Bedouin plant utilization in Sinai and the Negev

Bedouin Plant Utilization in Sinai and the Negev I

CLINTON BAILEY z AND AVINOAM DANIN ~

Utilization of the relatively sparse vegetation of the desert in Sinai and the Negev is one of the more impressive aspects of bedouin adaptation to environ- mental conditions there. We encountered no plant that was not useful to the bedouins in one way or another. For example, pasture for goats and camels being the most extensive use of plants, a bedouin shepherd, knowing that Thymelaea hirsuta (see Index for authorities and bedouin name) is poisonous, might relate that it has no use at all. The same shepherd, however, when making a partridge trap, will use the moist roots of this plant for parts of the trap that must be both flexible and strong (Bailey and Yahav, 1974). When sowing summer crops, moreover, he affixes a branch of Thymelaea to the back of his plow where it sweeps sand over the furrow to shield freshly-sown seeds from the sun's direct rays. His wife, too, when watering her flock, often utilizes Thymelaea fibers to make a bucket-rope with which she can draw water from the well.

In many plants bedouins find a source of nutrition; 70 such species are included in the present survey. Some plant's provide them with medicine for the ills of man and beast; 50 of this category are included. The bedouins also utilize plants in a variety of manufactures, some of which are essential to their daily existence.

The prominence of desert plants in bedouin life is reflected in various less tangible aspects of bedouin culture. For example, a solemn oath heard among them goes: "By the life of the plant and our worshipped Lord" (.hay~t a l - ' rd war- rabb al-ma'brd). Bedouin convention, moreover, prohibits the cutting down of desert trees and bushes, such as the various Acacia, Pistacia and Retarna, whose branches provide shade to the shepherdesses and firewood for the camp, and whose fruits provide fodder for the flocks. A bedouin proverb explains that " the cutting of trees (in a given region) will eliminate the possibility of living there" (ga.t' ashjfir yi~a' ad-diyfir).

A betrothal among bedouins is concluded by the father of the bride merely handing the groom the broken stem of an annual plant. This ceremony, called al- ga.salah, signifies the formation of a covenant between the two families (Bailey, 1974a). At bedouin marriages and other celebrations the bedouins fasten sprigs of green plants, such as the Retama raetam, to the entrance of the tent, as an expression of hope that its inhabitants will continue to live. Green, the color of live plants, is a symbol of life and vitality. Accordingly, therefore, b e d o u i n s describe a generous and helpful person as "having a green face" (wijhih akhdhar).

Bedouins, moreover, anticipate the flowering of certain plants as indications of seasonal changes that are vital to their survival. For example, considering that the winter rains begin after the annual rising of the star, Canopus, in October, they watch for the flowering of the Urginea maritima, which they call " the

1 Submitted for publication 31 August 1979; accepted for publication 2 August 1980. 2 Department of Middle East and African History, Tel-Aviv University.

Department of Botany, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem.

Economic Botany, 35(2), 1981, pp. 145-162 �9 1981, by the New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY 10458

146 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 35

Canopus Reed" ('rid as-Suhayl), in late September (Barley, 1974b). Similarly, they view the flowering of the Achillea fragrantissima in early june as a sign that the oppressive heat wave (al-khamsin), which visits the desert each spring, has ended.

The prominence of plants in their life has also led the bedouins to identify many places in the desert according to some botanical landmark, whether it be the abundance of a certain plant or even its unique but prominent presence. In Sinai, over half the place names are derived from the names of plants (Bailey, 1977). Three examples, from places that served as important battlefields in recent wars, are Um Gat.af (ga.taf = Atriplex halimus), Abu 'Ugaylah ('ugftl = Alhagi mau- forum), and Bir Jafjafah (jifjfif = Pulicada crispa; pronounced as Bir Gafgafah by the Egyptians). Bedouins have also named their children after plants. Often the child takes the name of the tree or bush beside which he is born, such as Irtaymah (ratim = Retama raetam), Trayfi (tarfi = Tamarix nilotica), Tulayh.ah (t.al.h- Acacia gerrardii), or Kid~dah (kid$d = Astragalus spinosus). Children to be shielded from the "evil eye" might even be named after a plant with an unpleasant odor or bitter taste; hence .Handhalah, after Citrullus colocynthis (.handhal).

The distinctive qualities of some plants have become proverbial. In alluding to the bitterness of a specific person, for example, a bedouin might say he is "more bitter than Citrullus colocynthis" (murr azwad rain al-.hand___hal). To stress some- one's filthiness, he may be compared to Tamarix nilotica, which gives off an inordinate amount of smoke when put into a fire. Gymnocarpos decander, a semishrub, is eaten readily by the bedouin's flocks all year, but the animals turn to it in particular in late summer, when the more tasty annuals have finally dis- appeared. This turning to Gymnocarpos reminds the bedouins, humorously, of warriors "returning" to a fray. Thus in a spirit of mock seriousness they created a rhyme by prefacing one line to a known proverb"

al-ghanam thannat 'fil-jarad man radd, 'iddih m~ sharad

The flock has returned to the Gymnocarpos. Consider he who returned as never having fled.

It was primarily to record the more tangible utilization of plants among the bedouins, however, that we conducted a 6-yr (1968-1974) survey, the results of which appear below. Despite the duration of the survey, we were unable to witness all the plant uses herein described, especially those of a medical nature. On the contrary, much of this material was recorded from random comments of bedouin informants about one plant or another. Thus, upon encountering a plant in the desert, such an informant might volunteer data concerning his or his for- bears' utilization of it; e.g., " I t is used against the cough," " I ( induces abortion," "I t gives one energy," etc. To strengthen the accuracy of the survey, however, we would then ask other bedouin informants about the plant. Only if a specific utilization was asserted by at least 3 such informants did we consider it reliable enough to be presented in the following list.

All the plants mentioned here were personally collected by the authors and determined in the Department of Botany, the Hebrew University, Jerusalem. They were compared with the extensive herbarium of this institute (HUJ). No voucher specimens were deposited but the interested reader can receive herbarium specimens from HUJ by his specific request.

