in the development of modern education practices.

(2) The greatest change has been in the recognition of the worth of the expense of the child.

The child is no longer regarded as a passive subject meant for the imposition of external

information but is considered an active living being those interests have to be stimulated by

participation in socially significant experience.

(3) Dewey has been one of the significant leaders who have tried to introduce a more human

touch in the processes of education.

(4) He has been a powerful influence in interpreting the school as a commonly for the

realization of the significance of the immediate experiences and present opportunities of the

child if he is to be a contributor to the march of the social process.

(5) His insistence on activities of diverse kinds in school is also an other aspect of his social

theory of education.

(6) The pragmatic method of instrumentalitic experimentation reacts against all kinds of

mysticism, transcendentalism and absolutism.

(7) The supreme contribution of Dewey to a philosophy of education is the theory of scientific

democratic humanism.

(8) Dewey is quite right in pleading for the wide use of the experimental method of science in

education.

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Noam Chomsky

Chomsky’s major contribution to studying language was that he made it

scientific. He demonstrated that despite the observable variety of the

world’s languages, there is in reality only one language. All other

languages; dead, still spoken or even future ones, are variations of a single

theme. After Chomsky, linguistics is defined as “The Scientific Study of

Language”, “language” in the singular.

Chomsky is considered one of the most important linguists in the twentieth

century. His main contribution in the field of linguistics is the influential "transformative‐generative

grammar" which is an attempt to describe the syntactical processes common to all human language

mathematically (Smith, 1999). Chomsky draws a key distinction between the deep structure and surface

structure of languages. He argues that the deep structure, which contains the meaning of a sentence, is

not culturally determined but rather "hardwired" in the human brain. The meaning is then converted by

a transformation into surface structure, which includes the sounds and words in a sentence. The

Language Acquisition Device (LAD) is the hypothetical brain mechanism that according to Chomsky

explained the acquisition of syntactic structure of language (McGilvray, 2005). Chomsky hypothesized

that the language acquisition device was the system that determined the features of the child's native

language. This falls under the realm of the nativist theory of language which states that humans are born

with the innate ability for acquiring language

At its heart, Chomsky's theory of Generative Grammar is a way of describing the way people learn to

communicate. The core of this theory is the idea that all human language originates from a common

source, an innate set of grammatical rules and approaches that is hardwired into the human mind. This

is a very naturalistic approach, but one that has found ever increasing acceptance amongst experts in the

field

With regard to learning language, Chomsky purports that some aspects of language are explicitly taught

in school such the spelling conventions of the written representation of language and forms of technical

vocabulary; however, the most fundamental aspects of language are universal. We all know the same

unique human language. This notion of universal grammar is the set of linguistic principles that we are

endowed with at birth in virtue of being human (Smith, 1999). Chomsky also asserts that there is a

genetically determined "window of opportunity" for language acquisition. If the child does not learn its

first language during this period, then it will never attain full "native‐like mastery" of any language

According to Chomsky, the goal in teaching is to help cultivate growth and to help the students become

interested in learning. He states that students, "typically they come in interested, and the process of

education is a way of driving that defect out of their minds. But if children's normal interest is maintained

or even aroused, they can do all kinds of things in ways we don't understand (Chomsky, 1992). In other

words, the teacher's role in the transmission of learning is to keep the children engaged in the learning

25


process and interested in exploration and independence. The focus is on the students learning rather than

the teachers teaching.

Language acquisition in the brain Language acquisition almost always occurs in children during a period of rapid increase in brain volume.

At this point in development, a child has many more neural connections than he or she will have as an

adult, allowing for the child to be more able to learn new things than he or she would be as an adult.

Sensitive period

There is a "sensitive period" of language acquisition in which human infants have the ability to learn any

language. Several findings have observed that from birth until the age of six months, infants can

discriminate the phonetic contrasts of all languages. Researchers believe that this gives infants the ability

to acquire the language spoken around them. After this age the child is only able to perceive the

phonemes specific to the language he or she is learning. This reduced phonemic sensitivity enables

children to build phonemic categories and recognize stress patterns and sound combinations specific to

the language they are acquiring. According to the sensitive or critical period models, the age at which a

child acquires the ability to use language is a predictor of how well he or she is ultimately able to use

language.[51] However, there may be an age at which becoming a fluent and natural user of a language is

no longer possible.[citation needed] Our brains may be automatically wired to learn languages,[citation needed] but

this ability does not last into adulthood in the same way that it exists during development.[citation needed] By

the onset of puberty (around age 12), language acquisition has typically been solidified and it becomes

more difficult to learn a language in the same way a native speaker would.[citation needed] At this point, it is

usually a second language that a person is trying to acquire and not a first

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Importance of Mother Tongue in Education

Mother‐tongue is the language that a child learns in his mother's lap. It is the language which the child learns almost without any conscious effort on his part. It is a language which the child acquires while living in his own social group.

Mother‐tongue plays a tremendously useful role in the education of a child. It has a great importance in the field of education. Therefore, mother tongue must be given an important and prominent place in the school curriculum.

Specifically, the importance of mother tongue is due to the following reasons:

1. Medium of Expression and Communication.

Mother tongue is the best medium for the expression of one's ideas and feelings. Thus, it is the most potent agent for mutual communication and exchange of ideas.

2. Formation of a Social Group.

It is through language, and especially through the mother‐tongue, that individuals form themselves into a social organisation.

3. Easy to Learn.

Of all the languages, the mother‐tongue is most easy to learn. Full proficiency or mastery can be achieved in one's own mother tongue.

4. Best Medium for Acquiring Knowledge.

Thinking is an instrument of acquiring knowledge, and thinking is impossible without language. "And training in the use of mother‐tongue‐the tongue in which a child thinks and dreams‐becomes the first essential of shoaling and the finest instrument of human culture." (P. B. Ballard.)

It is therefore of the greatest importance for our pupils to get a firm grounding in their mother‐tongue.

5. It brings about Intellectual Development.

Intellectual development is impossible without language. Reading, expressing oneself, acquisition of knowledge and reasoning are the instruments for bringing about intellectual development; and all of these are possible only through language, or the mother‐tongue of the child.

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6. Instrument of Creative Self‐Expression.

We may be able to communicate in any language, but creative self‐expression is possible only in one's own mother tongue. This is clear from the fact that all great writers could produce great literature only in their own language.

7. Instrument of Emotional Development.

Mother‐tongue is the most important instrument for bringing about emotional development of the individual. The emotional effect of literature and poetry is something which is of vital importance in the development and refinement of emotions.

8. Instrument of Growth of the Pupils.

The teaching of the mother tongue is important because on it depends the growth of our pupils. Growth in their intellectual life ; growth in knowledge ; growth in ability to express themselves; growth in creative and productive ability‐all stem from the mother‐tongue.

9. Source of Original Ideas.

Original ideas are the product of one's own mother tongue. On account of the facility of thought and expression, new and original ideas take birth and get shape only in one's own mother tongue.

Thus, mother tongue has tremendous importance in education and in the curriculum.

Verbal intelligence Definition: Verbal intelligence is the ability to analyze information and solve problems using

language‐based reasoning.

Verbal tasks may involve concepts such as:

Concrete or abstract ideas; or

Internalized language‐based reasoning.

Verbal tasks involve skills such as:

The ability to listen to and recall spoken information;

Understanding the meaning of written or spoken information;

Solving language based problems of a literary, logical, or social type;

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Understanding the relationships between language concepts and performing language

analogies or comparisons; and

The ability to perform complex language‐based analysis.

Verbal Intelligence in the Brain

Verbal/linguistic intelligence and the capacity to use words to communicate is a skill that

comes from the temporal cortex on the left side of the brain. This area has been

named Broca’s Area .

Broca’s Area has four areas of sensitivity.

1. Semantics, the first of these, is the various meanings and shades of meanings in

words.

2. Phonology is the sounds and meter of words.

3. Syntax involves the order words are used.

4. Finally, praxis is the different ways words can be used in a sentence or culturally

to invoke different meanings. Combined, these four sensitivities impact an

individual’s ability to speak, write, and understand words.

People with strong linguistic intelligence are attracted to words. They learn well with

mnemonic devices, and they enjoy reading. They may score high on standard

achievement tests because of the large amount of reading on these tests. These are the

children who are bookworms, the people who enjoy creating rhymes when studying for

tests, and the students who find writing papers an engaging activity, not a dreaded one.

Linguistic Intelligence Activities to Boost Linguistic Skill

While everyone is born with a measure of linguistic intelligence, it can also be developed

through the careful use of linguistic intelligence activities.

Word games of all types can help improve this intelligence. Young children can play

alphabet and spelling games, while older students can play games that require them to

use words, whether written or spoken, to describe things.

Students can draw a picture and then write a story to describe what they drew to practice

linguistic skills.

Debates and discussions in a group setting are also linguistic intelligence activities that

can boost these skills for some people. Even simple poetry reading and writing activities

can help develop linguistic intelligence.

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Language & Personality Development Success of a man's life depends on his appropriate personality development. University first rank holders very often prove to be utter failure in life, because they do not care for development of personality. According to Mahatma Gandhi 'True education is total personality development'.

Hence, personality does not mean looking good and attractive. It takes into account both the physical

and mental state of an individual.

Personality development fundamentally means grooming and enhancing one's inner and outer

personal to bring in the positive change of your life. Each and every individual features, a distinct

persona that could be polished, refined and developed. This technique includes improving

communication, language, speaking abilities and boosting one's confidence, developing certain

hobbies, extending one's scope of understanding of skills, manners and studying fine etiquette,

including grace and style, walks and talks and total imbibing oneself together with liveliness, positive

outlook and peace.

If we take into consideration the people who have good command over a language, they can enhance

their personality with great ease because when a person is fluent in English language, it gives him

courage and confidence to speak openly, in groups, among friends or colleagues. If a person speaks

well, others are more interested in listening to what he is speaking and no attention is paid on how

he looks. When such a person moves among different kinds of people, he learns new ways and is very

good at adapting them. Such nature will undoubtedly enhance his personality.

ICT in foreign language teaching/learning There is no more doubt that the use of ICT has positive effects on foreign language teaching/learning and a large literature is available on the topic; however, its impact is highly dependent on the way it is used, the teachers’ motivation and his “know‐how”. Indeed, technologic equipment and connectivity without human implication is not sufficient to improve teaching and learning; to be considered as an efficient tool, ICT requires an actual engagement of the teacher and a well‐defined pedagogic project. The following impacts seem to be the most obvious ones when using ICT to support foreign language teaching:

The possibility to adapt easily the teaching materials according to circumstances, learner’s needs and response;

ICT allows to react upon and enables the use of recent/daily news, it offers access to authentic materials on the web;

A quick feedback is made possible;

Possibility to combine/use alternately (basic) skills (text and images, audio and video clip...);

Lectures become more interesting and less ordinary which boosts learners’ engagement;

ICT enables to focus on one specific aspect of the lesson (pronunciation, vocabulary...).