1981] BAILEY AND DANIN: BEDOUIN PLANT USE 147

Moreover, no pharmacological analysis was attempted in regard to medicinal uses, as this was outside our competence. In regard to stomach disorders, for example, we can at best report what the bedouins themselves had to say. Ex- periencing bitterness in most of these disorders, the bedouins imbibe "bi t ter" plants (see section B-3a,c) because "bitterness is only dispelled by something more bitter" (m~ yijib a l -murr il~ amarr minnuh). Thus in the medicinal as in other domains, our intention was simply to present an extensive and accurate catalog of bedouin plant utilization compiled under circumstances of considerable familiarity with the bedouins and the plant life of this area. For this reason, too, no attempt was made to integrate comparative material into the paper. Instead, readers are directed to Crowfoot and Baldensperger (1932), Dalmann (1928-1942), Danin (1972, 1980), Dickson (1955), Great Britain (1946), Musil (1926, 1927a, b, 1928a, b), Osborn (1968), T/ickholm et al. (1956) and Tragenza (1956)--works that touch upon plant utilization in the same or adjacent areas.

While this catalog of bedouin plant utilization in Sinai and the Negev is extensive, it is not exhaustive. No such study could be. Informants often omit through failure of memory various plant utilizations known to them. Similarly, every bedouin is a potential informant, each with a rich fund of knowledge, but not every bedouin is accessible in an area as large as that under study. In this regard it may be noted that not all the plant utilizations recorded below are widespread throughout Sinai and the Negev. One reason, naturally, is that not all the plants cited are to be found throughout the region. Moreover, even within the same tribe or locale, plants may be utilized differently as a result of differing needs, family traditions, or personal preferences.

Bedouin nomenclature for the plants cited may be found in the Index. For the convenience of readers who wish to pursue this subject further through fieldwork, specific bedouin terms relating to plant utilization are included in the paper.

The transliterated Arabic appearing in this paper contains a few letters that might be ambiguous to the English reader.

1) ' th ' is pronounced as in " t h i nk . " 2) ' dh ' , ' dh ' and .z are pronounced as " t h " in " t h i s . " 3) '.h' is a heavily aspirated 'h . ' 4) ' t ' and ' t ' are both pronounced as " t . " 5) ' .s' and ~ s' are both pronounced as " s . " 6) 'g ' (representing the classical Arabic " q " , is p ronounced as in " g a m e . " 7) An apostrophe appearing in a word ('ugtil, sha ' rfm, basha') is a glottal stop representing the Arabic

'ayin. 8) Long vowels are marked by a line above them (siyhl).

A. PLANTS A N D PASTURE

1. All plants are utilized for pasture

That true bedouins exist by raising livestock on natural pasture indicates that pasture must constitute their main utilization of desert vegetation. In fact, there is no species of plant in the desert that is not eaten by at least one of the animals that the bedouin raises. For example, while Anabasis syriaca is considered poisonous to goats and camels, it is eaten readily by the bedouin's donkeys. By the same token, 5 plants that cause diarrhoea in goats (Astericus pygmaeus, Cen- taurea pallescens, Colchicum tunicatum, Leontodon laciniatus, and Phalaris


minor) are harmless when eaten by camels. Similarly, while camels can easily chew upon plants having long or densely-fitted thorns (e.g., Alhagi maurorum, Centaurea aegyptiaca, Echinops polyceras, Eryngium glomeratum, Gundelia tournefortii, Nitraria retusa, Onopordum alexandrinum, and Zilla spinosa), graz- ing goats generally have to pass them up.

2. Age of plant sometimes determines usage

On the other hand, there are stages in the growth of plants in which livestock will eat certain plants they would reject at other stages. Goats, for example, may nibble at thorny plants when these are too young for the thorns to be piercing. Plants considered poisonous to goats may also be eaten when young, such as various species of Hyoscyamus, which intoxicates all animals once it has grown. On the other hand, donkeys eat the poisonous Anabasis syriaca only after it has dried up, just as goats may eat desiccated leaves of Thymelaea hirsuta, which is also considered poisonous.

3. Some plants are preferred to others

Livestock like some plants more than they like others. One result of this pref- erence is that in years of plentiful pasture, when animals can graze entirely on plants they find most palatable and forego those they find less tasty, a shepherd may be led to assume that goats, for example, find the less tasty plants inedible. In point of fact, however, when the pasture is sparse, all the animals eat almost every sort of plant.

Nevertheless, the shepherds believe they know which plants the animals like best. They relate that camels prefer Carrichtera annua, Diplotaxis acris, Enar- throcarpus strangulatus, Noaea mucronata, and Reboudia pinnata. Goats like the various species of Helianthemum and Plantago as well as Cynodon dactylon, Gypsophila arabica, and Senecio glauca. Both of the above animals particularly crave Trigonella arabiea, which perhaps accounts for its Arabic name, nafal, which means "good and useful." Donkeys, on the other hand, are attracted to sharp-smelling plants such as Achillea fragrantissima, Artemisia judaica, Aster- iscus graveolens, Peganum harmala, Salvia lanigera, and Varthemia iphionoides. They also like wild grains of the Gramineae such as Bromus scoparius (sha'irit al-h. amir, "donkey barley"), Lophochloa phleoides, Oryzopsis miliacea, and various species of Stipagrostis, Hordeum, and Stipa.

4. Different plants are eaten in different seasons

The season of the year also determines what plants the flocks will eat. From the bedouin point of view, the best season runs from December through April. If considerable rains fall during these months, annuals will sprout up, particularly those of the Compositae and Cruciferae. A diet of these fresh plants enables the goats to produce plentiful milk from which the bedouins prepare a year's supply of dry cheese ('afig) and clarified butter (samin). This is the season of maximum migration, because this diet of juicy, succulent annuals obviates the need to water the livestock in the proximity of wells or springs.

When the month of May comes along attended by the heat waves, called kham-


sin, annuals dry up and the weather becomes hot. During this season, which lasts until the end of July, the livestock finds pasture primarily in the dry straw-like annual plants and its liquids in water drawn again from major sources such as cisterns, wells, or springs. In addition to this straw, the animals also begin to eat semishrubs such as Artemisia herba-alba, Artemisia monosperma, Gymnocarpos decander, and Noaea mucronata ; perennials, such as Centaurea aegyptiaca and Foeniculum vulgate; a summer annual, Salsola inermis; and the lichen Ramalina maciformis, which the goats nibble off of rocks, finding it very tasty.

The months of August through November are the most difficult in regard to pasture. The dried annuals are now finished, and the perennials too are drying up. The livestock now finds its food in the pods of Acacia trees and in the semishrubs and bushes that are generally not to their liking, e.g., Achillea fragrantissima, Atriplex halimus, Hammade negevensis, Hammade scoparia, and Zygophyllum dumosum. If the winter rains are late and the goats must exist on these plants into November and December, they do not obtain nutrition sufficient for lactating, which results in a high mortality rate among the kids born in fall. if drought persists beyond December, the older goats will not only be too weak to gestate but will be in danger of dying of starvation, unable to keep up on a diet of unpalatable and salty plants. The only choice left to the owner of the flock is to migrate to an area not blighted by drought.

5. Pasture necessary for curing the disease ja'dm

Finally, while goats and even camels dislike this diet of salty and sour plants (generically called .hamd_~, they must nonetheless be driven, at least once during every annual-plant season, to pasturelands containing such plants. Annuals are carriers of various parasites that give the animals a serious intestinal disorder called ja'hm. The main cure for ja'~un is thus to let the livestock graze on .hamdh pasture at the end of the season, generally in May.

In Sinai and the Negev, the main .hamdh plants are:

Anabasis articulata Nitraria retusa A. setifera Reaumuria hirtella Atriplex dimorphostegia R. negevensis A. farinosa Rumex cyprius A. halimus Salsola cyclophylla A. leucoclada S. inermis A. glauca S. schweinfurthii Chenolea arabica S. tetrandra Frankenia revoluta S. vermiculata Halogeton alopecuroides Suaeda aegyptiaca Haloxylon persicum S. asphaltica Hammada negevensis S. palaestina H. salicornica Traganum nudaturn H. scoparia

Many of these sour plants are endowed with the C4 photosynthetic pathway and contain a large quantity of organic acids (Winter and Troughton, 1978). Per- haps it is these acids that kill the parasites and cure ja 'hm.


B. PLANTS AS MEDICINE

(In the absence of certainty regarding dosage, the reader is cautioned to refrain from unprescribed use.)

1. Exposure to cold, heat, the rays of the sun, and dampness a. Cough

Artemisia herba-alba 1. Put leaves in warm milk with sugar, or in tea; drink. 2. Put leaves in boiling water and inhale the vapors. 3. Boil 2 handfuls of leaves in water; remove the leaves; add clarified butter (samin) to the

water, and boil again; cool until the coagulated samin separates from the water; put the samin in a container and eat a teaspoonful every morning before eating or drinking.

Haplophyllum tuberculatum Put leaves in warm milk with sugar; drink.

Hyoscyamus boveanus Mix dried leaves with tobacco; smoke (Caution is strongly stressed regarding the use of this plant.)

Majorana syriaca Put leaves in boiling water; drink (before retiring).

Rhus tripartita Put stem in boiling water; inhale the vapors.

b. Head cold Capparis spinosa

Boil ground leaves in water and inhale the vapors for 2-3 h; drink tea with samin, and rest for 24 h.

Pulicaria desertorum Put leaves in tea; and drink.

Ramalina maciformis Grind; add to warm water with sugar; drink.

Teucrium polium Grind leaves; put in tea; drink.

c. Sore throat Eryngium glomeratum ; Polygonum equisetiforme

Boil the ground roots of the 2 plants in water; leave the concoction under the stars for 1 night; in the morning, after scraping (ba~) the pus from the walls of the throat with the middle finger, apply the concoction in the form of nose drops in order to stop the bleeding in the throat.

d. Headache Haplophyllum tuberculatum

Grind leaves; put the juice in cold water; apply as nose drops. e. Aches in joints, limbs, and back (In bedouin terminology a sweat bath is called 'arigah; a

poultice, 'ubaysah; and cauterization, kayy.) Capparis spinosa

Boil ground leaves in water; place the boiled leaves in a thin cloth and apply to the ache; sleep with poultice.

Ochradenus baccatus Boil leaves in water; place vessel with boiling water in hole in the ground; sit or lie beside the hole completely covered for 24 h; sweat.

Peganum harmala Knead seeds with goat fat and water; put concoction over fire; sit beside fire completely covered; inhale vapors and sweat.

Phagnalon rupestre Grind wood of dried stems; ignite it and cauterize the ache.

Pulicaria desertorum Put leaves in tea; drink ("40 evenings").


Retarna raetam Grind branches and green leaves; put ground matter on live coals until it is hot; place it in a thin cloth and apply to ache until matter cools; repeat as often as patient can take it.

2. Infections from dust and dirt a. Eye infection (ram~id)

Andrachne aspera Peel bark of green stem; place stem under lower eye-lid; close eye until tears come.

Glaucium arabicum Put ground leaves in cold water in the evening; in the morning apply as eye drops.

b. Purulent sore (.hibin) Achillea fragrantissima

Boil ground leaves in water; cool and apply to sore. Solenostemma oleifolium

Break the stem and apply the sap to the sore. Teucrium leucocladum

Boil ground leaves in water; cool and apply to sore. Zygophyllum dumosum

Grind the leaves and apply the juice to the sore. c. Gangrene ('ufaynah) in the nose.

Asparagus stipularis Roast-seeds; grind them into powder; apply to inside of nose.

3. Digestive problems a. Bile (marhrah)

Cassia italica 1. Boil ground leaves in water; strain and cool; drink. 2. Boil leaves with tea; drink. Citrullus colocynthis

Roast gourd in live coals; grind; put in thin cloth; fasten poultice around waist throughout night (diarrhoeal reaction reported).

b. Constipation (ims~k) Cassia italica

Boil leaves with tea; drink. Convolvulus hystrix 1. Dig up root under starlight (in any case not under direct rays of the sun); grind; boil in

water; strain; drink. 2. Grind root; strain; add juice to goat milk; drink. Euphorbia hierosolymitana

Eat root. c. Colic (maghs)

Achillea fragrantissima Grind leaves and stem; strain; mix juice with lukewarm water; drink.