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In spite of contrasts that may exist in terms of educational environment, there is significant evidence of the benefits and advantages that the use of ICT can have on learners. The effective use of ICT impacts on learners and various aspects of the learning process as follows:

ICT increases learners’ motivation and thus enhances personal commitment and engagement;

ICT improves independent learning;

Learners’ collaboration and communication are more important;

Learners’ attainment and outcomes are improved.

ICT impacts positively on students’ proficiency. A majority of students get better grades with ICT

assistance;

Students increase their ability to take notes effectively;

The prime goal of the learners who attended the courses was to develop linguistic competence in order to crush the linguistic barrier that makes them fail their examinations. Students still need to develop more accurate competences, strategies and methodology to benefit more from their acquisitions. Nevertheless, ICT certainly brings an appropriate answer to those students whose studies are endangered by linguistic limitations.

Impact of English on mother tongue

First of all, your mother tongue is your root and backbone of your culture so do not cut it off just because

English is an important need of today. Here are some possible effects of English as a second language on

a mother tongue:

1. As people are more into English because of its great requirement in business and studies etc. ,

they are not learning their own mother tongue.

2. English is the language in which schools in some places teach. If this is the case, children will find

it easier to read English than their mother tongue. The profusion of Internet sites in English has

the same effect.

3. The mother tongue, especially if it is one which does not have a significant literature, may become

more and more of an oral language under pressure from written English.

4. The perception among the young that English is "cool" and the mother tongue is old‐fashioned

can drive young people to try to converse in English rather than their mother tongue. If they forget

their own language, they will be unable to pass it on to their children.

5. For each country to succeed in future its important for it to first learn from their past, its history

and each county's past and history is best known in their own language and culture. If people

don't give value to their own language and culture their individuality and cultural identity will be

swallowed up in the artificial culture of multinational business.

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MODULE 3 Place of language in school curriculum;

Language Across the Curriculum (LAC) as a concept acknowledges the fact that language education does

not only take place in specific subjects explicitly defined and reserved for it, such as mother tongue

education, foreign language education, second language education etc.). Language learning and

education also take place in each and every subject in school, in each and every academic/mental activity,

across the whole curriculum – whether we are conscious of it or not. This reflects the latest research

findings on Reading Comprehension (which is required extensively in each non‐linguistic subject‐matter

in learning and teaching) and with insights that LS/L1 as a subject in school cannot be solely responsible

for language education; the development of language skills and competences has to be integrated also

into subject‐specific teaching.

Consequently, we need to develop a comprehensive understanding of language education and language

learning in school that takes place across all subjects – in addition to the central role of language as a

subject itself and all that it involves (e.g. shaping the intellectual and social personality). This linguistic

dimension in each and every learning activity is sometimes hidden and partly implicit and therefore often

underestimated in its importance. However, LAC as a policy has to be understood as a necessary and

systematic extension of the standard variety of the language of school education (LE) into subject specific

ways of thinking and communicating or, to phrase differently, into disciplinary modes of language use.

These follow in part different thematic patterns and rhetorical structures to the ordinary language of

school (and certainly to everyday language use). Acquiring conceptual literacy and discourse competence

for subject‐specific use and thus acquiring new varieties of language use within one and the same

language is not to be seen as a luxury, but rather as a preliminary and fundamental form of plurilingualism.

A second form of plurilingualism develops when a learner acquires other languages, extends his/her

repertoire with new languages through foreign language education adding to the new varieties of the

language of school education and home language if different. Both types of plurilingualism (the first

discourse‐based or internal one as well as the second external one, based on adding new language

repertoires) are indispensable for learners to become intra‐culturally and inter‐culturally sensitive,

knowledgeable and skilled and thus to develop towards democratic citizenship and participation within

India.

Goals in connection with Language Across the Curriculum

In order to understand the importance of language in school education, for all subjects and across the

whole curriculum, we have to identify and summarise the basic tenets on which LAC rests. These are (cf.

Corson 1990, 74):

i. Language develops mainly through its purposeful use (domains to be broadened)

ii. Learning (often) involves talking, writing, shaping and moving (normally in reaction to perceptions)

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iii. Learning often occurs through speaking or writing as much as through shaping and moving

iv. Language use contributes to /is a pre‐requisite for cognitive development

v. Language is the medium for reflecting on learning, for improving it, for becoming (more or less) autonomous as learners.

Centrality of language in learning

Therefore the goals of LAC are – in simple terms ‐ to support language development in each and every

child, in all domains of language use, in each learning activity in school, and to give children feedback

about their progress (through appropriate assessment and evaluation). LAC is no longer narrowly seen as

the exclusive domain of L1/LS education nor is it confined solely to the conventional four modes of

language: Reading, Writing, Listening and Speaking; all non‐verbal means of representation and

expression are rightly seen as part of the overall semiotic systems that we have at hand and that we use

when communicating. The whole scope of semiotics comes into focus including images or graphs,

movements and, generally speaking, all visual forms of representation and expression (cf. Corson 1990:

72). Thus, we can distinguish eight modes of human activities involving language, namely:

• Listening: comprehending oral input/intake

• Speaking: constructing meaningful utterances

• Reading: understanding written texts

• Writing: producing written texts/coherent discourse

• Viewing: attending to visual signs/information

• Shaping: using visual means of expression

• Watching: attending to physical movements

• Moving: using the whole body, the whole person for self‐expression.

The concept of LAC also claims that language and learning as well as language and thinking are deeply

linked. Therefore, wishing to acknowledge and further develop childrens’ existing mental and linguistic

capacities, LAC focuses on active, constructive, potentially autonomous learning (more than on teaching):

“Language plays a central role in learning. No matter what the subject area, students assimilate

new concepts largely through language, that is when they listen to and talk, read and write about

what they are learning and relate this to what they already know. Through speaking and writing,

language is linked to the thinking process and is a manifestation of the thinking that is taking place.

Thus, by explaining and expressing personal interpretations of new learnings in the various subject

fields, students clarify and increase both their knowledge of the concepts in those fields and their

understanding of the ways in which language is used in each.” (Ontario Ministry of Education, 1984;

quoted in Corson 1990, 75)

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Consequently, all teachers are encouraged to participate in developing language skills and competences

within their fields of responsibility and thus contribute to a school learning policy as a whole. In summary

one can state the following beliefs:

• Language is more than communication skills

• Language is also linked to the thinking process

• Language is a tool for conceptualising, for thinking, for networking

• Language supports mental activity and cognitive precision

• Language for academic purposes helps to express thoughts more clearly (this is especially true for writing)

• Language helps to structure discourse and practise discourse functions

PART XVII OFFICIAL LANGUAGE CHAPTER I.‐ LANGUAGE OF THE UNION

343. Official language of the Union.

1. The official language of the Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script. The form of numerals to be used for the official purposes of the Union shall be the international form of Indian numerals.

2. Notwithstanding anything in clause (1), for a period of fifteen years from the commencement of this Constitution, the English language shall continue to be used for all the official purposes of the Union for which it was being used immediately before such commencement: Provided that the President may, during the said period, by order authorise the use of the Hindi language in addition to the English language and of the Devanagari form of numerals in addition to the international form of Indian numerals for any of the official purposes of the Union.

3. Notwithstanding anything in this article, Parliament may by law provide for the use, after the said period of fifteen years, of‐

4. a. the English language, or b. the Devanagari form of numerals, for such purposes as may be specified in the

law.

PART XVII OFFICIAL LANGUAGE CHAPTER I.‐ LANGUAGE OF THE UNION

344. Commission and Committee of Parliament on official language.‐

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1. The President shall, at the expiration of five years from the commencement of this Constitution and thereafter at the expiration of ten years from such commencement, by order constitute a Commission which shall consist of a Chairman and such other members representing the different languages specified in the Eighth Schedule as the President may appoint, and the order shall define the procedure to be followed by the Commission.

2. It shall be the duty of the Commission to make recommendations to the President as to‐ 3.

a. the progressive use of the Hindi language for the official purposes of the Union; b. restrictions on the use of the English language for all or any of the official

purposes of the Union; c. the language to be used for all or any of the purposes mentioned in article 348; d. the form of numerals to be used for any one or more specified purposes of the

Union; e. any other matter referred to the Commission by the President as regards the

official language of the Union and the language for communication between the Union and a State or between one State and another and their use.

4. In making their recommendations under clause (2), the Commission shall have due regard to the industrial, cultural and scientific advancement of India, and the just claims and the interests of persons belonging to the non‐Hindi speaking areas in regard to the public services.

5. There shall be constituted a Committee consisting of thirty members, of whom twenty shall be members of the House of the People and ten shall be members of the Council of States to be elected respectively by the members of the House of the People and the members of the Council of States in accordance with the system of proportional representation by means of the single transferable vote.

6. It shall be the duty of the Committee to examine the recommendations of the Commission constituted under clause (1) and to report to the President their opinion thereon.

7. Notwithstanding anything in article 343, the President may, after consideration of the report referred to in clause (5), issue directions in accordance with the whole or any part of that report.

PART XVII CHAPTER II.‐REGIONAL LANGUAGES

345. Official language or languages of a State.‐

Subject to the provisions of articles 346 and 347, the Legislature of a State may by law adopt any one or more of the languages in use in the State or Hindi as the language or languages to be used for all or any of the official purposes of that State:

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Provided that, until the Legislature of the State otherwise provides by law, the English language shall continue to be used for those official purposes within the State for which it was being used immediately before the commencement of this Constitution.

346. Official language for communication between one State and another or between a State and the Union.‐

The language for the time being authorised for use in the Union for official purposes shall be the official language for communication between one State and another State and between a State and the Union:

Provided that if two or more States agree that the Hindi language should be the official language for communication between such States, that language may be used for such communication.

347. Special provision relating to language spoken by a section of the population of a State.‐

On a demand being made in that behalf the President may, if he is satisfied that a substantial proportion of the population of a State desire the use of any language spoken by them to be recognised by that State, direct that such language shall also be officially recognised throughout that State or any part thereof for such purpose as he may specify.

PART XVII CHAPTER III.‐LANGUAGE OF THE SUPREME COURT, HIGHCOURTS, ETC.