Artemisia herba-alba Grind leaves and stem; strain, mix juice with lukewarm water; drink.

Artemisia judaica 1. Grind leaves and stem; strain; mix juice with lukewarm water and sugar; drink. 2. Eat dry seeds. Cynomorium coccineum 1. Peel root and eat. 2. Grind root; boil in water; add sugar; drink. Solenostemma oleifolium 1. Eat dry leaves. 2. Boil leaves in water; drink. 3. Put leaves in tea; drink. Tephrosia apoUinea

Put leaves in tea; drink. Teucrium leucocladum

Grind leaves; strain; mix juice with lukewarm water; drink.


Teucrium polium Grind leaves; strain; mix juice with lukewarm water; drink.

Thymus decussatus Boil leaves in water; cool; drink.

d. Diarrhoea Citrullus colocynthis

Remove seeds from a dry gourd; fill gourd with water; place gourd among live embers until it is hot; let it stand all night exposed to starlight; drink the contents in the morning before eating or drinking anything else.

Frankenia revoluta Grind leaves; mix with samin; eat a spoonful.

4. Bites and stings a. Scorpion sting

Phagnalon rupestre Dry wool of stem; grind it; ignite it and cauterize the sting.

b. Bee sting Cleome droserifolia

i. Put ground leaves in cold water; drink (�89 glass). 2. Put ground leaves in lukewarm water; wash the sting.

5. Women's disorders a. Untimely pregnancy

Juncus maritimus Grind flowers; boil in water; drink (to induce abortion).

b. Barrenness Capparis spinosa, Tamarix aphylla (in the central Negev)

Mix the leaves of a Capparis that grows in a shaded ravine with those of a specific Tamarix found in the depression near the town Mitzpe Ramon; grind the leaves and boil them in water; cover the woman completely, so that she may inhale the vapors and sweat.

c. Uteral bleeding Hammada salicornica

Grind fruits into powder; add to cold water; drink 2-3 times. d. Late menstruation

Varthemia iphionoides Boil leaves and stem in water; remove them from water and place in a thin cloth; apply to woman's stomach as poultice.

e. Wound from piercing nose for nosegay (shn~f) or ears for earrings Dianthus strictus

Place a sprig into the aperture until the wound heals. 6. Natural disorders

a. Fever Achillea fragrantissima

Boil leaves in water; bathe patient. Haptophyllum tuberculatum

Boil leaves in water; bathe patient. Varthemia iphionoides

Boil leaves in water; bathe patient. Ramalina maciformis

Boil in water; bathe patient. b. Open sores and cuts

Cleome droserifolia Grind leaves; boil in samin; strain; cool; apply to wound.

Fagonia mollis Burn green leaves; apply the ash to wound.

Retama raetam Grind dry, fallen leaves (ghuff); strain; apply powder to wound.

Solenostemma oleifolium Grind leaves; boil in samin; strain and cool; apply to wound.


Suillus (Boletus) granulatus Apply black powder (from underside of withered mushroom) to wound.

c. Toothache Hyoscyamus boveanus

Put leaves in warm water; rinse (malmil) mouth. (Caution is strongly stressed regarding the use of this plant.)

Lycium shawii Heat root on live embers; place on aching tooth.

Peganum harmala 1. Heat root on live embers; place on aching tooth. 2. Grind seeds; boil them in water; inhale vapors orally. 3. Grind seeds; boil them in water; cool to lukewarm; rinse mouth.

d. Bleeding nose Lycium shawii

Grind green stem and put it in cold water; dip piece of cloth in water and place in bleeding nose.

e. Scratched eye Tamarix aphylla

Roast bark over fire and grind; mix with % collyrium (ku.hul); apply to the eye. f. Diabetes

Cleorne droserifolia Boil ground leaves in water; drink.

g. Fatigue (dam ffisid) Pituranthos triradiatus

Put stems in boiled water; drink.

C. PLANTS AS VETERINARY MEDICINE

1. Intestinal parasites (ja'fun) All the plants designated by the bedouins as hamdh (see section A-5, above).

2. Mange (jarab) Anabasis syriaca

Find stems of which the sap "burns" (check by putting a drop in one's eye); grind the stems and put them and the sap in a jar; bury the jar in the ground until the contents ferment (usually a week); when it has fermented, scrape the mangy area until it bleeds; dry the wound by washing it with salt water; apply sap of the Anabasis to the dry wound once or twice.

Zygophyllum dumosum Scrape the mangy area; apply juice from the leaves.

3. Sore eye from scratch (t.arf) or blow. Noaea rnucronata

Burn bark; mix ash with salt and ash of burnt goat hair; put on cloth and apply to eye. Tamarix nilotica

1. Burn bark; mix ash with salt and ash of burnt goat hair; put on cloth and apply to eye. 2. Chew bark; spit into camel 's eye.

4. Barrenness in camel Thymelaea hirsuta

Grind leaves and add some salt; immediately after camels mate, place concoction in camel 's vagina, which will contract from the "st ing."

5. Purulent sore (dumil) on camel 's leg Artemisia herba-alba, Noaea mucronata

Burn each plant and mix the ashes into powder; apply to sore. 6. Swelling (warim) in camel 's leg (from sprain or fracture)

Retarna raetam Grind branches and green leaves; put ground matter on live embers until it is hot; bind to the swollen spot.

7. Aches and pains in camel 's body Ochradenus baccatus


Light fire in hole �89 m deep; place plant on embers; cover camel and lay him on ground with his chest over the hole (for 24 h).

8. Wolf bite Lycium shawff

Boil ground stem in water; apply concoction to area of bite.

D. PLANTS AS FOOD

I. Plants whose stem, leaves or flowers are eaten fresh Allium ampeloprasum (leaves) Atriplex halimus (leaves) Carrichtera annua (leaves and stem) Centaurea eryngioides (flowers) Crataegus sinaicus (small leaves) Diplotaxis acris (flowers and leaves) D. harra (flowers) Enarthrocarpus strangulatus (stem and leaves) Erucaria boveana (flowers) Foenicutum vulgare (flowers, leaves and stems) Lactuca orientalis (leaves) Launaea nudicaulis (leaves) Malva patwiflora (leaves) M. sylvestris (leaves) Matthiola arabica (flowers and stem) M. livida (flowers and stem) Moricandia nitens (young leaves and flowering buds) Pituranthos tortuosus (young stem) Reboudia pinnata (stem, flowers and leaves) Rheum palaestinum (flowers) Rumex cyprius (leaves and young fruits) Scorzonera judaica (flowers and leaves) S. papposa (flowers, buds, leaves and stems) Sisymbrium irio (stem, flowers and leaves) S. septulatum (stem, flowers and leaves)

2. Plants whose bulb or root is eaten; mushrooms, truffles, and tubers Allium aschersonianum (raw bulb) Cistanche tubulosa (roasted root) Emex spinosa (raw or roasted root) Erodium hirtum (raw root) Helianthemum ledifolium (roasted truffle---kamfi) H. sessiliflorum (roasted truffle---kamfi) Orobanche cernua (roasted root) Scilla hanburyi (roasted bulb) Scorzonera judaica (roasted tuber) S. papposa (raw or roasted root) Suillus granulatus (raw mushroom) Tulipa amblyophylla (raw bulb)

3. Plants whose seeds are eaten Colutea istria Malva parviflora M. sylvestris Mesembryanthemum nodiflorum Nitraria retusa Onobrychis crista-galli O. squarrosa Vicia monantha


4. Plants whose fruit is eaten raw Capparis cartilaginea (fruit called jarr~) Crataegus sinaicus Ficus pseudo-sycamorus (h.am,~t.) Nitraria retusa (h.abb al-ghurgud) Phoenix dactylifera (Balah) Pistacia atlantica (.halibah) Salvadora persica (h. umir) Ziziphus spina-christi (nabik)

5. Plants whose leaves are eaten cooked Atriplex halimus

a. Boil in water; strain; mix with sour goat ' s milk. b. Boil in water; eat as soup.

Enarthrocarpus strangulatus Boil in water; strain; put on bread.

Malva parviflora a. Boil in water; strain; put on bread. b. Fry in oil with lentils or tomatoes .

Rumex cyprius Boil in water; strain; mix with sour goat 's milk.

Varthemia iphionoides Put in with cooking meat and soup.

6. Plants from which bread is made Mesembryanthemum forsskalii

Soak dry fruit-bearing plants in water until seeds fall off (app. i h); dry seeds; grind and strain; knead dough.

7. Plants that serve as a dry dip Majorana syriaca

a. Grind dry leaves; add a little salt; eat on bread. b. Grind dry leaves; mix with ground barley or wheat; add salt; eat on bread.

Origanum dayi Prepare as per Majorana, above.

Origanum isthmicum Prepare as per Majorana, above.

Thymus bovei Prepare as per Majorana, above.

8. Plants that serve as a condiment for clarified butter (samin) Calendula arvensis (leaves) Frankenia revoluta (leaves) Rheum palaestinum (root) Trigonella arabica (leaves) T. stellata (leaves)

9. Plants that serve as a condiment for tea Foeniculum vulgate Matricaria aurea Medicago lacinata Mentha microphylla Pituranthos tortuosus Polygonum equisetiforme Salvia lanigera S. multicaulis Varthemia iphionoides Ziziphora tenuior

10. Plants that serve as a drink (with boiled water and sugar) Foeniculum vulgare Matricaria aurea Medicago lacinata Mentha microphylla


Pituranthos tortuosus Pulicaria desertorum Rheum palaestinum Rhus tripartita Salvia multicaulis Teucrium poliurn Varthernia iphionoides Ziziphora tenuior

E. MISCELLANEOUS USES OF PLANTS

1. Parts of tents a. Tent poles (the most preferable)

Populus euphratica (poles supporting the center) Tarnarix nilotica (poles supporting the sides)

b. Pins (akhillah; sing. khHfil) that fasten the roof (.zahr el-bayt) to the outer curtain (ruwiig) Atriplex halirnus Colutea istria Retama raetam Thymelaea hirsuta

c. Tent ropes Acacia raddiana (roots) Juncus arabicus Phoenix dactylifera Thyrnelaea hirsuta

d. Windbreak (s.irah) of shrubs around the tent Achillea fragrantissima Artemisia herba-alba Artemisia rnonosperrna Polygonurn equisetiforrne Pulicaria crispa Thyrnelaea hirsuta (the best)

e. Anti-moth deodorant in a folded tent (in summer) Artemisia judaica Tanaceturn santolinoides

f. Plants used in construction of booth-dwelling ('arishah) in summer Artemisia monosperma Phoenix dactylifera

2. Household utensils a, Large bowl for communal eating (Imt.iyah)

Pistacia atlantica Tamarix aphylla

b. Bowl for milking camels (gadah.) Acacia gerrardii A. raddiana A, tortilis Tamarix aphylla

c. Insulation (ilgawah) for handle of coffee pot (bakraj) Artemisia monosperma (root) Retarna raetam (root)

d. Mats Holoschoenus vulgaris Juncus arabicus Phragmites australis

e. Baskets (gufaf; sing. guffah) Hyphaene thebaica Juncus arabicus


Phoenix dactylifera Phragmites australis

f. Bucket rope (rishi) Colutea istria Thymelaea hirsuta

3. Riding equipment a. Camel saddle (shid~d)

Tamarix aphylla b. Pins for camel saddle

Capparis decidua Retama raetam

c. Riding stick Colutea istria

4. Miscellaneous uses a. Tanning goat-skins for water bag (girbah) and churning-bag (si'in). (Process: grind leaves, root, peel, or bark; boil in water; put in skin for 1-3 days)

Acacia raddiana (bark; girbah) Ephedra alata (thin green stems; girbah) E. pachyclada (thin green stems; si'in) Helianthemum ventosum (root; si'in) Medicago laciniata (leaves; si'in) Pistacia atlantica (bark; girbah) Punica granatum (peel; si'in) Rhus tripartita (root; girbah)

b. Tinder (gadil~.) for lighting with flint stone (saww~n) and steel (zin~d) Anabasis setifera

Grind branches and place in damp cloth; dry cloth; ignite cloth with flint stone. Artemisia herba-alba