348. Language to be used in the Supreme Court and in the High Courts and for Acts, Bills, etc.‐

1. Notwithstanding anything in the foregoing provisions of this Part, until Parliament by law otherwise provides‐

2. a. all proceedings in the Supreme Court and in every High Court, b. the authoritative texts‐

3. i. of all Bills to be introduced or amendments thereto to be moved in either House

of Parliament or in the House or either House of the Legislature of a State, ii. of all Acts passed by Parliament or the Legislature of a State and of all

Ordinances promulgated by the President or the Governor _304*** of a State, and

iii. of all orders, rules, regulations and bye‐laws issued under this Constitution or under any law made by Parliament or the Legislature of a State, shall be in the English language.

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4. Notwithstanding anything in sub‐clause (a) of clause (1), the Governor of a State may, with the previous consent of the President, authorise the use of the Hindi language, or any other language used for any official purposes of the State, in proceedings in the High Court having its principal seat in that State: Provided that nothing in this clause shall apply to any judgment, decree or order passed or made by such High Court.

5. Notwithstanding anything in sub‐clause (b) of clause (1), where the Legislature of a State has prescribed any language other than the English language for use in Bills introduced in, or Acts passed by, the Legislature of the State or in Ordinances promulgated by the Governor _304*** of the State or in any order, rule, regulation or bye‐law referred to in paragraph (iii) of that sub‐clause, a translation of the same in the English language published under the authority of the Governor _304*** of the State in the Official Gazette of that State shall be deemed to be the authoritative text thereof in the English language under this article.

349. Special procedure for enactment of certain laws relating to language.‐

During the period of fifteen years from the commencement of this Constitution, no Bill or amendment making provision for the language to be used for any of the purposes mentioned in clause (1) of article 348 shall be introduced or moved in either House of Parliament without the previous sanction of the President, and the President shall not give his sanction to the introduction of any such Bill or the moving of any such amendment except after he has taken into consideration the recommendations of the Commission constituted under clause (1) of article 344 and the report of the Committee constituted under clause (4) of that article.

PART XVII CHAPTER IV.‐SPECIAL DIRECTIVES

350. Language to be used in representations for redress of grievances.‐

Every person shall be entitled to submit a representation for the redress of any grievance to any officer or authority of the Union or a State in any of the languages used in the Union or in the State, as the case may be.

350A. Facilities for instruction in mother‐tongue at primary stage.‐

It shall be the endeavour of every State and of every local authority within the State to provide adequate facilities for instruction in the mother‐tongue at the primary stage of education to children belonging to linguistic minority groups; and the President may issue such directions to any State as he considers necessary or proper for securing the provision of such facilities.

350B. Special Officer for linguistic minorities.‐

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1. There shall be a Special Officer for linguistic minorities to be appointed by the President. 2. It shall be the duty of the Special Officer to investigate all matters relating to the

safeguards provided for linguistic minorities under this Constitution and report to the President upon those matters at such intervals as the President may direct, and the President shall cause all such reports to be laid before each House of Parliament, and sent to the Governments of the States concerned.

351. Directive for development of the Hindi language.

It shall be the duty of the Union to promote the spread of the Hindi language, to develop it so that it may serve as a medium of expression for all the elements of the composite culture of India and to secure its enrichment by assimilating without interfering with its genius, the forms, style and expressions used in Hindustani and in the other languages of India specified in the Eighth Schedule, and by drawing, wherever necessary or desirable, for its vocabulary, primarily on Sanskrit and secondarily on other languages.

Indian Education Commission

Indian Education Commission (1964‐1966), popularly known as Kothari Commission, was an ad hoc

commission set up by the government of india to examine all aspects of the educational sector in India

Three Language Formula:

It provides that children in the Hindi‐speaking states are to be taught three languages, namely Hindi, English and one of the local languages. The children in non‐Hindi‐speaking states are to be taught the local language, English and Hindi.

The salient recommendations of the NPE1986 are:

The National Policy on Education, 1986 emphasizes the adoption of regional languages as the media of instruction at the university stage.

Vigorous effort at implementation of the three language‐ formula. improvement in the linguistic competencies of students at different stages of education.

provision of facilities for the study of English and other foreign languages. Development of Hindi as the link language, as provided for in Article 351 of the

Constitution. Teaching of Sanskrit at the university stage as part of certain courses like Indology, Indian

History, Archaeology etc.; serious effort at translation of books from one language to the other; and the preparation of bilingual and multi‐lingual dictionaries.

The emphasis in the Policy is on the adoption of modern Indian languages as the media of instruction at the university stage.

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The National Curriculum Framework (NCF 2005)

is one of four National Curriculum Frameworks published in 1975, 1988, 2000 and 2005 by NCERT. The NCF 2005 document draws its policy basis from earlier government reports on education as Learning Without Burden

NCF 2005 Gives a Fresh Impetus to Language Education:

1. A renewed attempt should be made to implement the three language formula. 2. Children’s mother tongues, including tribal languages should be considered as the best

medium of instruction. 3. Proficiency in multiple languages including English should be encouraged in children. 4. Reading should be emphasized throughout the primary classes.

Culture and language are intermingled. NCF 2005 advocates an interdisciplinary approach. However, teachers of different subjects do not discuss these matters. Language can relate all the subjects, as it is the heart of education so is the heart of children. Centrality of language, and achieving it would be a great milestone.

The three‐language formula is an attempt to address the challenges and opportunities of the linguistic situation in India. The primary aim of the formula is to promote multilingualism and national harmony.

Objectives of teaching language in general, their specifications

OBJECTIVES OF TEACHING ENGLISH 1) Listening, reading, speaking and writing are the four important objectives. 2) Graphics should be practiced by the students at primary level. The student must be able to write the alphabets, keeping space between two words in a sentence and write sentences using appropriate punctuation marks and capital letters. 3) Writing is also equally important. The students should be able to write composition. 4) All the four skills i.e. Listening, Reading, Writing and Speaking become important as the student grows, particularly reading and writing at the later stage. 5)Students should be able to read other books excluding textbooks i.e. novel, poetry, drama, essay writing, autobiography, précis‐writing etc Indian people consider English as a second language. It is studied as a compulsory second language. It is not the medium of instruction for a majority of the students. It is an instrument, a means for acquiring knowledge. The aim of teaching English in India is to help students to acquire practical command of English. In other words, it means that students should be able to understand speak English, read

and write

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MAIN OBJECTIVES OF TEACHING ENGLISH There are two main Objectives of teaching English. They are as 1) Language development, and 2) Literary development These two objectives differ from each other as far as the class and age of students is concerned.

Objectives Semantic related Phonetic deals with sound Graphic related Phonetic deals to understanding spelling and pronunciation to writing with reading ABILITIES TO BE DEVELOPED BY FOUR‐FOLD OBJECTIVES: 1) To understand Spoken English:‐ It includes recognition of English sounds without committing any errors. Also ability to point out meaning from what is heard. 2) Ability to speak English:‐ It includes intonation and stress response in speech as reaction to hearing. 3) Ability to read English:‐ 4) It includes ability to read and understand various books reading like prose, poetry, drama, and novel and so on. 5) Ability to write English:‐ It includes ability to write guided composition followed by free composition. To select right words, to construct sentences. The most important objective is to have command over the language. It can be explained with the help of following diagram.

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Issues involved in language education

There are several other issues involved in language education other than the difference in language and culture. Standard language is taught as one of subject. Teachers teach skills to appreciate literature and aesthetic sensibility, and to build a positive attitude towards the world. But it is also necessary to develop it as a tool for acquiring knowledge, that is, for studying all the knowledge‐based subjects. Here comes the issue of imparting instruction in Mother Tongue or first language.

Issue of multiple dialects and first language instruction

Dialect versus Standard Variety: Education is imparted in standard variety of the language concerned. This is true of both the first language used as medium of instruction, or a second language taught for enrichment. This attains greater importance in first language instruction, because the child has to learn all the subjects in this language. Very few really speak standard variety. Most of the children speak some or other dialect, and some of the dialects are so far removed, that they can be distinct languages. Many children speak one of the dialects at home, Mumbai Hindi which is a pidginised variety as contact language out side their homes and at school they learn highly stylized variety of the textbooks. This is true of all languages but worst is the case of Hindi that has eleven dialects almost like distinct independent languages. This, very often, proves very traumatic to children just entering school. Not only that these languages have different linguistic systems but the rules of social verbal etiquettes are also different in different sociolects. Again, several believe that students belonging to low‐income group or low social status lack language and they are treated with negative attitude both by teachers and by fellow students. But as professor Labov says, these children don’t lack language but the sophistication of the standard variety. A survey was conducted (by Language Development Project, a body set up by municipal corporation to study problems in language education of slum dwelling children with the help of Ford Foundation), to find out the vocabulary control of Gujarati speaking preschool children, because their textbooks were being rewritten. It was found that the vocabulary of slum dwelling children was greater than that of the children coming from middle class. But it contained a large number of taboo words not appropriate for textbooks or school. A study was also done of the schools around which the fishermen community of Mumbai lived. It was found, that there was a heavy drop out rate among the children by the time they reached secondary stage. The observation of these children revealed, that the children use their own language in the first and second standards in all their school activities, in the third and the fourth they mix the code of their dialect with and the standard. They appeared quite comfortable with this mixture but by the time they reach the fifth standard they start realizing that their language is not the right one. By this time they also reach their adolescence, adding a psychological dimension to their problems, and then dropping out from school begins. The solution perhaps lies in letting the children use their language in the classrooms to initiate them in literacy, as was found among fishermen children, but there should be gradual and conscious efforts to transfer to the standard variety. The question is not whether to allow the children to use their home language in school, but for how long? Children should understand that every one speaks the home language, but they must also learn the standard language to be successful in school. Teachers should explain to them the role of each of the varieties; the standard variety is for life out side their homes, to be used in public affairs, and their dialect for private life at home. This would give them the psychological stability and group solidarity. Language Development Project conducted an experiment to try this out with positive results. It was more difficult to convince the teachers to accept this method, than transferring speech habits of children from dialect to standard. (In this experiment students were allowed to use

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words, sometimes even structures, from the dialect they spoke at home. The experiment was tried in the first grade in ten schools of Mumbai Municipal Corporation. This was done to initiate them in literacy. Once they mastered initial reading skills, they were introduced to regular prescribed textbook in standard language. It needed only a few weeks for the children from experimental group to comfortably take exams with children from control group. They had begun looking into differences in the two varieties themselves. It turned out to be a special activity for them to locate differences in the dialects of other students who spoke different varieties.)

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MODULE 4

Pedagogy of language; various methods of teaching language : aural‐oral method, structural method, grammar translation method, direct method, Interactive teaching and Cooperative learning (4)

Pedagogy of language

There are three principal views:

1. The structural view treats language as a system of structurally related elements to code meaning (e.g. grammar).

2. The functional view sees language as a vehicle to express or accomplish a certain function, such as requesting something.

3. The interactive view sees language as a vehicle for the creation and maintenance of social relations, focusing on patterns of moves, acts, negotiation and interaction found in conversational exchanges.

Structural methods

Grammar‐translation method

Audio‐lingual method

Functional methods

The oral approach

Directed practice

Interactive methods

Direct method

The series method

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The grammar translation method is a method of teaching foreign languages derived from the

classical (sometimes called traditional) method of teaching Greek and Latin. In grammar‐

translation classes, students learn grammatical rules and then apply those rules by translating

sentences between the target language and the native language. Advanced students may be

required to translate whole texts word‐for‐word. The method has two main goals: to enable

students to read and translate literature written in the source language, and to further

students’ general intellectual development. Grammar rules are learned deductively; students

learn grammar rules by rote, and then practice the rules by doing grammar drills and translating

sentences to and from the target language. More attention is paid to the form of the sentences

being translated than to their content. When students reach more advanced levels of

achievement, they may translate entire texts from the target language. Tests often consist of

the translation of classical texts.

There is not usually any listening or speaking practice, and very little attention is placed on

pronunciation or any communicative aspects of the language.

The audio‐lingual method, Army Method, or New Key,[1] is a style of teaching used in teaching

foreign languages. It is based on behaviorist theory, which professes that certain traits of living

things, and in this case humans, could be trained through a system of reinforcement. The correct

use of a trait would receive positive feedback while incorrect use of that trait would receive

negative feedback.

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This approach to language learning was similar to another, earlier method called the direct

method. Like the direct method, the audio‐lingual method advised that students should be

taught a language directly, without using the students' native language to explain new words or

grammar in the target language. However, unlike the direct method, the audio‐lingual method

did not focus on teaching vocabulary. Rather, the teacher drilled students in the use of grammar.

The direct method of teaching, which is sometimes called the natural method, and is often (but not exclusively) used in teaching foreign languages, refrains from using the learners' native language and uses only the target language. It was established in Germany and France around 1900 and contrasts with the Grammar translation method and other traditional approaches

The structural approach

This method sees language as a complex of grammatical rules which are to be learned one at a

time in a set order. So for example the verb "to be" is introduced and practised before the present

continuous tense which uses "to be" as an auxiliary.

Cooperative learning

Cooperative learning is a teaching method where students of mixed levels of ability are arranged

into groups and rewarded according to the group's success, rather than the success of an

individual member.

Formal cooperative learning is structured, facilitated, and monitored by the educator over time

and is used to achieve group goals in task work (e.g. completing a unit). Any course material or

assignment can be adapted to this type of learning, and groups can vary from 2‐6 people with

discussions lasting from a few minutes up to an entire period. Types of formal cooperative

learning strategies include:

1. The jigsaw technique 2. Assignments that involve group problem solving and decision making 3. Laboratory or experiment assignments 4. Peer review work (e.g. editing writing assignments).

Having experience and developing skill with this type of learning often facilitates informal and

base learning.[20] Jigsaw activities are wonderful because the student assumes the role of the

teacher on a given topic and is in charge of teaching the topic to a classmate. The idea is that if

students can teach something, they have already learned the material.

Informal cooperative learning incorporates group learning with passive teaching by drawing

attention to material through small groups throughout the lesson or by discussion at the end of

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a lesson, and typically involves groups of two (e.g. turn‐to‐your‐partner discussions). These

groups are often temporary and can change from lesson to lesson (very much unlike formal

learning where 2 students may be lab partners throughout the entire semester contributing to

one another’s knowledge of science).

Discussions typically have four components that include formulating a response to questions

asked by the educator, sharing responses to the questions asked with a partner, listening to a

partner’s responses to the same question, and creating a new well‐developed answer. This type

of learning enables the student to process, consolidate, and retain more information.[20]

In group‐based cooperative learning, these peer groups gather together over the long term

(e.g. over the course of a year, or several years such as in high school or post‐secondary studies)

to develop and contribute to one another’s knowledge mastery on a topic by regularly

discussing material, encouraging one another, and supporting the academic and personal

success of group members.

Base group learning (e.g., a long term study group) is effective for learning complex subject

matter over the course or semester and establishes caring, supportive peer relationships, which

in turn motivates and strengthens the student’s commitment to the group’s education while

increasing self‐esteem and self‐worth. Base group approaches also make the students

accountable to educating their peer group in the event that a member was absent for a lesson.

This is effective both for individual learning, as well as social support.

Interactive Teaching • Involves facilitator and learners • Encourage and expect learners to participate • Use questions to stimulate discussion, emphasizing the value of answers • Give participants hands‐on experience • Use teaching aids to gain and retain attention

Brainstorming

Steps:

1. Present an open‐‐‐ended question for students to discuss or solve.

2. Students can work individually, in pairs or small groups, or as a class (or combination of these).

3. Have students share ideas with class, making notes on the board.

4. Challenge their responses or have other students challenge the responses on the board.

5. At the end, correct any misconceptions, note opposing points of view, and summarize main points.

Value: promotes critical and creative thinking and imagination

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Concept Map

Steps:

1. Provide students with a list of terms relative to their course work (either from the

previous class, last several classes or most recent lecture segment). Terms may be

provided as a list or given out as a stack of cards.

2. Ask students to create a meaningful pattern with these terms (i.e. food web—how

are different organisms linked, cardiovascular system blood flow, etc.). There may be

one “right” answer or the concepts may promote creative exploration of the topic.

3. If time allows, ask one group to share concept map with the whole class. Or alternatively,

ask groups to explain their pattern to another group in the class.

Value: promotes integration of ideas, provides immediate feedback about student understanding,

Decision Making

Steps:

1. Provide students with problem that they need to work on for example “Imagine you are

the director of the antibiotic discovery unit in a major pharmaceutical company and you

are asks for a five‐‐‐year plan to develop new antibiotics. You are told that the plan will be

funded only if you can convince your managers that you will be able to develop the five

new drugs with entirely new modes of action. Can you do it? What is your plan and how

will you defend it?”

2. Ask students to work in groups (2‐‐‐4 students) to develop a plan based on what they

have learned in class.

3. Have students share ideas with class, making notes on the board.

4. Ask other students in the class to comment on each group’s proposal and suggest changes.

Value: promotes integration of ideas, critical, creative thinking, provides immediate feedback

about student understanding,

Item Clarification

Steps:

1. Give students a handout or post a slide that lists key terms or items for discussion.

2. Ask students to review the list and select a few items for clarification.

3. Next have students get into pairs and select a particular item for immediate clarification.

4. Call a student at random and clarify the chosen item (or, better yet, ask if another

student can offer clarification).

5. all on additional students and continue to clarify items.

6. Near the end, if time allows, ask participants if there are of your responses or those of

other students they want to challenge or debate.

7. Conclude with a brief review of the items.

Value: provides immediate feedback about student understanding, and it helps prioritize items

for review or discussion

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Group Graphic

Steps:

1. Have students get in pairs or small groups.

2. Ask the pairs or groups to illustrate lecture content by constructing a picture,

diagram, flowchart, concept map, or some other visual illustration that represents

their understanding of the content.

3. Have students report on their group graphic to the rest of the class, explaining what is

represented and why (their representation might also include questions, unknowns, etc.).

4. Have other groups respond with questions, feedback or suggestions, and you can also provide feedback

to help clarify questions, point out misconceptions or oversimplifications, or correct errors. You can

also have groups turn in their illustrations for you to scrutinize after class and later hand back with

feedback.

Variation for Large Classes: Have small groups assign roles such as recorder (person drawing),

facilitator (ensures everyone participates), reporter (will report on illustration), and participants

(contribute to discussion). Once the graphic complete, have the reporters from each group go to a

different group and report on the illustration, receiving feedback from the other group. Some

instructors provide markers and large post‐‐‐it notes or pieces of paper and tape to adhere

illustrations to a wall.

Value: promotes integration of ideas and thinking, facilitates attention on the “big picture”

and relationships among ideas, and allows for creativity in thinking and expression

Matrix Steps:

1. Students should create a table with information to compare (i.e. pros/con, two different processes)

Learning activity Value of activity Limitation of

activity

When would you

use this in class

Matrix

Minute paper, etc.

2. Ask students to work in groups (2‐‐‐4 students) to fill out the table

3. Have groups share their ideas with the class and make notes on the board.

Value: promotes integration of ideas, allows students to easily compare ideas and reduce

complexity.

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Minute Paper Steps:

1. At the end of a lecture segment or the end of the lecture class, have students

spend two or three minutes writing a summary of the main points.

2. Ask at least one student to share what he/she wrote.

3. Collect the papers for review (but not for a grade).

4. You can also use the minute paper to have students to write down questions they have

about the lecture, 3 key points of the day, indicate points they don’t understand, or

share feedback about your delivery, use of slides, etc.

Value: provides immediate feedback about student understanding, helps prioritize items for

review or discussion, and allows students to put material into their own words

Multiple‐‐‐Choice Survey

Steps:

1. Put a multiple‐‐‐choice item, preferably conceptual in nature, related to your mini‐‐‐lecture

on the board, a slide, or an overhead, and give four response options.

2. Survey student responses (have them raise hands, use colored cards, or use electronic response system

– ‘clicker’).

3. Next have them get into pairs and take a couple of minutes to convince each other of their responses.

4. Then re‐‐‐survey the students.

5. Clarify any misconceptions before proceeding.

Value: makes students apply and discuss material while fresh in their minds, and it provides

immediate feedback about student understanding

Quick Case Study

Steps:

1. Display a very brief case on an overhead or slide (or put on a handout if lengthy).

2. Pose specific questions for students to answer based on the case [For example, “What is the problem?

What is the remedy? What is the prevention?]

3. Have students write down their answers.

4. Students can work individually or in pairs or small groups.

5. If time allows, select a few students to share aloud their answers

Value: makes students apply material to a realistic situation, and it promotes critical and creative

thinking.

Quick Thinks

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For each of the following, use immediate material from lecture, and allow students a couple of

minutes to reflect before surveying their responses (have students share aloud, and you can

collect written responses for participation points):

• Correct the Error: Present students with a statement, equation, or visual that you have

intentionally made incorrect and have them correct the error. The error may be an

illogical or inaccurate statement, premise, inference, prediction, or implication.

• Complete a Sentence Stem: Present students with a sentence starter and have them

complete the sentence. The completed statement may be a definition, category,

cause‐‐‐and‐‐‐effect relationship, rationale, controversy, etc. Try to avoid statements

that ask for rote knowledge.