Dry woolly galls; ignite with flint stone. Citrullus colocynthis

Burn gourd in fire; grind and place in damp cloth; dry cloth; ignite cloth with flint stone. Phagnalon rupestre

Peel woolly bark; dry; ignite with flint stone. c. Charcoal (habshah)

Acacia raddiana A. tortilis Retama raetam

d. Partridge traps (see Bailey and Yahav, 1974) Retama raetam (for trap called fakhkh) Thymelaea hirsuta (for trap called dib.~kah)

e. Floats for fishing net A vicenna marina Calotropis procera

f. Skull cap (tagiyah) Calotropis procera (fibers)

g. Laundry soap (process: burn to ash; put ash in cloth; scrub wet clothes with cloth) Anabasis articulata A. setifera A. syriaca HaplophyUum tuberculatum

h. Perfume Achillea fragrantissima Varthemia iphiodoides

i. Deodorant put in water bag Pituranthos tortuosus Varthemia iphionoides

j. Toothbrush (miswhk) Salvadora persica (cf. Evenari and Gutterman, 1973)


k. Chewing gum Phagnalon barbeyanum

1. Tobacco substitute Sisymbrium irio

m. Flute (shab~bah) Phragmites australis

n. Resin for string of violin (rab~bah) Moringa peregrina (seed)

o. Red dye (.hinnah) Arnebia decumbens (root)

p. Plow (lard) Tamarix aphylta

q. Drag branch for filling in furrow while plowing Thymelaea hirsuta

r. Glue Acacia raddiana

Mix sap (samagh) with warm water 5. Ritual uses of plants

a. Against the 'evil eye' ('ayn al .hfisid) Capparis decidua

A twig is worn on the person. (Apparently, this is an attempt to confound the "evil eye," the name of the plant shundub or tundub being akin to the root n-d-b, which has the image of lamentation or bewailing a death.)

Iphiona mucronata Boil leaves and put spoonful of brew in tea; serve tea to a known possessor of the "evil eye."

b. Passage rite (called ~abrrah, endurance) Papaver humile

A lad (9-11 yr old), in order to prove that he can endure pain, will put salt on flowers of this Papaver and bind them to the palm of his hand with a cloth. He will remain wearing this bandage for 24 h, day and night, and it will burn him "as if he were being cauterized."

INDEX

Plant Bedouin name Sections in which cited

Acacia gerrardii Benth. ssp. negevensis Zoh. tal.h Acacia raddiana Savi siy~l Acacia tortilis (Forssk.) Hayne samrah Achillea fragrantissima (Forssk.) Sch. Bip. gay.sum

Alhagi maurorum Medik. Allium ampeioprasum L. Allium aschersonianum Barb. Anabasis articulata (Forssk.) Moq. Anabasis setifera Moq. Anabasis syriaca lljin

Andrachne aspera Spreng. Aristida caerulescens Desf. Arnebia decumbens (Vent.) Coss. & Kral. Artemisia herba-alba Asso

'ugffl kurith ga'abal 'ajram gilfl 'udhfl 'ayn um sulaym[m hamr~ luslays ~hib.

bu' aythrfin 'fidhir

Artemisia judaica L.

Artemisia monosperma Del.

A-4; E-2b A-4; E-lc, 2b, 4a, 4c A-4; E-2b, 4c A-3, 4; B-2b, 3c, 6a; E-ld,

4h A-l, 2

~ 1 D-2 A-5; E-4g A-5; E-4b, 4g A-l, 2; C-2; E-4g

B-2a A-3 E-4o A-4; B-la, 3c; C-5; E-ld,

4b A-3; B-3c; E- le

A-4; E-ld, If, 2c


Asparagus stipularis Forssk. Asteriscus graveolens (Forssk.) Less. Asteriscus pygmaeus (DC.) Coss. & Dur. Atriplex dimorphostegia Kar. & Kir. Atriplex farinosa Forssk. Atriplex glauca L. Atriplex halimus L. Atriplex leucoclada Boiss. Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh. Bromus scoparius L. Calendula arvensis L.

Calotropis procera (Ait.) Ait. f. Capparis cartilaginea Decne. Capparis decidua (Forssk.) Edgew. Capparis spinosa L. var. aravensis Zoh. Carrichtera annua (L.) DC. Cassia italica (Mill.) Lam.

ex F. W. Andrews Centaurea aegyptiaca L. Centaurea eryngioides Lain. Centaurea pallescens Del. Chenolea arabica Boiss. Cistanche tubulosa (Schenk) Wight Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad.

Cleome droserifolia (Forssk.) Del. Colchicum tunicatum Feinbr. Colutea istria Mill. Convolvulus hystrix Vahl Crataegus sinaica Boiss. Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Cynomorium coccineum L. Dianthus strictus Banks & Sol. Diplotaxis acris (Forssk.) Boiss. Echinops polyceras Boiss. Emex spinosa (L.) Campd. Enarthrocarpus strangulatus Boiss. Ephedra alata Decne. Ephedra pachyclada Boiss. Erodium hirtum WiUd. Erucaria boveana Coss. Eryngium glomeratum Lam. Euphorbia hierosolymitana Boiss. ex Boiss. Fagonia mollis Del. Ficus pseudo-sycamorus Decne. Foeniculum vulgare Mill. Frankenia revoluta Forssk. Glaucium arabicum Fresen. Gundelia tournefortii L. Gymnocarpos decander Forssk. Gypsophila arabica Barkoudah Halogeton alopecuroides (Del.) Moq. Haloxylon persicum Bge. Hammada negevensis Iljin & Zoh. Hammada salicornica (Moq.) Bge. Hammada scoparia (Pomel) Iljin Haplophyllum tuberculatum (Forssk.)