• Reorder the Steps: Present sequence items in the wrong order and have students re‐‐‐order

the sequence correctly. This might be a process, cycle, method, plan, technique, etc.

• Interpretation/Paraphrase: Let students know that you will be calling on them at random

during your lecture and asking them to interpret what you’ve said, putting the material in

their own words. When you are ready, pause for a moment to signal that you are about

to call on someone. Once a student has shared, you can have another student add more.

You can also have students work and share in pairs.

• What do You See? Present students with an image, such as a picture, symbol, graphic,

equation, etc., and ask them “what do you see?” The image can be something new or

familiar to students. The idea is to ascertain if they can identify noticeable patterns,

discrepancies, unusual features, and so on. You can also present an intentionally altered

image to determine if students can identify what is wrong or missing or suggest how to

correct it.

• Reach a Conclusion: Present students with some data, opinion, event, or solution and

have them infer logically the implications of the facts, concepts or principles involved.

Their conclusions can be probably results, probable causes or outcomes.

Value: these exercises foster attentiveness, provide immediate feedback about student

understanding, and promote critical thinking skills

Plus/Delta (+/∆)

Steps:

1. At the end of class ask students to take a sheet of paper and divide it into two columns.

2. In column 1(+) students write down what was very positive about the class, an activity,

or instructional materials. In column 2(∆) students write what they would like to change

for the future.

3. Collect student responses.

4. Read student responses and make changes for next class accordingly.

5. In the next class share some of the highlights with students and make changes as necessary.

Value: provides immediate feedback to the instructor, allows for quick changes even in the middle

of a term.

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Reflection

Steps:

1. Have students take a few minutes to think and write down their thoughts about the

lecture material just presented or a particular question or problem that has been posed

2. Collect student papers, if you wish, and review their responses to assess their

understanding and identify areas that need clarification at the beginning of the next

lecture (you can also assign participation points for responses or allow students to

submit them anonymously)

Value: allows students to think through material and put it in their own words

Stretch Break

Steps:

1. At any time you sense students are losing focus or energy, you can pause your lecture and have

students stand and stretch or move about. Research indicates that the simple act of stretching or

moving can refocus student attention and enhance their learning. You can add content by having

students discuss a particular question or summarize a particular idea together while they stretch or

move. Some instructors play music while students are moving about.

Value: promotes alertness and adds variety to the classroom experience

Strip Sequence

Steps:

1. Provide students with an out of order list of step in a multi‐‐‐stepped process (can be

written on small strips of paper or on the class screen).

2. In groups or individually, have students put the “strips” into the correct order from beginning to end.

3. Have student groups compare answers with another group.

4. Review order and answer questions (especially to clarify misconceptions) for the whole class.

Value: promotes critical thinking and collaborative learning.

Think Aloud Inquiry

Steps:

1. Present a particular problem, ideally an appropriate discipline‐‐‐related problem that can

be solved in a relatively short time frame (or, for a more complex problem, the method of

inquiry via which you would go about solving the problem can be presented).

2. Next, literally talk aloud in front of students how you would go about engaging the problem.

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You might say, for example, “Okay, for this particular problem, first I need to clarify the nature of the problem.

Do I understand what is at stake? From what is given here, I understand it to involve x,y,z. Given

this, the next thing I need to do is consider….” And so on. The idea is to demonstrate explicitly

your thinking process (or a formal process of inquiry) so that students can literally observe/hear

“thinking in action” as one moves through a basic process of inquiry or problem‐‐‐solving (e.g.

identify the nature of the problem, analyze the knowledge or skills required to engage it, identify

potential solutions, choose the best solution, evaluate potential outcomes, report on findings, etc.).

3. Next, have student form pairs and assume the roles of “problem‐‐‐solver” and “listener.” Then present a

problem for them to solve. The “problem‐‐‐solver” is to read the problem aloud and talk through the

reasoning process in attempting to solve it. The role of the listener is to encourage the problem‐‐‐

solver to think aloud, describing the steps to solve the problem. The listener can also ask clarifying

questions or offer suggestions but should not actually solve the problem.

4. Present yet another problem and have students switch roles. 5. After an allotted amount of time, have student pairs share their experience. Did they

actually solve the problems? What obstacles or breakthroughs did they encounter? How

did it feel to talk aloud or listen to “thinking in action”?

Value: promotes critical thinking and inquiry, attentiveness, and collaborative learning

Think – Pair – Share

Steps:

1. Pose a question.

2. Students get into pairs and discuss question, coming to some resolution.

3. Each student pair then shares conclusions with entire class (in large classes or when time

is limited, call on as many pairs as time allows).

Value: promotes critical thinking and collaborative learning.

2.Teaching of four basic skills : listening, speaking, reading, writing; Different ways and

activities to develop these skills; Interrelationship of these skills; Constructivism in

language teaching (3)

Listening

Listening is the language skill which learners usually find the most difficult. This often is because they feel

under unnecessary pressure to understand every word. To achieve the aims related to this skill, the

teacher plays an important role that is defined in the following steps.

1. It is important to help pupils prepare for the listening task well before they hear the text itself. First of all the teacher must ensure that the pupils understand the language they need to complete

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the task and are fully aware of exactly what is expected of them. Reassure the pupils that they do not need to understand every word they hear.

2. The next important step is to encourage pupils to anticipate what they are going to hear. In everyday life, the situation, the speaker, and visual clues all help us to decode oral messages. A way to make things a bit easier to the pupils is to present the listening activity within the context of the topic of a teaching unit. This in itself will help pupils to predict what the answers might be. The teacher can help them further by asking questions and using the illustrations to encourage pupils to guess the answers even before they hear the text.

3. During the listening the pupils should be able to concentrate on understanding the message so make sure they are not trying to read, draw, and write at the same time. Always give a second chance to listen to the text to provide a new opportunity to those who were not able to do the task.

4. Finally, when pupils have completed the activity, invite answers from the whole class. Try not to put individual pupils under undue pressure. Rather than confirming whether an answer is correct or not, play the cassette again and allow pupils to listen again for confirmation. You may be given a variety of answers, in which case list them all on the board and play the text again, so that the class can listen and choose the correct one. Even if the pupils all appear to have completed the task successfully, always encourage them to listen to the text once more and check their answers for themselves.

Speaking

First of all, we must take into account that the level of language input (listening) must be higher than the

level of language production expected of the pupils. So we have many speaking activities used in the first

levels that enable pupils to participate with a minimal verbal response. However in the last levels, pupils

are encouraged to begin to manipulate language and express themselves in a much more personal way.

In primary schools two main types of speaking activities are used. The first type, songs, chants,

and poems, encourages pupils to mimic the model they hear on the cassette. This helps pupils

to master the sounds, rhythms, and intonation of the English language through simple

reproduction. The games and pair work activities on the other hand, although always based on

a given model, encourage the pupils to begin to manipulate the language by presenting them

with a certain amount of choice, albeit within a fairly controlled situation.

In order for any speaking activity to be successful children need to acknowledge that there is a

real reason for asking a question or giving a piece of information. Therefore, make sure the

activities you present to the pupils, provide a reason for speaking, whether this is to play a game

or to find out real information about friends in the class.

Once the activity begins, make sure that the children are speaking as much English as possible

without interfering to correct the mistakes that they will probably make. Try to treat errors

casually by praising the utterance and simply repeating it correctly without necessarily

highlighting the errors. And finally, always offer praise for effort regardless of the accuracy of the

English produced.

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Reading

In order to make reading an interesting challenge as opposed to a tedious chore, it is important that pupils

do not labour over every word, whether they are skimming the text for general meaning or scanning it to

pick out specific information. Other things to keep in mind are:

1. When choosing texts consider not only their difficulty level, but also their interest or their humour so that children will want to read for the same reasons they read in their own language: to be entertained or to find out something they do not already know.

2. As with listening activities, it is important to spend time preparing for the task by using the illustrations (a usual feature in reading activities for children), pupils' own knowledge about the subject matter, and key vocabulary to help the pupils to predict the general content of the text. Discuss the subject and ask questions to elicit language and to stimulate the pupils' interest in the text before they begin reading. Also make sure that the pupils understand the essential vocabulary they need to complete the task before they begin to read.

3. While the children are reading the text, move around the class providing support if pupils need it. Where possible, encourage pupils to work out the meaning of vocabulary as they come across it, using the context and the supporting illustrations.

4. Do not encourage pupils to read texts aloud unless this is to learn a play or recite a poem. Reading aloud inhibits most pupils and forces them to concentrate on what they are saying as opposed to what they are reading and the meaning is very often lost.

Writing

In primary schools, EFL pupils progress from writing isolated words and phrases, to short paragraphs about

themselves or about very familiar topics (family, home, hobbies, friends, food, etc.)

Since many pupils at this level are not yet capable either linguistically or intellectually of creating

a piece of written text from scratch, it is important that time is spent building up the language

they will need and providing a model on which they can then base their own efforts. The writing

activities should therefore be based on a parallel text and guide the pupils, using simple cues.

These writing activities generally appear towards the end of a unit so that pupils have had plenty

of exposure to the language and practice of the main structures and vocabulary they need.

At this stage, the pupils' work will invariably contain mistakes. Again, the teacher should try to

be sensitive in his/her correction and not necessarily insist on every error being highlighted. A

piece of written work covered in red pen is demoralizing and generally counter‐productive.

Where possible, encourage pupils to correct their own mistakes as they work. If there is time,

encourage pupils to decorate their written work and where feasible display their efforts in the

classroom.

Writing and Reading Relationships

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In 1983, Stotsky published a review of correlational and experimental studies that investigated reading and writing relationships. Her much cited synthesis spans approximately fifty years. Correlational studies to that time showed that ":

better writers tend to be better readers,

better writers tend to read more than poorer writers,

better readers tend to produce more syntactically mature writing than poorer readers"

Decoding means translating written words into the sounds and meanings of spoken words (often silently). Encoding, or spelling, is the reverse process. The skills used in encoding are usually developed alongside

decoding skills and reflect similar learning. In order to become good decoders and spellers, learners need to first develop some basic understandings about print and how it relates to spoken language. In particular, learners must have developed phonological awareness and phonemic awareness.

Learners also need to know the names of the letters of the alphabet and the sounds the letters

represent, and they need to understand the key concepts about print. Without this knowledge,

readers will not learn to decode and writers will not learn to spell.

The alphabetic principle. Learners need to know that letters in print represent sounds in speech. This knowledge is necessary so that learners can recognise letters by shape as they read and shape letters correctly as they write.

Concepts about print. Learners need to understand how print works in written text. Such concepts include: – that text is written and read from left to right with a return sweep to the left of each new line – that print on the left‐hand page or column is read before print on the right – that written sentences start with capital letters and end with full stops – that the spacings between words, sentences, lines of print and paragraphs follow a meaningful pattern.

Knowledge of letter‐sound correspondence. this knowledge of the relationship between spoken sounds and the corresponding letters is essential for decoding and writing text.

Word analysis. Learners use their increasing knowledge of the ways in which many words are built up from root words, prefixes and suffixes to help them work out how to read new words,

Developing the ability to decode or spell automatically. Good decoders and spellers quickly develop a store or bank of words they recognise or can write automatically.

Constructivism in Teaching language

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CHARACTERISTICS OF A CONSTRUCTIVIST TEACHER

1. Constructivist teachers encourage and accept student autonomy and initiative 2. Constructivist teachers use raw data and primary sources, along with manipulative, interactive

and and physical materials 3. When framing tasks, constructivist teachers use cognitive terminology such as “classify”,

“analyse”, “predict” and “create”

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4. Constructivist teachers allow the students' responses to drive lessons, shift instructional strategies, and alter content

5. Constructivist teachers inquire about students’ understandings of concepts before sharing their own understanding of these concepts

6. Constructivist teachers encourage students to engage in dialogue, both with the teacher and with one another

7. Constructivist teachers encourage students’ inquiry by asking thoughtful, open‐ended questions and encouraging students to ask questions of each other

8. Constructivist teachers seek elaboration of students initial 9. Constructivist teachers allow wait time after posing questions

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Debate

Classroom debate is a form of empowered learning in which students become involved in

researching, teaching, and recognizing alternative points of view. The benefits of a formal

classroom debate include: 1) reducing the biases of both students and the instructor; 2)

enhancing student research and analysis skills; 3) promoting logical and critical thinking; 4)

increasing oral communication skills; 5) motivating students; and 6) building effective team

work skills. Most significantly, to be successful, the students involved in debate must master all

six levels of Bloom's Taxonomy (1956).

Debate revolves around the debate proposition, which should be a carefully worded one‐

sentence statement, calling for some new position or change in the present. Although the

proposition should be worded to avoid excessive ambiguity, they are often normative in style

and offer the opportunity to argue both issues of fact and belief. This allows debaters,

considerable flexibility in building arguments. The affirmative team argues in favor of the

proposition while the negative team tries to refute the arguments of the affirmative team and

in essence argues to maintain the status quo (Payne).

Debates should focus on topics for which there is no "right answer" or too which a marginal

view is valuable

Quizzes & Exams

Typically educators have utilized quizzes and exams as assessment tools. Harris and Johnson

have found that collaborative learning can occur through preparation, execution, discussion

and review of examination questions. The authors have utilized a variety of testing strategies

that emphasize teaching and learning such as: individual and group quizzes, multiple test

opportunities, and first day final exams. The principle behind these strategies is to move

beyond regurgitation of facts to Bloom's higher levels of learning such as application,

analysis, synthesis and evaluation.

Role play Role‐play is to create the presence of a real life situation in the classroom. It is important in the classroom communication because it gives students an opportunity to practice communicatively in different social contexts and in different social roles. The language applied in this activity is varied according to the student’s status, attitudes, mood, and different situations.(Blachowicz, et al., 2006.) speaks, “Teachers can introduce some of the words which provide both definitional and contextual information about the words to be learned by making up a dialogue for students so that students can understand a further meaning and usage of the words.”

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Crossword puzzle Crossword puzzles offer an entertaining way of reviewing vocabulary. Students can do the puzzles in class in pairs, as a race with other students, or at home as homework.The teacher can also design a “Word Puzzle,” which is also called a “Word Cross”, asking the students to cooperate in groups to find and circle the words that the puzzle contains.The teacher might also place several versions of the word in the puzzle, with only one of them being the correct spelling. The students must circle only the word with the correct spelling.

Techniques of Teaching Vocabulary at the Intermediate Level Vocabulary of a language is just like bricks of a high building. Despite quite small pieces, they are

vital to the great structure. Wilkins rightly says, “Without grammar very little can be

conveyed….but without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed”. Therefore the study of vocabulary

is at the center while learning a new language. English being a second language or foreign language,

one needs to learn vocabulary in the systematic way.

Active & Passive Vocabulary

A learner's passive vocabulary is the words that they understand but don't use yet. This can be compared with active vocabulary, which are words that learners understand and use in speaking or writing. The active and passive vocabulary of a learner changes constantly. They start using words, try new meanings, forget words, abandon words that have no use, revise words, etc.

Example Advanced learners often have an extremely large passive vocabulary but a considerably smaller active one.

In the classroom A simple way to help learners keep building their active vocabulary is by constant revision activity, such as asking learners to use words left on the board from a previous class in a sentence. Learners can all contribute to a vocabulary bag with words and definitions or example sentences on cards; these can be used to play vocabulary revision games.

Techniques

By showing actual objects and showing models It is a very useful technique to teach vocabulary to the beginners.

Using demonstrations and showing pictures Teacher can perform some words. It can be fun and frolic. It makes the class student‐centered.

Teacher can act and learners try to imitate it.

Teaching words in the context

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Most people agree that vocabulary ought to be taught in context (Nilsen 1976; Chastain 1976;

Rivers 1968). Words taught in isolation are generally not retained. In addition, in order to grasp the

full meaning of a word or phrase, students must be aware of the linguistic environment in which the

word or phrase appears.

Etymology Every word has its origin and its story of how it gets its current meanings.

By drawing pictures It is an easy and quick technique of introducing vocabulary to the learners. For students, drawing

can be a fun medium to explain vocabulary.

Associated vocabulary If one topic consists of number of words, it is easy to teach these entire words altogether. For

example, it is easier to teach words like orange, banana, grapes, lemon, pineapple, mango, and

watermelon together in the context of ‘fruits’

Using morphological analysis of words Morphology is the study of words in different terms, showing how words are broken down into

smaller units, and how such units are recognized.

Dictionary It is an important tool in the teaching and learning of vocabulary. Teacher should encourage

students to search words in dictionaries.

Collocation The term collocation generally refers to the way in which two or more words are typically used together. For example, we talk about heavy rain but not heavy sun, or we say that we make or come to a decision, but we don’t do a decision. So, heavy rain and make a decision are often referred to as collocations and we say that heavy collocates with rain. Collocations include: [1]Verb + Noun (e.g. break a code, lift a blockade)

[2]Verb + Adverb (e.g. affect deeply, appreciate sincerely)

[3]Noun + Verb (e.g. water freezes, clock ticks)

[4]Adjective + Noun (e.g. strong tea, best wishes)

[5] Adverb + Adjective (e.g. deeply absorbed, closely related)

Synonyms A synonym may be used to help the student to understand the different shades of meaning, if the synonym is better known than the word being taught. Synonyms help to enrich a student's vocabulary bank and provide alternative words instantly. These can be effective since they build on words and phrases that students already recognize. Adjectives often have several symptoms, and phrasal verbs will usually have a non‐phrasal verb equivalent. Use caution that you do imply that all

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the words have exactly the same meaning, since different words often are used for different connotations or to imply different meanings. The same procedure can be used to elicit synonyms. The teacher needs to highlight the fact that “true” synonyms are relatively rare and the answers will often be “near” synonyms. The students could make crosswords, word snakes or other puzzles for each other using these synonyms. Students were asked to bring daily five new words which were not familiar to them from the text‐book. At the end of each session they were asked to tell the word, its spelling and its meaning in English. They were banned to see the notebook where these words were written. If they were not able to give the correct word its spelling and meaning, they were asked to bring new ten words next day. Such an exercise was fruitful for the learner. Antonyms The students were asked to make lists of opposite words. Two groups were made; one group gave

one word while the other group asked to give an opposite word to it. For example,

sharp/blunt,rude/polite, flexible/rigid, generous/mean etc. One group gave word ‘sharp’ and the

other group gave opposite word for it as ‘blunt’. Marks were written on the board. They found it

very interesting and memorized more words in order to win the contest. Thus, by play way method

they can learn new words.

Idioms Teaching idioms by topic can make easier for students to remember. An idiom is a phrase or expression in which the entire meaning is different from the usual meanings of the individual words within it. Idioms are fun to work with because they are part of everyday vocabulary. Students enjoy working with figurative meanings. They also enjoy finding out about the origins of idiomatic expressions, some of which are very old. An idiom is an expression that cannot be fully understood by the meanings of the individual words

that are contained within it. The meaning of the whole idiom has little, often nothing, to do with

the meanings of the words taken one by one. Point out to students that idioms are often used in

writing or speech to make expression more colorful and that some of the most colorful English

idioms make use of animals or animal comparisons.

Phrasal verbs / Phrases Teachers should include phrasal verbs (phrases) in their classroom language as much as possible –

and draw attention to these from time to time. There are many phrasal verbs in the English

language and they are used in normal, everybody speech and writing.Phrasal verbs mean words

consisting of a verb and a particle (preposition or adverb). The meaning of a phrasal verb is different

from the meaning of each word if it was considered separately. Common classroom expressions

incorporating phrasal verbs are: sit down, put your hand up,turn your papers over, write this down,

cover the page up, look it up, hurry up and calm down!

Effective teacher of Language as someone who possesses 5 I’s:<

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1. Imagination 2. Innovativeness 3. Interaction 4. Independent thinking 5. Interdependence Imagination

Four Main Characteristics of an Effective Language Teacher

Socio‐Affective Skills

As in all other fields, it is crucial that teachers have some basic socio‐affective skills to interact with their

students and maintain the educational process effectively. These skills include a wide range of items such as

motivating students, sparing time for students when they ask for help, being enthusiastic for teaching, having

positive attitudes towards students, responding to students’ needs and providing a stress‐free classroom

atmosphere (Cheung, 2006; Shishavan and Sadeghi, 2009). In addition to these aspects, Foote, Vermette,

Wisniewski, Agnello, and Pegano (2000, cited in Wichadee, 2010) also state that the relationship between

teachers and students is one of the most striking features. In their study, Arikan, Taşer and Saraç‐Süzer

(2008) also highlight the importance of establishing and maintaining positive relationships with students.

Besides, when trying to find similarities and differences between his study and the existing literature, Borg

(2006) maintains the significance of the relationship between the members of the process. According to his

study, the socio‐affective skills enable teachers to establish good rapport with their students as well as

maintaining the process of education more effectively and successfully.

Another crucial point is what students experience, how they feel and how to approach their related problems

in the process of teaching and learning. Feelings such as anxiety and fear, and other negative emotions are

natural and expected parts of this process. Therefore, what is important for teachers is to create an

environment in which their students can concentrate on learning in both cognitive and emotional levels.