A. Juss.

tugaytgah, 'ishbih nugud ~ . a h rflghul r0ghul rflghul gataf rflghul shawrah sha']rat al- .hamir

B-2c A-3 A-1 A-5 A-5 A-5 A-4, 5; D-l, 5; E-1 A-5 E-4e A-3

'ayn ganbfn-ah, sufayrah, D-8 jarjk

'ushur 1 .a,~,.,af shundub, tundub l~fff, I'.m~fah iglayglih s a l i m ~

ghib~d dight al-badan mirirah thalthfll dhunfin .hand hal samwih busbfis saysib shibrim za'l'~r naj]l. m~rf~r islayslih yahag khash]r irkaybah shilwih ' aldah 'aldah tumayr sl]h hadhad imwa~..al lubayn] awr~gah bam~.t w~asld shflmar

_ -

mill.hi na'amin ka'~b jarad irgaygih, islaysih sha'rfm ghadlfft samftr rimth .hid[td imjinhmh

E-4e, 4f D-4 E-3b, 5a B-lb, le, 5b A-3; D-1 B-3a, 3b

A-l, 4 D-1 A,1 A-5 D-2 B-3a, 3d; E-4b B-4b, 6b, 6f A-I D-3; E-lb, 2f, 3c B-3b D-I, 4 A-3 B-3c B-5e A-2; D-1 A-1 D-2 A-3; D-I, 5 E-4a E-4a D-2 D-I A-l, 2; B-Ic B-3b B-6b D-4 A-4; D-l, 9, 10 A-5; B-3d; D-8 B-2a A-l, 2 A-4 A-3 A-5 A-5 A-4,5 A-5; B-5c A-4, 5 B-la, ld, 6a; E-4g


Helianthemum kahiricum Del.

Helianthemum ledifolium (L.) Mill. Helianthemum lippi (L.) Dum.-Cours.

Helianthemum sessiliflorum (Desf.) Pers.

Helianthemum ventosum Boiss.

Helianthemum vesicarium Boiss. Holoschoenus vulgaris (L.) Fritsch Hordeum murinum L.

gadh]m gad___~m taba' al-kamfi gadh]m gad h]m taba' al-kami gadh]m ruwayd] dis shu'ayrah

Hyoscyamus boveanus (Dun.) Asch. & Schw. sakar~m Hyoscyamus reticulatus L. sakaffm Hyphaene thebaica (Del.) Mart. d~m Iphiona mucronata (Forssk.) Asch. & Schw..zafrah Juncus arabicus (Adch. & Buch) Adams. Lactuca orientalis (Boiss.) Boiss. Launaea nudicaulis (L.) Hook. f. Leontodon laciniatus (Bertol.) Widder. Lophochloa phleoides (Viii.) Reichenb. Lycium shawii Roem. & Schult. Majorana syriaca (L.) Raf. Malva parviflora L. Malva sylvestris L. Matricaria aurea (Loefl.) Sch. Bip. Matthiola arabica Boiss. Matthiola livida (Del.) DC. Medicago laciniata (L.) Mill.

Mentha microphylla (L.) Huds. Mesembryanthemum forsskalii Hochst.

ex Boiss. Mesembryanthemum nodiflorum L. Moricandia nitens (Viv.) Durr & Barr. Moringa peregrina (Forssk.) Fiori Nitraria retusa (Forssk.) Aschers.

s a l n f l r

khis huww] khushayn] sha']rit um dsh] 'awsaj za'tar khubayzah khu.tm] babfmaj bumhum

- _

shugayrih, fajili bandag~g .hadhar] habag

samih shnln a .hmhn al-b~m ghurgud

Noaea mucronata (Forssk.) Asch. & Schw. ~irr Ochradenus baccatus Del. Onobrychis crista-galli (L.) Lam.

Onobrychis squarrosa Viv.

Onopordum alexandrinum Boiss. Origanum dayi Post Origanum isthmicum Danin Orobanche cernua Loefl. Oryzopsis miliacea (L.) Asch. & Schw. Panicum turgidum Forssk. Papaver humile Fedde Peganum harmala L. Phagnalon barbeyanum Asch. & Schw. Phagnalon rupestre (L.) DC. Phalaris minor Retz Phoenix dactylifera L. Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. Pistacia atlantica Desf. Pituranthos tortuosus (Desf.) Benth.

ex Asch. & Schw. Pituranthos triradiatus (Hochst.) Asch. &

Schw. Plantago albicans L. Plantago ciliata Desf.

gurdhi dhurays dhurays ka'Ob zu'aytri za~tar tarth~th dh__urayri thum~m daydib. ~n harjal, huraymilin khin~ait an.na'jih igr~'] damm]yah nakhlih gu~.~bah butum za~b

'ulayj~n

khin[mit an-na'jih yanamah

A-3

A-3; D-2 A-3

A-3; D-2

A-3; E-4a

A-3 E-2a A-3 A-2; B-la, 6c A-2 E-2e E-5a B-5a; E-lc, 2d, 2e D-1 D-1 A-1 A-3 B-6c, 6d; C-8 B-la; D-7 D-l, 3, 5 D-l, 3 D-9, 10 D-1 D-1 D-9, 10; E-4a

D-9, 10

D-6 D-3 D-1 E-4n A-l, 2, 5; D-3, 4 A-3, 4; C-3, 5 B-le; C-7 D-3

D-3 A-l, 2 D-7 D-7 D-2 A-3 A-3 E-5b A-3; B-le, 6c E-4k B-le, 4a; E-4b A-I D-4; E-lc, lf, 2e E-2d, 2e, 4m D-4; E-2a, 4a D-I, 9, 10; E-4i

B-6g

A-3 A-3


Plantago coronopus L. Plantago cylindrica Forssk. Plantago notata Lag. Plantago ovata Forssk. Polygonum equisetiforrne Sibth. & Smith

Populus euphratica Oliv. Pulicaria crispa (Forssk.) Oliv. Pulicaria desertorum DC. Punica granaturn L. Rarnalina maciforrnis (Del.) Bory Reaurnuria hirtella Jaub. & Sp. Reaurnuria negevensis Zoh. & Danin Reboudia pinnata (Viv.) Schulz Retama raetam (Forssk.) Webb

Rheum palaestinum Feinbr. Rhus tripartita (Bernard. da U cria) Grande Rumex cyprius Murb. Salsola cyclophylla Baker Salsola inermis Forssk.