Moreover, socio‐affective skills provide teachers with the opportunity to deal with what their students feel

and experience in their learning process (Aydın, Bayram, Canıdar, Çetin, Ergünay, Özdem and Tunç, 2009). In

other words, in order to be effective, teachers should combine their behavior with both their minds and

emotions.

Pedagogical Knowledge In order to conduct any kind of job properly, one should have the knowledge of how to do it. S/he should be

aware of the procedures and the strategies to follow in the process, which is pedagogical knowledge. In his

study, Vélez‐Rendón (2002, as cited in Aydın et al., 2009) defines pedagogical knowledge as what teachers

know about teaching their subjects. He also claims that without pedagogical knowledge teachers cannot

convey what they know to their learners. The results of the study conducted by Aydın et al. (2009) show that

students prefer their teacher to have the knowledge of how to teach in order to deal with the affective

domain. To deliver the content in the best way, an effective teacher needs both field specific knowledge and

knowledge of how to present it (Brophy, 1991, cited in Aydın et al., 2009). Furthermore, Clark and Walsh

(2004) emphasize the significance of pedagogical knowledge by claiming that it is a sophisticated form of

knowledge hard to obtain, and not available to everyone that seeks it. Different studies refer to numerous

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dimensions of pedagogical knowledge such as providing students with an environment in which they can be

relaxed in order to learn and produce well, guiding students, having the ability to organize, explain and

clarify, as well as arousing and sustaining interest, motivating students, giving positive reinforcement,

allocating more time to preparation and delivery, and teaching with effective classroom materials by

integrating technology (Arıkan et al., 2008; Aydın et al., 2009; Borg, 2006; Cheung, 2006; Shishavan and

Sadeghi, 2009; Yu‐Hsin, 1999) In addition, effective teachers should basically have classroom management

skills defined as practices and procedures that a teacher uses to maintain an environment in which

instruction and learning can occur (Wong and Wong, 1998). The basic aim at maintaining classroom

management is to create stress‐free learning environments for both learners and teachers by lowering

affective filter and raising motivation. Stress‐free environments provide not only learners but also teachers

with the relaxing atmosphere to take part in the process willingly and to eliminate or at least minimize the

fear of making mistakes.

Subject‐Matter Knowledge Another main area that attracts attention is the subject‐matter knowledge which teachers should possess regarding their specific field. To make a general definition of this notion, Vélez‐Rendón (2002, cited in Aydın et al, 2009) regards the subject matter knowledge as what teachers know about what they teach. Another study pointing out the significance of this knowledge type (Buchman 1984, cited in Aydın et al, in 2009) suggests the use of subject matter knowledge in different phases of the educational process such as using target language effectively in class, integrating lessons based on students’ backgrounds and preparing effective lesson plans. In addition to these items, different studies contribute to the notion of the subject matter knowledge from different perspectives ranging from having knowledge of the target language knowledge concerning fluency, accuracy, lexicon and pronunciation to being knowledgeable on target culture (Borg, 2006; Park and Lee, 2006; Werbinska, 2009) Subject matter knowledge enables teachers to make use of audio‐visual materials when possible, guide students to get some learning strategies, teach a topic in accordance with students’ proficiency levels, and watch and inform students about their progress in language learning. To highlight these aspects, Arıkan (2010) maintains that effective teachers should have the subject‐matter knowledge to prepare appropriate lesson plans besides using adequate resources for content delivery. Shishavan and Sadeghi (2009) point out the importance of field knowledge of teachers as they are the providers of knowledge in the process. Their study shows that one of the requirements of being an effective teacher is to have the mastery of the subject matter knowledge in their specific field. The more teachers have the subject‐matter knowledge, the more effectively they teach and the more successful results will be obtained. Personality Characteristics People who work in any profession indispensably bring their personal characteristics in the working

environment. This is also valid for teachers who not only are human beings but also deal with human.

Therefore, in addition to the subject‐matter knowledge or the pedagogical knowledge, teachers are also

supposed to have some essential personal characteristics to teach effectively and to be successful in their

profession. Malikow (2006) lists the personality characteristics most often cited by the studies conducted on

what personal qualities an effective teacher should have as follows: being challenging and having reasonably

high expectations, having sense of humor, being enthusiastic and creative. To this list, other studieshave

added being tolerant, patient, kind, sensible and open‐minded, flexible, optimistic, enthusiastic, having

positive attitudes toward new ideas, and caring for students as characteristics necessary for being an

effective teacher (Cheung, 2006; Shishavan and Sadeghi, 2009; Werbinska, 2009). Clark and Walsh (2004)

suggest that when teachers combine all of these expected characteristics in the profession, they can end up

with a trusting relationship with their students.

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A Four‐part Model for Teachers to Facilitate Linguistic Creativity

Teachers should have the knowledge and skills to nurture creativity in their students. These

innate features can be enhanced by knowledgeable teachers. Human communication begins with

thoughts and thoughts are rendered into messages, the medium in which the message is encased

becomes a matter of individual choice. One can choose to write a poem about spring, or one can

draw a picture of a tree in blossom. There is no question that the medium one chooses lends its

special qualities to the shape of the message, but underlying both medium and message is the

common reservoir of human thought. Respond to not only what is on the printed page but what

is happening in the world of sight, sound, smell, touch, and taste that surrounds him.

Parts of the model functioning as:

1. Catalyst to action: problems, needs, challenge and curiosity. If any of these is missing, creativity

may not appear.

2. Incubation: the role of thinking in creativity; problem solving through creative behaviour, critical

thinking and objectivity.

3. Processes: how to create oneself. Creative intelligences include personal, social, spiritual,

physical, numerical intelligence, and also making sense of your senses, the power of words.

4. Outcomes: assessing creativity, effectiveness as a function of usefulness and practicality. The

congenial learning environment should promote risk taking and living with temporary frustrations

and failure.

Components of Linguistic Creativity

Democratic view of creativity: which means that they treat it as a property existing in everyday

practice, and not merely as a feature characterizing only gifted individuals. The techniques of

grammatical analysis can be used to demonstrate the enormous creative power of language –

how, from a finite set of grammatical patterns, even a young child can express an infinite set of

sentences.

All‐pervasive feature of everyday language: Linguistic creativity is not simply a property of exceptional

people but an exceptional property of all people. It is a broad‐ranging, multi‐dimensional, and significant

aspect of our linguistic competence. The characteristic feature of linguistic creativity is ‐ either as only

structural generative creativity or as only lexical creativity – that it is a matter of degree, which means

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that it can be placed along a continuum on which the basis of linguistic creativity can be used as a

parameter.

Language Play in Language Teaching

A wide range of vocabulary is essential for improving thinking skills, developing argumentative skills and

expressing emotions, which induces creativity. Riddles, limericks, haikus, jokes, playful uses of accents

break the rules of language for the simple reason of being funny. Language play has importance in

learners’ metalinguistic development. Some kinds of linguistic creativity which are associated with poetry

and forms of literature are features of everyday language. These features include –

1. play with sounds and structures of language, (e.g. Crystal introduces approximants, i.e. frictionless

continuants as having some phonetic properties of vowels. The lateral consonant ‘l’ “is used by

poets in several languages to suggest softness and silence.

2. repetitions,

3. metaphors,

4. rhyme and rhythm.

CORRELATION

INTRODUCTION:

“No subject is ever well understood and no art is intelligently practiced, if the light which the other studies are able to throw upon it is deliberately shut out.” ‐

Education is a co‐ordinated process and the major aim of education is the ‘unification of knowledge’ existing in the different branches of learning. Teaching of various subjects is hence correlated. A conscious effort is made to integrate various subjects to treat the subject as a synthetic whole.

Herbertfirst conceived the idea of correlating the teaching of various subjects. ‘All knowledge is one unit’. “The power of the mind does not depend upon the amount of information accumulated in pieces, not related to one another, but is rather on well‐organised system on which all these pieces of knowledge are taught, showing their relationship with one another. This is known as the principle of Correlation.”

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Later on Zillar made this theory of correlation more elaborate. Then De Garmo and John Dewey laid stress on the integration in the teaching of various subjects. Today, correlating of teaching of different subjects is considered highly essential.

CORRELATION MEANING

What is correlation? The term ‘correlation’ in its simplest form means “connect or to be connected” . To be more precise, ‘Correlation’ means mutual relations of two or more things/persons.

But , Correlation in teaching indicates a technique which shows the reciprocal relationship between various subjects of the curriculum for making the knowledge concrete and permanent”. It is the conscious effort made by teachers teaching various subjects, to show similarities or dependence of one subject on another”. CORRELATION MEANING

DEFINITION: CORRELATION SIMPSON and KAFKA: “Correlation analysis deals with the association between two or more variables.” FERGUSON: “Correlation is concerned with describing the degree of relation between variables.” A.M. TAULE: “Correlation is an analysis of co‐variation between two or more variables”. Thus ‘correlation’ is just a mutual relationship between various variables, i.e., subjects of school/college curriculum.

SIGNIFICANCE OF CORRELATION

The most significant development of the 21th century education is the emphasis on imparting unified, integrated and meaningful knowledge of the pupils. Imparting of knowledge in the isolated facts of History, Geography, Science, Economics etc. has become obsolete. A child’s mind is an integrated whole which wants to receive experiences in an integrated manner.

Uses of Correlation are as follows:

1. Mind perceives knowledge as a whole. Earlier: Assumed Human Minds consists of so many mental faculties and each faculty like faculty of reasoning , thinking, memorization etc, were supposed to be developed through the study of a specific subject.So each subject had an independent function. But Education Psychologists have disregarded this study. Now : Mind consists as a whole and so receives knowledge as a whole. All the subjects aim to develop the intellectual power of the students as a whole. Therefore it becomes necessary to correlate one subject with another. No subject can be taught in isolation.

2. RETENTION OF EARLIER KNOWLEDGE: Fragments of knowledge may accumulate at one place in the form of distinct layers. Since every piece of knowledge is gained through one and the same mind. Failure in establishing links between the current layers of knowledge

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and previous ones may be an obstacle to retention of earlier knowledge. Always LINK OLD KNOWLEDGE WITH NEW.

3. USEFUL KNOWLEDGE: Knowledge is useful when it can be applied to day to day life. Correlation of a subject with daily lifehelps to make the knowledge broad‐based and makes knowledge useful.

4.ALL ROUND DEVELOPMENT: The aim of education “to achieve the development of an all round personality”, cannot be done by teaching only a few subjects in isolation.

5. It helps to achieve unity of knowledge and develops worthy interests and attitudes in students for acquiring knowledge, because it provides the practical and life related learning to the students. Eg. Science students hating literature.

6. It develops the mental abilities like imagination power, logical thinking and analytical power of students, because they can easily correlate one acquired knowledge with the other.

7. It strengthens skills that students encounter in one content area but also practice in another, leading to mastery of those skills.(skill of making graph in maths and economics)

8. It makes learning concrete and permanent.

9. It makes the lesson easy and clear.

10. It helps to enable the students to acquire knowledge in a short period of time.

11. Develops various human and social qualities such as co‐operation, citizenship etc.

12. It helps to lighten the burden of curriculum. (e.g. economics teacher having taught ‘the law of demand and supply’, a commerce teacher may not have to again teach it from beginning)

13. It helps the teacher to complete the curriculum in very short period of time.

PRINCIPLES OF CORRELATION

It should be simple, natural, suited to the nature of the subject and the stage of the pupil’s mental development. It should be adequate and judicious. Main topic or main subject should be the main focus. Other topics/subjects should be linked to it and then revert again to the main topic.

When doing systematic correlation, teachers could sit together and discuss how to correlate. It should involve the previous knowledge of the students. It should be done only

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where it is possible, else it leads to superficial correlation. Eg. The study of voyage of Columbus cannot lead to ocean currents, invasion of Alexander to the calculation of its expenses. The secondary topics do not help in understanding the primary ones.

Types of Correlation:

1. Correlation with Practical Life: correlation of the given subject with daily activities. 2. Vertical / Internal Correlation : correlation between the different branches of a given

subject. 3. Horizontal / External Correlation: correlation between the given subject and other

subjects.

Correlation with Practical Life: According to Herbert Spencer, the main aim of education is to prepare students for future life. This aim can be achieved only if education is correlated with life. Therefore, teaching of various subjects should be correlated with various aspects of life. A subject is best understood when it is applicable to daily life. Correlation of a subject with daily life is of the utmost importance in order to create interest in the subject. Correlation with daily life makes the subject relevant instead of being only theory with no practical applications.

Maths: Apply the formulas to calculate areas of rectangle or square to calculate area of classroom area or home. Science: give evidences of the scientific phenomena. E.g. give the eg of the droplets formed in an AC car. Or Use of Al foil to pack foods, to explain it’s oxide forming property. Correlation with Practical Life:

This type of correlation indicates the relationship between different branches ( or various divisions)of a given subject. It also includes correlation of different topics in the same branch of a given subject.(correlation of old knowledge with new knowledge) Branches of a subject many a times are taught by different teachers, such that each branch is treated as a different entity. Internal correlation is necessary for continuity of knowledge and understanding of the subject.

Vertical / Internal Correlation:

A commerce teacher can take help of vertical correlation to make his students understand about trade, internal trade, external trade and export‐import procedures etc. An economics teacher can take help of vertical correlation to correlate production, consumption, distribution, exchange, etc. A science teacher uses vertical correlation to correlate physics and chemistry or chemistry and biology and physics, or biology and physics etc.

A mathematics teacher would use vertical correlation to correlate Arithmetic and Algebra or Algebra and Geometry etc. A History teacher would use vertical correlation to correlate history of early age to ancient or medieval or modern or to correlate political history to economic history or social history or to correlate ancient history to economic history or world history to local history etc.

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A Geography teacher would use vertical correlation to correlate physical geography with human geography or economic geography with political geography or physical geography with historical geography. A language teacher would use vertical correlation to correlate poetry, prose, grammar, composition.

This type of correlation is between different school subjects and a given school subject. All subjects of the school curriculum contribute towards the realization of the aims of education. Since they have the same purpose , study of one subject helps in the study of other subjects. In horizontal correlation an attempt is made to co‐ordinate the teaching of various subjects. This is done by three methods ‐ Casual and Systematic and Concentric.

CASUAL/INCIDENTAL CORRELATION:

Here, teacher plays a prominent role. It is not a planned/pre‐decided one, i.e., no deliberate or conscious or systematic attempt made to correlate. If a learned teacher has versatile knowledge of basic elements of different subjects, this kind of correlation is bound to take place.

ECONOMICS: A teacher who is teaching production of cloth may explain to the students the geographical factors like soil, climate that are responsible for the production of cotton. History: a teacher teaching Success of Shivaji would tell about the geographical conditions of that place.

It is planned before‐hand/ consciously in a systematic manner. Teacher makes deliberate attempt to teach a particular topic in such a way that he may go on explaining other things as well, along with it. Previous study is made by the teacher on the points that has to be correlated with other topics in other subjects.

CONSCIOUS/SYSTEMATIC/PLANNED CORRELATION:

Materials of other subjects are chose in such a manner that while teaching they can be brought in use at the time of need. To overcome in some measures, all the effects of treating every subject in water tight compartments, a system of pre‐planned correlation should be devised.

HISTORY: I f the teacher wants to teach the history of Indus Valley Civilization, he has to explain the climate and the effect of the climate on the civilization before telling about the development and the downfall of it.

CONCENTRIC CORRELATION This theory was put forward by ZILLER “Not only appropriate subjects could be correlated but there was probably some one subject which would form the CORE round which all others could be hinged.” Ziller thought of History as a subject that could be the Core subject of all. Some others recommend Science as Core, or Handicraft as

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core etc. This is a theory of intensified correlation and termed as ‘the theory of concentration.”

HORIZONTAL CORRELATION EXAMPLES MATHS WITH OTHER SUBJECTS SCIENCE WITH OTHER SUBJECTS HISTORY WITH OTHER SUBJECTS GEOGRAPHY WITH OTHER SUBJECTS ECONOMICS WITH OTHER SUBJECTS COMMERCE WITH OTHER SUBJECTS HINDI WITH OTHER SUBJECTS

MATHEMATICS WITH OTHER SUBJECTS

Mathematics Is Science Of All Sciences And Arts Of All Arts. MATHS AND SCIENCE The math teacher can teach students about exponential notation. Once students become proficient in reading and writing numbers in exponential form, and in converting numbers between exponential form, factor form, and standard form, they can apply this knowledge to topics in science. For example, they can write the distance between the sun and each planet using scientific notation. Exponential Form 22 Standard Form2 x 2 AND Factor Form 4 SCIENTIFIC NOTATION In the number 123,000,000,000 The coefficient will be 1.23 To find the exponent count the number of places from the decimal to the end of the number. In 123,000,000,000 there are 11 places. Therefore we write 123,000,000,000 as:

MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS

PHYSICS Mathematics gives final shape to the rules of physics, it presents them in workable form. Mathematical calculations occur at every step in physics. CHARLES’ LAW OF EXPANSION OF GASESIS BASES UPON MATHMATICAL CALCULATIONS Numerical problems on LAWS OF MOTION LIQUID PRESSURE FRICTION

MATHEMATICS AND CHEMISTRY For estimation of element in organic compounds the use of percentage and ratio has to be made. Molecular weights of organic compounds are calculated mathematically . BALANCING EQUATIONS

MATHEMATICS AND BIOLOGY First paper that Mendel wrote on his discovery of Mendelian laws was called "Mathematics of Peas" rate of respiration, transpiration normal weight calculation caloric and nutritive value of food is calculated using maths the growth in weight of infants up to nine months

MATHS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES After teaching a unit on how to read, interpret, and draw graphs, you can have your students apply these skills to topics in Social Studies. For example, they can draw bar graphs to compare the Population, Per Capita Income, and Population Density of various countries.

MATHEMATICS AND GEOGRAPHY FROM THE GLOBE TO THE MAP Distances on the Earth and distances on maps: what the scale is, why and how one has to preserve the proportion.

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2. Various methods of mapping the Earth: what happens to the distances? Mapping to globe versus mappings to plane maps.

Formation of days and nights lunar and solar eclipse latitude longitude height above sea level calculation of international, local , standard time maximum and minimum temperature barometric presssure surveying instruments in maths have to be mathematically accurate.

Mathematics and economics statistical methods are applied to economic forecasts trade cycles volume of trade trend of exports and imports public money theory of probability is the basis of insurance

Mathematics and fine arts arts uses the mathematical ideas of ratio and proportion, including similarity and scale appreciation of rhythm in music, proportion, balance and symmetry postulates a mathematical mind.

Mathematics and history maths helps history in calculation of dates. Alexander invaded india in 327 b.c. tell, how many years have passes the occurrence of the said event?

Mathematics and language math and writing a maths teacher teaches about drawing a pie chart and ask them to write a interpretation in their own words. Math and reading students read about the work of great mathematicians students make poems on numbers

Language and other subjects with history essay writing can be planned on historical themes to make them more meaningful, by associationg with past events lie building of taj mahal celebrate national days by having elocution and debate students can write plays, stories or poems on historical events

language and geography geographical features have been source of inspiration to innumerable poets, eg. Wordswoth’s daffodil include excusions to study environment and students would get an inspiration to write poems, on changing seasons, scenic beauty etc. My ideal destination : have such topics for students to study and write about. Read books on travel

Language and science interest in science can be best inculcated by explaining the miracles of science artistically. Lives of great scientists

language and maths make a pie chart of time spent by you in a day and give it to your partner for interpretation. (interpretaton of non‐verbal data) read about the life history of mathematicians invention of zero by aryabhatta

GEOGRAPHY WITH OTHER SUBJECTS

HISTORY WITH OTHER SUBJECTS With geography Why could Aurangzeb not hold South India Man’s evolution cannot be told without discussing the varied geographical settings of

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the world Growth of England due to its geographical conditions History of hostility between France and Germany can be explained on the basis of the existence of river Rhine and Lorrain Coal‐fields.

With economics Economic conditions play a vital role in the course of history. To know the economic conditions of India during the reign of Akbar or Shahjahan , we shall have to go through the pages of history. Certain empires faced liquidation only because of economic reasons Similarly, economic events have been influenced by historical circumstances. MohdTughlak had certain plans, but the historical conditions of the time did not favour them, however later they were considered to be good and scientific.

Economics with other subjects with history in europe, industrial revolution. This gave a new turn to the history of the world. Various developed powers of europe started fighting among themselves. First and second world wars were fought only on account of economic considerations.

Economics with other subjects with geography economy of a country depends on the geographical conditions india has agricultural based economy because of its climate, rainfall, rivers etc punjab , haryana, u.p, very fertile, so contribute to grain stores, but no mines , so less industries there.

With science many of problems related with agriculture have close relationship with chemistry and physics. Due to scientific inventions, lot of growth of economy takes place. Economics with other subjects

With commerce through the knowledge of commerce, it is possible to run the economy of the country the teacher of economics should try to teach the subject in such a way that he may explain to them the bearing of the subject matter of economics on the commerce . Economics with other subjects

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