Salsola schweinfurthii Solms-Laub. Salsola tetrandra Forssk. Salsola verrniculata L. var. villosa

(Del.) Moq. Salvadora persica L.

q

Salvia lanigera Poir. Salvia rnulticaulis Vahl Scilla hanburyi Bak. Scorzonera judaica Eig Scorzonera papposa DC. Scorzonera pusilla Poll. Scrophularia xanthoglossa Boiss. Senecio glauca L. Sisymbriurn septualatum DC. Solenosternma oleifoliurn (Nect.) Bullock &

Bruce Stipa capensis Thunb. Stipagrostis ciliata (Desf.) De Winter Stipagrostis raddiana (Savi) De Winter Stipagrostis scoparia (Trin. & Rup.)

De Winter Suaeda aegyptiaca (Hasselq.) Zoh. Suaeda asphaltica Boiss. Suaeda palaestina Eig & Zoh. SuiUus granulatus L. ex Fr. Tamarix aphylla (L.) Karst. Tarnarix nilotica (Ehrenb.) Bge. Tanaceturn santolinoides (DC.) Feinbr. &

Fertig Tephrosia apollinea (Del.) Link Teucriurn leucocladurn Boiss. Teucriurn polium L. Thymelaea hirsuta (L.) Endl.

Thymus bovei Benth. Thymus decussatus Benth. Traganum nudatum Del.

kurayshit al-jid] yanamah dajan yanamah gud_~bah rashrash jifjM rabfl r im~ gurayshim~m mill.hi

_ -

milih, i

ratim

kaham~m 'irn bam~.~, ham~dh 'arad khadhr~f s h ~ a h , tab. imah firs

filth arfik nu'aymih bardagawsh bilbays ga'f~r basha' ray hfi zaytih sufayrih, irb|y~n s~

harjal safshf safshf safshf

sabat rutr~.t suwaycl~ suwaydi falgh~ah ithil tarfi

mirr sann~ ja'adah ja'adah mitn~n

za'tar zu'aytir~n h fidh, dhamrfin

A-3 A-3 A-3 A-3 B-lc; D-9; E-ld

E-la E-ld B-lb, le; D-10 E-4a A-4; B-lb, 6a A-5 A-5 A-3; D-1 B-le, 6b; C-6; E-lb, 2c, 3b,

4c, 4d D-l, 8, 10 B-la; D-10; E-4a A-5; D-l, 5 A-5 A-4, 5

A-5 A-5

A-5 D-4; E-4j A-3; D-9 D-9, l0 D-2 D-l, 2 D-l, 2 D-2 B-le A-3 D-1

B-2b, 3c, 6b A-3 A-3 A-3

A-3 A-5 A-5 A-5 B-6b; D-2 B-5b, 6e, E-2a, 2b, 3a, 4p C-3; E-la

E-le B-3c B-2b, 3c B-lb, 3c A-2; C-4; E-lb, lc, ld, 2f,

4d, 4q D-7 B-3c A-5


Trigonella arabica Del. Trigonella stellata Forssk. Tulipa amblyophylla (Post) Feinbr. Varthemia iphionoides Boiss. & B1.

Vicia monantha Retz Zilla spinosa (L.) Prantl Ziziphora tenuior L. Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Willd. Zygophyllum dumosum Boiss.

nafal A-3; D-8 .handag~g D-8 thurayy~ D-2 sfim~mi A-3; B-5d, 6a; D-5, 9, 10;

E-4h, 4i jaylab~n D-3 siifi A- 1, 2 .habag 'a.tsh[m D-9, i 0 sidir D-4 'udhb| A-4, B-2b; C-2

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The authors express their gratitude to the Ford Foundation for the aid that made this study possible.

LITERATURE CITED

Bailey, C. 1974a. Bedouin weddings in Sinai and the Negev. In I. Ben-Ami, ed. Studies in Marriage Customs. pp. 113-115. Folklore Research Centre Studies IV, Hebrew Univ., Jerusalem.

~ . 1974b. Bedouin star-lore in Sinai and the Negev. Bull. School Orient. African Stud. 37: 584- 586.

1977. Bedouin place names in Sinai and the Negev. In C. Bailey, ed. Notes on the Bedouins. pp. 64-68 (In Hebrew) VII. Midrashat Sde Boker.

~ , and A. Danin. 1975. Desert plants in Bedouin life. In C. Bailey, ed. Notes on the Bedouins. pp. 1-45 (In Hebrew) V. Midrashat Sde Boker.

~ , and L. Yahav. 1974. The desert partridge in Bedouin life. (In Hebrew) Teva VaAretz 16: 240-244.

Crowfoot, G. M., and L. Baldensperger. 1932. From Cedar to Hyssop: A Study in the Folklore of Plants in Palestine. Sheldon Press, London.

Dalmann, G. 1928-1942. Arbeit und Sitte in Pal~stina. 7 vol. Bertelsmann, Gtitersloh. Danin, A. 1972. A sweet exudate of Hammada: another source of manna in Sinai. Econ. Bot. 26:

373-375. 1980. Desert Vegetation of Israel and Sinai. Sifriat Poalim, Tel-Aviv (in press).

Dickson, Violet. 1955. The Wild Flowers of Kuwait and Bahrain. G. Allen & Unwin, London. Evenari, M., and Y. Gutterman. 1973. Some notes on Salvadora persica L. in Sinai and its use as

a toothbrush. Flora 162: 118-125. Great Britain: Admiralty, Naval Intelligence Division. 1946. Western Arabia and the Red Sea. Gov-

ernment Publications, London. Musil, A. 1926. The Northern Hegaz. American Geographical Society, New ~'ork.

1927a. Arabia Deserta. American Geographical Society, New York. 1927b. The Middle Euphrates. American Geographical Society, New York. 1928a. Northern Negd. American Geographical Society, New York. 1928b. Palmyrena. American Geographical Society, New York.

Osborn, D. J. 1968. Notes on medicinal and other uses of plants in Egypt. Econ. Bot. 22: 165-177. T~ickholm, V., M. Drar, and A. A. A. Fadeel. 1956. Students' Flora of [~gypt. Anglo-Egyptian

Bookshop, Cairo. Tragenza, L. A. 1956. The Red Sea Mountains of Egypt. Oxford Univ. Press, London. Winter, K., and J. H. Troughton. 1978. Photosynthetic pathways in plants of coastal and inland

habitats of Israel and Sinai. Flora 167: 1-34.

Documents

Bedouin plant utilization in Sinai and the Negev